ExamplesExercises ME466 PerformanceOfRoadVehicles

Performance of Road Vehicles Y.
Samim ÜNLÜSOY
Example II-1
For an IC engine of a medium size automobile (VW Polo Coupe) with the short
specifications
Pmax = 44 [kW] at 5600 [rpm]

Tmax = 95 [Nm] at 3500 [rpm]
determine the approximate engine power and torque curves, using both the correct
power and correct torque peak formulations. Compare the approximate functions with
the actual (experimental) data given in the table below.
ne [rpm] 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000
Pe [kW] 5 12 18 23 28 33 37 40.5 43 44 42
Te [Nm] 65 75 84 90 94 95 93 89 83 75 68
Solution :
The coefficients A, B, and C for both the correct power and correct torque peak
formulations are determined using equations (II-7, 8, and 9) and (II-13, 14, and 15). The
calculated values are given below.
A B C
Correct Power Peak 1.226 0.548 -0.774
Correct Torque Peak 0.527 2.365 -1.892
The resulting approximate polynomial expressions have been plotted together

with the experimental results and are presented in Figures II-4(a) and (b). For this
particular example, the correct torque peak formulation is seen to provide a better
approximation to the actual engine performance characteristics.
It can be shown that the use of the “Correct Torque Peak” formulation gives a better
overall representation of engine torque and power curves in general. Thus, in the rest of
the course “Correct Torque Peak” formulation is going to be used for the prediction of
road vehicle performance.
A Matlab script m-file which may be used to plot the power and torque characteristics,
using correct torque peak formulation, for the engine in the example with experimental
curves superimposed is given right after Figure II-4.
II - 9
Performance of Road Vehicles Y. Samim ÜNLÜSOY
50
40
Engine Power-[kW]
30
20
10 Correct Torque Peak

Correct Power Peak
Experimental
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Engine Speed [rpm]
(a) Engine power curves

110
100
90
Engine Torque [Nm]
80
70
Correct Torque Peak

60 Correct Power Peak
Experimental
50
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Engine Speed [rpm]
(b) Engine torque curves

Figure II-4 Comparison of approximate and actual engine performance characteristics.
II - 10
% 3rd order polynomial fit to engine power

% Correct torque peak formulation
% Example II-1
% ---------------------------------------------------------
P1=44; % [kW]
n1=5600; % [rpm]
Tmax=95; % [Nm]
n2=3500; % [rpm]
P2=Tmax*n2*(pi/30)/1000 % [kW]
omega=n2/n1
% ---------------------------------------------------------
nemin=1000;
deltane=50;
nemax=6000;
% ---------------------------------------------------------
% 3rd order polynomial with correct torque peak
% ---------------------------------------------------------
% A3=(omega^2-(P2/P1)*(2-1/omega))/(1-omega)^2
% B3=(1-A3)/(1-1/(2*omega))
% C3=-B3/(2*omega)
% --------------------------------------------------------
% Solve MP=N for P where P=[A B C]'
M=[1 1 1;omega omega^2 omega^3;0 1 2*omega]
N=[1;P2/P1;0]
% P=N\M
P=inv(M)*N
% Calculate power and torque values
i=0;
for ne=nemin:deltane:nemax
i=i+1;
Pe(i)=P1*(P(1)*(ne/n1)+P(2)*(ne/n1)^2+P(3)*(ne/n1)^3);
Te(i)=(Pe(i)*1000)/(ne*pi/30);
end
% Plot power and torque characteristics
hold on % To superimpose plots
ne=nemin:deltane:nemax;
plot(ne,Pe,'--b','LineWidth',2)
plot(ne,Te,'--b','LineWidth',2)
ne_exp=[1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000];
Pe_exp=[5 12 18 23 28 33 37 40.5 43 44 42];
Te_exp=[65 75 84 90 94 95 93 89 83 75 68];
plot(ne_exp,Pe_exp,'r',ne_exp,Te_exp,'r','LineWidth',2)
% Annotate the plots
xlabel('Engine Speed [rpm]');
ylabel('Engine Power [kW], Engine Torque [Nm]')
legend('P_e','T_e','P_e_-_e_x_p','T_e_-_e_x_p',0)
II - 11
Example II-2
The partially open throttle characteristics for an engine are discretized and the
data obtained are stored in three arrays.
Normalized accelerator pedal (throttle angle) input :
thr = [10 20 40 60 80 100]
Engine speed [rpm] :
omg = [1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000]
Engine torque [Nm] :
trq1=[61.9 28.8 11.8 NaN NaN NaN NaN] % 10% open throttle
trq2=[80 72 49.4 30.5 18.8 7 NaN] % 20% open throttle
trq3=[NaN 89 80.5 66.2 53.2 41 29] % 40% open throttle
trq4=[NaN 95.5 96.3 91.8 79 64.8 54.5] % 60% open throttle
trq5=[NaN NaN 102.5 100.5 94.5 85.5 77] % 80% open throttle
trq6=[80 96.4 103 105 100.5 92.7 84] % 100% open throttle
Prepare a Simulink diagram using an 2D lookup table for the determination of

engine torque for any specified values of throttle opening and engine speed. Enter the
engine characteristics in the lookup table. Determine the value of engine torque at an
engine speed of 3500 rpm and at a throttle opening of 70 %.
Solution :
a) A Simulink diagram is shown below.
T hrottle
Opening From Simulink
[%]
2-D T (u)
Library Browser :
1 Sinks/Display
From Simulink 0
Library Browser :
Constant/Sources 1 Engine T orque [Nm]
Engine Lookup
Speed Table (n-D)
[rpm]
From Simulink Library Browser :

Lookup Tables/Lookup Table (n-D)
A couple of approaches to data entry are available. One may double click on the
relevant Simulink block and simply enter the required data on the Block Parameters
window, as illustrated in the following.
II - 13
II - 14
However, a better way is to prepare a m-script file for data and run this file so that the
data is stored in the workspace.
% m-script data file name : EnginePartThrottle_data.m
% normalized (in percentages) accelerator pedal (throttle angle) input
thr = [10 20 40 60 80 100];
% Engine speed [rpm]
omg = [1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000];
% engine torque [Nm], enter NaN (not a number) for unavailable values !
trq1=[61.9 28.8 11.8 NaN NaN NaN NaN];
trq2=[80 72 49.4 30.5 18.8 7 NaN];
trq3=[NaN 89 80.5 66.2 53.2 41 29];
trq4=[NaN 95.5 96.3 91.8 79 64.8 54.5];
trq5=[NaN NaN 102.5 100.5 94.5 85.5 77];
trq6=[80 96.4 103 105 100.5 92.7 84];
trq=[trq1;trq2;trq3;trq4;trq5;trq6];
Now, the Simulink function block parameters can simply be entered in terms of the
names of the variables and/or arrays, as illustrated below for the case of the 2D lookup
table.
II - 15
To facilitate the data entry one can place a button on the Simulink diagram, such that
when clicked it will run the m-script data file.
Throttle Load Data

Opening From Simulink
[%] Library Browser :
2-D T(u) Ports&Subsystems/
70
Subsystem
0
(Clear the inside)
3500 Engine Torque [Nm]
Engine Lookup
Speed Table (n-D)
[rpm]
Right click on the Load Data button, select Block Properties on the menu list opened.
On the Block Properties window select OpenFcn* under Callbacks and enter the name
of the data file to be run as illustrated below.
Now with everything ready, make sure that you are in the directory containing
the Simulink and data files, write down the name of the Simulink file on the Matlab
Command Window and press Enter. Once the Simulink diagram opens you can load
your data by double clicking on the Load Data button. Enter your Throttle Opening and
Engine Speed values and click on the arrow head on the Simulink window. Read the
interpolated Engine Torque value from the display.
II - 16
Exercises :
1) Determine the value of the unit conversion constant K, in the equation
T.n
P
K
if the units for power P, torque T, and angular speed n, are taken as:
a) [kW], [N.m], and [rpm],
b) [hp], [lbf.ft], and [rpm],
c) [PS], [kgf.m], and [rpm], respectively.
Ans.: a) 9549, b) 5254, c) 7026
2) Note that if  = 0.5, i.e., n1 = 2n2, then the value of B as given by eqn.(II-14) is undefined.
Rederive eqns.(II-13), (II-14), and (II-15) for use in this case.
P
Ans.: A=1, B  8 2  4 , C=-B
P1
3) The short specifications for an IC engine are given as below.

Maximum power = 190 kW at 7000 rpm,
Maximum torque = 340 Nm at 3500 rpm.
Estimate the power and torque developed by the engine at an engine speed of 4500 rpm under
fully open throttle conditions using the correct torque peak formulation.
Ans.: 157 kW, 333 Nm
4) Various different polynomial approximations to engine performance characteristics have

been suggested in literature. Of these, three examples are given below.
2 3
  ne   ne   ne  
Pe  P1  A   B     
  n1   n1   n1  
2 3
  ne   ne   ne  
Pe  P1          
  n1   n1   n1  
2
Pe  Ane  Bne
Discuss how one can determine the values for the unknown coefficients in these expressions.
Use the engine specifications in Example II-1, and compare the approximate characteristics
provided by each polynomial with the actual data.
II - 22
5) Obtain expressions for the unknown coefficients A, B, and C of the third order polynomial
approximation using the following conditions :
a) Condition 1 : Pe = P1 at ne = n1,
Condition 2 : Power curve has a peak at ne = n1,
Condition 3 : Torque curve has a peak at ne = n2.
b) Condition 1 : Pe = P2 at ne = n2,
Condition 2 : Power curve has a peak at ne = n1,
Condition 3 : Torque curve has a peak at ne = n2.
Use the engine specifications in Example II-1 to plot and compare the approximate
characteristics provided by the polynomial in each case with the actual data.
6) a) Show that applying the relevant conditions on a fourth order polynomial
 n  n 
2
n 
3
n  
4
Pe  P1 A e   B e   C e   D e  
  n1   n1   n1   n1  

to represent the power curve of an ICE, one can obtain the following matrix equation for the
four unknown coefficients A, B, C, and D in terms of P1, P2, n1, and n2.
1 1 1 1  A  1 
  
2 3 4     P2 
Ω Ω Ω Ω   B   n
1 2   =  P1  , Ω= 2
3 4  C   n1
  0
0 1    
 2Ω 3Ω 2   D   0 
 
b) Using the short specifications of an IC engine given below, plot the resulting
characteristics and compare with those generated by the third order polynomial with correct
torque peak approach.
Maximum power : 151 kW at 2800 rpm
Maximum torque : 620 Nm at 1600 rpm.
Hint : Use the basic structure of the Matlab script m-file given in Example II-1 and extend it
to the case of fourth order polynomial fit.
II - 23
7) The fully open throttle characteristics for an engine are discretized and the data obtained
are stored in two arrays.
Engine speed [rpm]

omg = [1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000]
Engine torque [Nm]
trq=[80 89 96.4 100.5 103 104.8 105 104 100.5 96.8 92.7 88.6 84]
Prepare a Simulink diagram using a lookup table for the determination of engine torque for
any specified value of engine speed. Enter the engine characteristics in the lookup table.
Estimate the value of engine torque at an engine speed of 3750 rpm.
Ans. : 104.9 [Nm]
8) Note that in Example II-2, a n-D look up table configured for 2-D is used. Try to insert,
instead, a 2-D look up table from Simulink Library Browser in the same diagram. See if you
can find the reason(s) for the choice of a n-D lookup table.
II - 24
Example III-1
Basic specifications for a medium size saloon car are given below. Calculate
the acceleration of this vehicle at maximum torque point in all forward gears. Disregard
all resistances to motion. Compare the calculated values with those obtained at
maximum power.
Vehicle mass (test) : 1335 kg

Max. engine power : 100 kW at 6000 rpm
Max. engine torque : 172 Nm at 4600 rpm
Gear ratios : 3.72
2.02
1.32
1.00
0.81
Final drive ratio : 4.10
Tires : l95/65 HR 14
14x25.4 195
r w = 0.96 ( + 0.65) = 0.292 m
2000 1000
Now, a table of acceleration performance can be prepared making use of the following
relations.
t Te id it 9549  t P e i d i t FT
FT= = , av =
rw rw ne mv
The results of the calculations are summarized below.
Maximum Torque Point Maximum Power Point

ne = 4600 rpm ne = 6000 rpm
Te FT av Pe FT av
Gear t [Nm] [N] [m/s2] [kW] [N] [m/s2]
I 0.85 172 7636 5.7 100 7066 5.3
II 0.85 172 4147 3.1 100 3837 2.9
III 0.85 172 2710 2.0 100 2507 1.9
IV 0.90 172 2174 1.6 100 2011 1.5
V 0.85 172 1663 1.2 100 1539 1.2
III - 10
Exercises :
1) From Fig. III-1, obtain an expression for the tractive effort for an accelerating wheel
including the effect of rolling resistance as represented by the moment of the vertical road
reaction.
2) Determine the acceleration at maximum torque and maximum power points, in all gears,
for the vehicles with the basic specifications listed below. Disregard all resistances to motion.
a) Rigid truck
Gross vehicle Weight (GVW) : 16.23 tonnes
Max. engine power (net) : 151 kW at 2800 rpm
Max. engine torque (net) : 620 Nm at 1600 rpm
Gear ratios : 9.00, 5.18, 3.14, 1.94, 1.35, 1.00
Tires : Michelin 11R22.5 XZA tubeless
Ans.: (2.8, 1.6, 1.0, 0.6, 0.4, 0.3), (2.3, 1.3, 0.8, 0.5, 0.3, 0.3) [m/s2]
b) Rigid box body truck

Gross vehicle Weight (GVW) : 7500 kg
Max. engine power (net) : 114 kW at 2400 rpm
Max. engine torque (net) : 590 Nm at 1400 rpm
Gear ratios : 4.65, 2.60, 1.53, 1.00, 0.77
Tyres : Continental 215/75 R17.5
c) Saloon car
Gear ratios : 3.307, 1.809, 1.230, 0.933, 0.757
Tires : l85/70 R 14
d) Sports car
Max. engine power : 321 bhp at 7400 rpm
Max. engine torque : 258 lbf.ft at 5000 rpm
Gear ratios : 4.21, 2.49, 1.66, 1.24, 1.00
Tyres (f/r) : 225/45 ZR 17 / 245/40 ZR 17
III - 11
3) The basic specifications for a touring coach are given below. Neglect all resistances to
motion and determine, in each gear :
a) vehicle speed at maximum allowable engine speed, and
b) the upper limit for maximum vehicle acceleration.
Basic Specifications :
Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) : 19 tons
Max. engine power (net) : 309 kW at 1800 to 2000 rpm
Max. engine torque (net) : 1730 Nm at 1100 to 1500 rpm
Max. engine speed : 2000 rpm
Gear ratios : 6.38, 4.63, 3.44, 2.59, 1.86, 1.35, 1.00, 0.76
Tires : 295/80 R 22.5 tubeless
Ans: a) 17, 23, 31, 41, 57, 79, 106, 140 [kph], b) 3.5, 2.5, 1.9, 1.4, 1.0, 0.7, 0.6, 0.4 [m/s2]
4) For the vehicle specified as below, calculate
a) the rotational speed of the
- engine,
- propeller shaft, and
- driving wheels
for a vehicle speed of 75 kph .
b) tractive effort corresponding to an engine torque of 180 Nm in 2nd gear.
Vehicle Data :
Mass : 1394 kg
Load Distribution (f/r) : 59/41 %
Length/Width/Height : 4492/1688/1320 mm
Wheelbase : 2600 mm
Drag Coefficient : 0.26
Max. Engine Power / Torque : 110 kW at 6000 rpm / 196 Nm at 4800 rpm
Max. Engine Speed : 6900 rpm
Gear Ratios : 3.55, 2.16, 1.48, 1.13, 0.89
Differential Ratio : 3.33
Tires : 255/55 VR 15 SBR
Tire Pressures (f/r) : 2.0/1.9 kgf / cm2
III - 12
5) The basic specifications and the engine characteristics for a touring coach are given below.
Ignore resistances and use the given engine characteristics for fully open throttle conditions:
a) Calculate the minimum and maximum vehicle speeds in each gear.
b) Determine the maximum vehicle acceleration at 50 kph.
c) Plot the variation of tractive effort versus vehicle speed in first gear. Does it
look like the power or torque curve? Explain.
d) Determine the maximum vehicle acceleration (i.e. in the absence of resistances
to motion).
Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) : 19 tons
Max. engine torque (net) : 1730 Nm at 1100 to 1500 rpm
Gear ratios : 6.38, 4.63, 3.44, 2.59, 1.86, 1.35, 1.00, 0.76
Tires : 295/80 R 22.5 tubeless
Engine Characteristics :
Engine Speed Power Torque
320 1900
[rpm] [kW] [Nm]
1000 169 1614
300
1050 187 1701
1100 199 1728 1800
280
1150 208 1727
1200 217 1727
260
1250 226 1726 1700
1300 235 1726
EngineTorque [Nm]
Engine Power [kW]
240
1350 244 1726
1400 253 1726 220 1600
1450 262 1725
1500 271 1725 200
1550 280 1725
1500
1600 289 1725 180
1650 296 1713
1700 301 1691 160
1750 306 1670 Power 1400
1800 308,5 1637 140 Torque
1850 309 1595
1900 308 1548 120 1300
1950 308 1508 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
2000 307 1466 Engine Speed [rpm]
Ans.: a) 8.3-16.7, 11.5-23, 15.5-30.9, 20.5-41.1, 28.6-57.2, 39.4-78.8, 53.2-106.4, 70-140

kph, b) 0.99 m/s2, d) 3.5 m/s2
III - 13
6) The proud owner of a performance car declares that his car can accelerate from 40 to 70
kph in 3 seconds in top gear. Test mass of the FEFWD car is 1540 kg, top gear ratio is 0.84,
differential ratio is 3.02, tires are 170/70 HR 14, and the short engine specifications are:
Maximum power = 190 kW at 7000 rpm,

Maximum torque = 340 Nm at 3500 rpm.
Would you keep silent or object to his statement? Explain by calculation.
III - 14
Example IV-1 :
The specifications for a medium size sports car are as follows:
Tires : 190/65 HR-390 SBR

Axle loads : 1506 [lbf] front and 1161 [lbf] rear
Tire pressures : 28 [psi] front and rear
Compute the coefficient of rolling resistance at a vehicle speed of 70 [mph]. Road

surface is stone paved.
Solution:
Using the conversion factors :
1 [lbf] = 0.4536 [kgf] = 4.448 [N]

1 [psi] = 0.0703 [kgf/cm2]
1 [mph] = 1.609 [kph]
 W  p 
a f  a * 1.3  0.3 R  1.3  0.3 f 
 Wf  pR 
 400   1.97 
 0.0125 1.3  0.3  1.3  0.3   0.0112
 683 2   1.65 
 400   1.97 
a r  0.0125 1.3  0.3  1.3  0.3   0.0099
 527 2   1.65 
Rr' = [(0.0112+0.000015x112.7)683+
+ (0.0099+0.000015x112.7)527] 9.81 = 146 [N]
For stone paved road :
Rr = 1.5 Rr' = 1.5 (146) = 219 [N]
IV – 6
Exercises
1) Calculate and plot the rolling resistance for the tires specified below at a normal tire load of
320 [kgf] versus vehicle speed in the range 20-150 kph.
Tire 1 : 175/70 R 14, rw=0.292, Fr = a + bV + cV2 with a = 0.0119, b = 0, c = 2.1x10-6.
Tire 2 : 175 SR 15, rw=0.291, Fr = a + bV + cV2 + dV3 with a = 0.01179, b = 0,
c = 1.67x10-8, d = 5.32x10-10.
2) Another expression for the calculation of rolling resistance is given in the form:

Fr = pα Wβ a + bV + cV 2 
where Fr is the rolling resistance in [N], p is the inflation pressure in [kPa], W is the normal
tire load in [N], V is the vehicle speed in [m/s], and , , a, b, c are exponents and coefficients
to be determined for each tire. Data for some tires are given in the table.
Calculate and plot the rolling resistance at a normal tire load of 400 [kgf] and for vehicle speeds
in the range 20-150 kph.
Tire   a b c
205/60 R 15
P=240 kPa, rw=0.304 m -0.4243 0.9568 0.159 3.44x10-4 1.25x10-6
205/60 R 16
-0.4428 0.9036 0.211 6.00x10-4 2.17x10-6
P=240 kPa, rw=0.326 m
205/65 R 15
-0.3191 0.9076 0.123 1.96x10-4 1.52x10-6
P=240 kPa, rw=0.314 m
225/60 R 16
-0.3881 0.9550 0.103 1.46x10-4 2.19x10-6
P=240 kPa, rw=0.330 m
235/70 R 16
-0.4003 0.9315 0.139 2.20x10-4 1.90x10-6
P=240 kPa, rw=0.355 m
235/75 R 15
-0.4797 0.9464 0.208 2.56x10-4 3.94x10-6
P=240 kPa, rw=0.352 m
IV – 7
Example IV-2 :
Calculate the resistances to motion of the vehicle specified below, considering

vehicle speeds between 0-160 kph. Plot the variation of the resultant resistance power
[kW] versus vehicle speed [kph] on 0%, 2 %, and 5 % gradients.
Vehicle mass (laden) : 1580 kg

Load distribution (f/r) : 49/51 %
Length/width/height : 4793/1814/1416 mm
Track (front/rear) : 1470/1460 mm
Wheelbase : 2687 mm
Drag coefficient : 0.30
Frontal area : 2.05 m2
Gear ratios : 3.455, 1.789, 1.065, 0.703
Tires : 165 SR 14
Tire pressures (f/r) : 1.9/2.0 kgf/cm2
1400
1200
1000
Resistances [N]
800 RT
Ra
600
400 Rr
200 Rg
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Vehicle Speed [kph]
50 Pe (0 %)
Pe (2%)
Engine Power [kW]
40
Pe (5%)
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Vehicle Speed [kph]
IV – 17
Example IV-3:
Prepare Simulink diagrams to obtain the variation of the

a) rolling resistance, R r  a  bV  cV2 W , and 
b) air resistance (consider also the effect of head or tailwind)
for a specified variation of vehicle speed with time.
Solution:
a)
a
Vehicle 1
Speed [kph] Rolling
Mv*9.81
2 Resistance
1 u
[N]
c
b)
[kph] to [m/s]
Fcn
1/3.6 u^2
1
air_density
vehicle
speed
[kph] Switch Af 1
Air
Resistance
Cd [N]
-1
1/2
wind_speed Product
IV – 18
Example IV-4:
The data below belongs to a small car. Determine the rotary mass factor and the
effective mass in all gears.
Total mass: 1285 [kg]

Mass of each wheel: 25 kg at a radius of gyration of 0.26 [m]
Rolling radius for the tires: 0.28 [m]
Mass of the parts rotating at engine speed: 50 [kg]
at a radius of gyration of 0.075 [m]
Mass of the parts rotating at propeller shaft speed:12 [kg]
at a radius of gyration of 0.05 [m]
Gear ratios : 3.753, 2.303, 1.493, 1.000
Differential ratio : 4.300
Solution :
Jw = 4(25)(0.26)2 = 6.76 [kgm2]
Jp = 12(0.05)2 = 0.03 [kgm2]
Je = 50(0.075)2 = 0.28 [kgm2]
Ist gear : JT = Jw + Jp id2 + Je i2 id2

= 6.76 + 0.03(4.3)2 + 0.28(4.3)2 (3.753)2
= 80.5 [kgm2]
80.5
1 = 1 + = 1.8
2
1285 (0.28)
m eff = m  1 = 1285 (1.8) = 2313 [kg]

1
Similar calculations result in:

_____________________________________________
Gear JT (kgm2)  meff [kg]

_____________________________________________
I 80.5 1.80 2313

II 34.9 1.35 1730
III 18.9 1.19 1526
IV 12.5 1.12 1445
_____________________________________________
IV – 22
Exercises :
1) Consider the 5 axle tractor-trailer combination illustrated below. Estimate the rolling
resistance at a speed of 60 kph for the combination, if the tractor tires are of radial and the
trailer tires are of cross ply construction. W1 = 75 kN, W2 = 245 kN, L1 = 5.0 m, L2 = 9.75 m,
l1 = 2.75 m, d1 = 0.3 m, d2 = 4.88 m.
d2
d1
l1
W1 W2
R1 L1 R2 L2 R3
Ans. : 2131 [N] using SAE recommended coefficients.
For the following two questions, use the vehicle data given at the end
2) How much reserve engine power will the vehicle have for acceleration or hill climbing
while travelling at a speed of 135 [kph] on level road in top gear ?
Ans. : 33.1[kW]
3) The vehicle specified below is travelling (not necessarily at fully open throttle !) at a steady
speed of 90 kph in third gear up a gradient of 4 % on dry asphalt road. Calculate
a) the power at the driving wheels, and

b) the power developed by the engine.
Ans. : a) 22.5 [kW], b) 25.6 [kW]
Vehicle Data :
Mass (test) : 1294 kg
Track (f/r) : 1516/1492 mm
Wheelbase : 2612 mm
Max. Engine Power / Torque : 75 kW at 5600 rpm / 145 N.m at 3800 rpm
Gear Ratios / Differential Ratio : 3.45, 1.94, 1.37, 1.03, 0.85 / 4.25
Tires - Tire Pressures (f/r) : 195/65 R 15 SBR - 1.9/1.8 kgf / cm2
IV – 23
4) For the vehicle specified below, calculate the engine power in [kW] required to climb a
12 % gradient at a steady speed of 40 kph against a head wind of 12 m/s.
Vehicle Data:
Wheelbase / Track (f/r) : 2704 mm / (1503/1487) mm
Gear Ratios : 3.42, 2.14, 1.45, 1.03, 0.77
Tire Pressures (f/r) : 2.0/1.9 kgf/cm2
Ans.: 25.1 [kW]
5) In trucks with two rear axles, it

is quite common to use a lift axle for cog
the intermediate axle. Thus when the
vehicle is not loaded, this axle is lifted
off the road to reduce rolling
resistance to improve performance
and reduce fuel consumption.
Assume that when the lift axle is 4050 1350

7640
down, the two rear axles share the
load equally. All dimensions are in millimeters.
a) Taking a rolling resistance coefficient of 0.006 for the front and 0.01 for the rear
truck tires, calculate the rolling resistance of the cement truck shown in the figure with an
(empty) mass of 7200 kg, when
- both axles are down, and
- intermediate axle is lifted up.
b) How much is the power saving, when the intermediate axle is lifted up while the
truck is travelling at a constant speed of 90 kph?
Ans.: a) 588 [N], 573 [N]; b) 375 [W]
IV – 24
6) Given the basic specifications and the engine characteristics for a touring coach, plot
the tractive effort versus engine speed, for all gears, on the same set of axes.
Hint : The use of a suitable software such as Excel, Mathcad, or Matlab will make life much
easier.
Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) : 19 tonnes
Max. engine torque (net) : 1730 N.m at 1100 to 1500 rpm
Gear ratios : 6.38, 4.63, 3.44, 2.59, 1.86, 1.35, 1.00, 0.76
Tyres : 295/80 R 22.5 tubeless
Engine Characteristics :
320 1900
Engine Speed Power Torque
[rpm] [kW] [Nm] 300
1000 169 1614 1800
1050 187 1701 280
1100 199 1728
1150 208 1727 260
1700
1200 217 1727
EngineTorque [Nm]
Engine Power [kW]
1250 226 1726 240

1300 235 1726
1350 244 1726 220 1600
1400 253 1726
200
1450 262 1725
1500 271 1725 1500
180
1550 280 1725
1600 289 1725
160
1650 296 1713 Power 1400
1700 301 1691
140 Torque
1750 306 1670
1800 308,5 1637 120 1300
1850 309 1595 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
1900 308 1548
Engine Speed [rpm]
1950 308 1508
7) If the maximum gradient that can be climbed in second gear on a certain road surface is 15
%, what is the maximum acceleration that can be achieved in the same gear on a level road
with the same surface?
Hint : The part of the tractive effort used to overcome the gradient resistance on a slope will
be available for acceleration on a level road.
IV – 25
8) Roughly estimate the rolling resistance and drag coefficients for a vehicle with the
specifications and the coast-down test results given below.
Vehicle specifications:
Test Mass : 1000 kg
Frontal Area : 2.3 m2
Coast-down test results:

V1L =27.2 kph
V2L =22.3 kph
t L =10 s
V1H =70.0 kph
V2H =60.3 kph
t H =10 s
Ans. : 0.0131, 0.365
9) Roughly estimate the rolling resistance and drag coefficients for a heavy tractor-semitraile
combination with the specifications and the coast-down test results given below.
Vehicle specifications:
Test Mass : 40000 kg
Coast-down test results:

V1L =35 kph
V2L =30 kph
t L =19 s
V1H =100 kph
V2H =90 kph
t H =23 s
Ans. : 0.0068, 0.887
IV – 26
10) Fit approximate curves of the form

2
  a + ( b it id )
to the rotary mass factors using the data given below6.

______________________________________________________________________
Truck Bus
6.5 [tonnes] 13 [tonnes] 15 [tonnes]
______________________________________________________________________
Mass [kg] 6500 12960 14800 16000

Tires 7.00-16 X 9.00 R 20 PR14 10.00-20 Super 10.00-20 Super
id 4.30 6.14 4.88 5.63
______________________________________________________________________
I 7.31 8.98 6.11 7.51

II 4.23 4.77 3.24 3.99
it III 2.53 2.75 2.19 2.30
IV 1.55 1.66 1.47 1.39
V 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
______________________________________________________________________

Je [kgm2] 0.795 0.765 1.92 1.92
Jw [kgm ]2 14.7 64.8 86.8 86.8
______________________________________________________________________

I 1.35 1.50 1.40 1.61
II 1.14 1.20 1.15 1.18
  III 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.08
IV 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.04
V 1.025 1.03 1.05 1.03
______________________________________________________________________
10) Prepare a Simulink diagram to obtain the sum of the individual resistances to motion as a
function of time for a specified variation of vehicle velocity with time. Include scopes to
observe the variation of rolling, gradient, and air resistances as well as the total resistance.
6
Mitschke, M., Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Second Edition, 1982.
IV – 27
Example V-1:
Determine the maximum speed, in each gear, for the vehicle with the specifications
given below.
Dimensions :
Vehicle mass (laden) : 1320 [kg]
Maximum width : 1.62 [m]
Maximum height (laden) : 1.34 [m]
Weight distribution (f/r) : 57.8/42.2
Drag coefficient : 0.43
Engine :
Pmax : 54 [hp] at 5250 [rpm]
Tmax : 9.3 [kgfm] at 3000 [rpm]
nemax : 6000 [rpm]
Transmission :
Gear ratios : 3.615, 2.263, 1.480, 1.032
Tyres :
165 SR 13 TBR
Pressures (laden) (f/r) : 1.6/1.8 [kgf/cm2]
Solution :
Rolling tyre radius :
13(25.4) .8 (165)

r w = 0.96 [ + ] = 0.285 [m]
2000 
Then the mechanically limited maximum speed in each gear is calculated as:
 rev 
rw m n emax  1  S
min   60 min   2 rad   km  rw m n e rpm1  S
max
VI kph   
     
i t I id  h   rev   1000 m  2.65 i t I id
0.285 60001  0.08

VI   40kph
2.65 3.6154.125
0.285 60001  0.06

VII   65 kph
2.65 2.2634.125
V - 11
0.28560001  0.05
VIII   100 kph
2.65 1.4804.125
0.285 60001  0.03

VIV   147 kph
2.65 1.0324.125
The maximum speed in top gear is usually limited by the engine capacity rather
than the maximum engine speed. Hence, to check:
T max [kg f m]. n 2 [rpm] (9.3)(9.81) 3000

P2 =
7124
=
7124  38.4 [hp]
3000
= = 0.5714
5250
2 38.42 1
(0.5714) - [2 - ]
54 0.5714
A=  0.809
2
(1 – 0.5714)
1 - 0.809
B=  1.528
1
1–
2(0.5714)
1.528
C  1.337
2 0.5714
Front and rear axle loads :
Wf = (0.578) 1320 = 763 [kg f]
Wr = (0.422) 1320 = 557 [kg f]

Then
1.6 400
a f" = 0. 0135 (1. 5 - 0.5 ) (1.5 - 0.5 ) = 0.0139
1.8 (763/2)
1.8 400
a r" = 0. 0135 (1. 5 - 0.5 ) (1.5 - 0.5 ) = 0.0105
1.8 (557/2)
a f" W f + a r" W r (0.0139) (765) + (0.0105) (557)
a= = = 0.0125
W 1320
Af  0.8 (1.62x1.34) = 1.74 [m2]
V - 12
 Nm 
 0.88 1.032  4.125  54  hp   0.809   746 s   60s   rev 
a3     
0.285  m  1  0.03  rev   hp   min   2  
5250  
 min   
 N 
 1320  kg f  0.0125  9.81    641.4  N 
 kg f 
2  Nm   m 
 1.032  4.125   54  hp  1.528   746 s   s 
a 2   0.88   
 0.285  m  1  0.03  2 hp

3.6kph
    rev   min   2     
 5250       
  min   60 s   rev  
 1   N   N 
1320  kg f  0.000015    9.81   11.61  
 kph   kg f   kph 
2
3  Nm   m 
 1.032  4.125 2  54  hp   1.337   746 s   s 
a1   0.88     
 0.285  m  1  0.03   3 hp

3.6kph
  5250  rev   min   2      
       
  min   60 s   rev  
 
 N   N 
0.047 
2 2
 0.43 1.74  m2   0.1155  2 
 m kph   kph 
11.61  11.612  4  641.4  0.1155

Vmax, t   140[kph]
2  0.1155 
V - 13
Example V-2:
Consider the vehicle with partial specifications and coefficients of net tractive effort
polynomials given below.
a) The vehicle is travelling up a gradient of 18 % at a steady speed of 40 kph in 3rd

gear. Is there any extra engine power available (instantaneously) to accelerate or climb a
steeper gradient? If yes, how much ?
b) Calculate the vehicle speed at which maximum full throttle acceleration is obtained
on level road in top gear. Calculate the maximum acceleration as well.
Vehicle Specifications :
Mass (kerb) : 1656 kg

Max. Engine Power : 112 kW at 4000 rpm
Max. Engine Torque : 310 N.m at 1900 rpm
Gear Ratios : 3.50, 1.89, 1.23, 0.87, 0.67, 0.56
Rolling Tire Radius : 303 mm
Coefficients of the net tractive effort polynomial on level road :

Note that the rolling resistance model used in the calculations is given by
f r  0.0118  0.000015V[kph] and the wind speed is assumed to be negligible.
Coefficients I II III IV V VI
a1 Tractive -5.385 -0.848 -0.234 -0.0827 -0.0378 -0.0221
[N/kph2] Resistive 0.0299
a2 Tractive 172.3 50.2 21.3 10.65 6.314 4.411
[N/kph] Resistive 0.244
Tractive 10837 5852 3808 2694 2075 1734
a3 [N]
Resistive 192
Solution :
a) It is possible to solve this problem by first determining the maximum power that can
be developed at this particular vehicle speed, and then the power required for the
constant speed travel at the given conditions. The difference between the power
developed and the required power will be the extra (reserve) power available. Obviously
reserve power is available only if the calculated extra power turns out to be positive.
V - 17
However, it is easier to calculate the reserve power using the definition of the net
tractive effort using the coefficients of the net tractive effort provided. Note that a3
given in the table is for level road and should be corrected for the gradient.
 
a 3g  W sin tan 1   1656(9.81) sin  tan 1 (0.18)   2878[N]
 
Fn  a1V 2  a 2 V  a 3
  0.234  0.03 402  (21.3  0.244)40   3808  192  2878  1158[N]
Thus there is a positive net tractive effort available and the corresponding available road
power is:
 40 
Prreserve  Fn V  1158    12867[W]
 3.6 
The corresponding engine power will then be:

reserve
reserve Pr 12867
Pe    14621[W]
t 0.88
b) Maximum acceleration is obtained at maximum net tractive effort. Therefore one

first differentiates the net tractive effort expression with respect to vehicle speed and
sets the result equal to zero. This will then give the vehicle speed at which maximum
net tractive effort (and hence the maximum acceleration) is obtained.
dFn a
 2a1V  a 2  0  V   2  
 4.411  0.244   52.6[kph]
dV 2a1 2  0.0221  0.03
However, at this point it is necessary to check if the engine can operate smoothly at
speeds corresponding to the calculated vehicle speed.
2.65i t 6 id V 2.65  0.56  3.88  52.6 
ne    1010[rpm]
rw  m  1  S  0.303 1  0.01
Let us assume that the engine can still run smoothly at around 1000 rpm.
The corresponding maximum acceleration is then:

Fnmax a1V 2  a 2 V  a 3
a max
top  
m eq

m v 1.03  0.0016id2i62 
V - 18

 0.0221  0.03 52.62   4.411  0.244  52.6  1734  192 
1656 1.03  0.0016  0.56   3.88  
2 2
 
4504 m
a max
top   2.62  2 
1719 s 
V - 19
Example V-2:
Determine the time and distance required for the same vehicle to accelerate from 50
[kph] to 80 [kph] in fourth gear. Use ai (i = 1, 2, 3) from Example V-1.
Solution :
 = 1.03 + [(0.04)(1.032)(4.125)]2 = 1.059
meq = 1320(1.059) = 1398 [kg]
2
 N   N  N
a 22  4a1a 3   11.61   4  0.1155   641.4N   20.76 0
 kph   kph 2  kph
 
 N 
1398  kg      2 0.1155 80  11.61  20.76  
 kg.m     

 2 
 s    2  0.1155  80  11.61  20.76  
t  ln 
    2  0.1155  50  11.61  20.76  
 N  kph    
20.76    3.6 m    2  0.1155  50  11.61  20.76  
 kph   
 s 
1398  1.989 
 ln    18.7 ln  2.00   13.0 s 
3.6  20.76   0.994 
   
   0.1155  802  11.61 80  641.4   N   kph  

1398  kg  ln    11.61    3.6 m 13.0 s 
  0.1155  50  11.61 50  641.4 
2
  kph    
S    s  
2
 
 N  kph 
2  0.1155  2 
3.6
m 
 kph   
 s 
= - 0.334 {1398 ln 0.891- 543.3}  235 [m]
V - 22
Example V-5:
The following data belongs to a small car. The driver accelerates the engine to 3000 rpm
at full throttle, while the vehicle is stationary in first gear and takes his foot off the
clutch pedal. Estimate
i) the time for the clutch to fully engage,

ii) the synchronization speed, and
iii) the vehicle speed reached at the end of the engagement period.
Vehicle mass : 1285 kg
Maximum engine torque : 102 Nm at 3000 rpm
Moment of inertia of parts
rotating at engine speed : 0.28 kg.m2
propeller shaft speed : 0.03 kg.m2
wheel speed : 6.76 kg.m2
First gear ratio : 3.75
Differential ratio : 4.3
Rolling tire radius : 0.286 m
Solution :
The moment of inertia of the clutch output side will approximated by adding the
moment of inertias of the parts rotating at propeller shaft speed and wheel speed
reduced to the speed of the gearbox input shaft to the effective moment of inertia due to
vehicle mass.
Jo 
m v rw2

Jp

Jw

1285 kg 0.286 m 2


0.03 kg.m 2   6.76 kg.m 
2
i 2t i d2 i 2t i 2t i d2 3.752 4.32 3.752 3.752 4.32
 0.404  0.002  0.026  0.432 kg.m 2  

It is obvious that the contribution of the rotating masses are negligible. The
load torque, on the other hand, consists of the sum of torques due to resistances to
motion. Here, the speed is not likely to rise significantly and thus it would be reasonable
to neglect the air resistance and the velocity dependent part of the rolling resistance.

To  R r  R g i rw
t i d t
V - 28
Let us take
a  0.012
and
 t  0.85
Then, on level road, the load torque is calculated as :
 m 0.286 m 
To  1285 kg  9.81  0.012   3 Nm 
 2
s  3.754.30.85
Let us assume that
Tf  1.3 Te
and calculate the time for full clutch engagement using eqn. (V-29).
0.28 kg.m2 0.432 kg.m2  3000  min

rev    2 rad   min 
   rev   60 s 
   
1.3102  3Nm0.28 kg.m  0.3 102 Nm0.432kg.m2 
ts 
2
 0.77 s 
After full clutch engagement, the common speed of both sides of the clutch can
be obtained from eqn. (V-30).
  rev    2 rad   min   0.3 102 Nm 

0.77 s
s   3000 

      
 min    rev   60 s   0.28 kg.m 2   
 rad 
 230    2196 rpm
 s 
The vehicle speed reached at the end of the engagement period will then be :
 
0.286m  2196  rev    2 rad   min  1  0.08
  min    rev   60 s  m
Vs   3.75    13.5 kph 
3.754.3 s
Finally, the energy dissipated during engagement is :
 rev   2 rad   min 

1.3 102   Nm   3000       0.77  s 
 min   rev   60s 
E  16038[J]
2
V - 29
Example V-6:
Draw a Simulink diagram to simulate engine dynamics, i.e., the solution of the
equation:
J e
 e  Te  Tf
Solution :
A n-D lookup table is used for the partially open throttle engine characteristics (see
Example II-3). Note the unit conversion just after integration.
1
Friction
Throttle
Torque
Opening
[Nm]
[%]
2-D T(u)
2
1
1/Je 30/pi 1
Engine s
Torque Engine
1/Engine Integrator [rad/s] Speed
[Nm] Inertia to [rpm]
Lookup [kgm2] [rpm]
Table (n-D)
Note that the initial engine speed has to be entered as the initial condition in the
integrator.
V - 30
Exercises
1) Starting with the polynomial,
Fn = a1V2 + a2V + a3
derive an expression for the maximum acceleration in terms of the coefficients a1, a2, and a3
and equivalent vehicle mass, meq. Hint: First obtain an expression for the vehicle speed at
which maximum acceleration is obtained.
2) Derive eqn. (V-18). Hint: Assume that at maximum speed air resistance is the most
significant component of resistance to motion and neglect all other resistances. The constant
inside the square root is then modified to take the other resistances into account as well.
3) The driver of an automobile, travelling at a speed of 90 kph down a slope of 5%, decides to
stop the vehicle and presses the brake pedal down, depressing the clutch pedal fully at the
same time. A total braking torque of 450 Nm is thus applied to the wheels. The automobile
has a mass of 1260 kg. It is equipped with 165 SR 13 tires and can reach a maximum speed of
155 kph on level road in still air.
Estimate the time taken and distance covered before the vehicle stops. Ignore the effect of
rotating masses, estimate the drag coefficient and frontal area from the simplified maximum
speed expression and take a suitable constant value for the rolling resistance coefficient.
4) A gradient of 25 % lasts for 300 m after which the road levels. If the vehicle specified
below starts climbing at a speed of 120 kph in fifth gear, at full throttle, at the bottom of the
gradient, can it reach the level road surface at the top of the gradient without having to
downshift the gear, i.e., engine still running smoothly?
Ans. : Yes, it takes 17.2 [s] for the engine speed to go down to 1000 rpm and the vehicle
travels 360 [m] in the meantime.
Vehicle Data :
Mass : 1530 kg
Load Distribution (f/r) : 52.9/47.1 %
Wheelbase : 2614 mm
Gear Ratios : 3.73, 2.14, 1.41, 1.12, 0.89
Tires : 225/45 R 17
Tire Pressures (f/r) : 2.0/2.0 kgf / cm2
V - 31
5) A vehicle parked on a 9% slope, with the handbrake improperly engaged so that a total
constant braking torque of only 20 [Nm] can be applied on the wheels. The rolling resistance
for the vehicle is given as
Rr = fr W
and the air resistance is expressed as
Ra = BV2
where Ra is in [N] and the vehicle speed V is in [kph].
If the mass of the vehicle is 1200 [kg], the tire rolling radius is 0.286 [m], and fr = 0.011 and
B=0.03, neglect inertial resistances and
a) Show that the vehicle will start moving down the slope.
b) Calculate the maximum (terminal) speed the vehicle will reach.
c) Calculate the time to reach 60 [kph].
d) Calculate the distance covered during acceleration to 90 [kph].
Ans. : a) Rg=1055 [N] > Rr+Rb=199 [N], b) 169 [kph], c) 24.3 [s], d) 515 [m].
6) Use the vehicle specifications below to calculate the

a) maximum speed,
b) maximum acceleration that the vehicle can achieve on level road in top gear, and
c) 40 to 100 kph elasticity of the vehicle in top gear.
Ans. : a) 222 [kph], b) 1.08 [m/s2], c) 15.7 [s].
Vehicle Data :
Track (f/r) : 1358/1324 mm
Wheelbase : 2472 mm
Gear Ratios : 3.09, 1.84, 1.32, 0.97, 0.80
Tyres : 185/55 VR 15 SBR
Tyre Pressures (f/r) : 32/28 psi
V - 32
7) Consider a vehicle for which the tractive effort and total resistance curves are as given.
5000
40%
4500
1st Gear
4000
Tractive Effort, FT, Total Resistance, RT [N]
3500
3000
20%
2500
2nd Gear 12%
2000
3rd Gear 5%
0%
1500
4th Gear
1000
5th Gear
500
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
V [kph]
Answer the following questions with brief explanations.

a) What is the maximum speed of the vehicle?
b) What is the maximum gradient the vehicle can climb ? Assume sufficient traction
can be obtained between the driving wheels and the road.
c) In which gear can you reach the highest speed up a 5 % gradient ? What is this
speed?
d) While travelling at a speed of 100 kph on level road, what is the net tractive effort
available for acceleration in 3rd, 4th, and 5th gears ?
e) If you want to accelerate as fast as possible while driving in 2nd gear up a 12 %
gradient, at which speed would you shift to 3rd gear ?
Ans. : a) 170 [kph], b) >40[%], c) 4th gear, 130<V[kph]<140, d) 1350 [N] in 3rd gear, 950
[N] in 4th gear, 700 [N] in 5th gear, e) 75<V[kph]<80.
V - 33
8) The vehicle specified below starts at the bottom of a 12 % gradient at a speed of 100 kph in
top gear. For how long (time) can it continue up the gradient without having to downshift to
fourth gear if the driver presses the accelerator pedal down to the bottom and keeps it there ?
Vehicle Data :
Gear Ratios : 3.42, 2.14, 1.45, 1.03, 0.77
Tyre Pressures (f/r) : 2.0/1.9 kgf / cm2
Ans. : 39.2 s
9) The vehicle specified below starts, at a certain speed, at the bottom of a 12 % gradient in
top gear. The driver presses the accelerator pedal down to the bottom and keeps it there. It is
required to keep the vehicle climbing the gradient for at least 36 seconds, in top gear without
stalling the engine. What should be the minimum speed of the vehicle at the instant it starts
climbing the gradient ?
Vehicle Data :
Mass (test) : 1177
Load Distribution (f/r) : 60.4/39.6 %
Max. Engine Power / Torque : 63.3 kW at 6000 rpm / 118 N.m at 3750 rpm
Gear Ratio/kph per 1000 rpm : 2.916/8.37, 1.764/13.89, 1.192/20.6, 0.866/28.3, 0.718/34.1
Tires : 185/70 SR 13 SBR
Ans. : 100 [kph].
V - 34
10) A vehicle is parked down on a 9% slope. The equivalent mass of the vehicle is 1235 [kg],
tire rolling radius is 0.293 [m], and the rolling and air resistances for the vehicle are given as :
Rr [N] = 0.011 W [N]
Ra [N] = 0.035 V2 [kph]
a) What is the minimum total handbrake torque to be applied to the wheels so that
the vehicle will not start moving down the slope? Hint: Convert brake torque to an equivalent
resistance force.
If the handbrake is improperly engaged so that a total constant braking torque of only 63 [Nm]
can be applied on the wheels:
b) Calculate the maximum (terminal) speed the vehicle is going to reach down the
slope.
c) Calculate the distance covered during acceleration to 90 [kph].
Ans. : a) 279 [N], b) 145 [kph], c) 660 [m]
11) Develop an expression for the vehicle speed at which maximum acceleration can be
obtained in terms of ai, the coefficients of the net tractive effort polynomial. Calculate the
maximum acceleration in fourth gear.
Gears
Coefficients
I II III IV V Coasting
a1 [N/kph2] -2.458 -0.419 -0.147 -0.069 -0.053 -0.0308
a2 [N/kph] 92.2 27.2 12.1 5.7 4.0 -0.21
a3 [N] 5216 2788 1833 1226 1009 -176.1
Mass : 1427 [kg]
Maximum Engine Speed : 6000 [rpm]
Gear ratios : 3.73, 2.05, 1.39, 0.97, 0.82
kph/1000 rpm : 6.9, 12.8, 19.3, 28.2, 33.7
Ans. : 0.9 [m/s2]
V - 35
12) Using the vehicle specifications below and neglecting tire slip, answer the following :
a) When the vehicle is on a slope, if the engine produces 60 kW at a constant speed

of 2400 rpm in third gear, determine the road gradient.
b) Estimate the tractive effort in fifth gear at an engine speed of 3200 rpm at fully
open throttle.
c) Determine the maximum speed of the vehicle up a gradient of 8 % in third gear.
d) Calculate the vehicle speed at which maximum full throttle acceleration on level
road is obtained. Calculate the maximum acceleration as well.
e) Calculate the elasticity (60-100 kph) of the vehicle in top gear.
Ans. : a) 21.4 [%], b) 2113 [N], c) 114 [kph], ML, d) 17 [kph], 5.89 [m/s2], e) 12.6 [s].
DATA :
- Full coefficients ai of the net tractive effort as well as the resistive parts of the coefficients
on level road in each gear are given in the table below. Note that a i  a iT  a iR .
- The rolling resistance coefficient is specified as fr = 0.0116 +1.5x10-5V[kph].
Gears
Coefficients aiR
I II III IV V VI
a1 [N/kph2] -10.03 -1.95 -0.597 -0.208 -0.104 -0.068 0.0334
a2 [N/kph] 350.4 116.5 51.5 23.6 12.7 8.09 0.228
a3 [N] 8855 5034 3293 2177 1558 1215 176
Vehicle Specifications:

Wheelbase : 2640 mm
Max. Engine Torque : 320 Nm at 2000 rpm
Gear Ratios : 3.231, 1.864, 1.241, 0.842, 0.886, 0.711
Differential Ratio : 4.071 for it = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 2.850 for it = 5, 6
Tires : 205/50 R 17 V
V - 36
13) The following data belongs to a medium size car. The driver accelerates the engine to
2500 rpm at full throttle, while the vehicle is stationary in first gear and takes his foot off the
clutch pedal. Assume that the engine torque stays constant at the initial value and the
maximum friction torque is 30 % higher than the maximum engine torque. If the vehicle is on
a 3 % gradient, estimate the
i) synchronization time,
ii) synchronization speed,
iii) vehicle speed reached at the end of the engagement period, and
iv) energy dissipation during engagement.
Vehicle Data :
Max. Engine Power / Torque : 84 kW at 5750 rpm
Moment of inertia of parts
rotating at engine speed : 0.18 kg.m2
propeller shaft speed : 0.04 kg.m2
wheel speed : 3.5 kg.m2
Gear Ratios : 3.42, 2.14, 1.45, 1.03, 0.77
Tyres* : 185/65 VR 14 SBR
* Assume a constant coefficient of rolling resistance, a = 0.011
Ans. : a) 0.49 [s], b) 1276 [rpm], c) 9.6 [kph], c) 13091 [J]
V - 37
14) The vehicle specified below can accelerate from 50 to 90 kph in 4.8 seconds in second
gear and from 90 to 100 kph in 1.8 seconds in third gear, respectively. If the clutch
synchronization time and the corresponding vehicle speed are 0.7 seconds and 12 kph, and a
gear shift time of 0.5 seconds (same for all upshifts) is assumed, estimate the time required for
this vehicle to accelerate from 0 to 100 kph at full throttle on level road.
Partial Vehicle Specifications :

Mass : 1560 [kg]
Maximum Engine Speed : 6500 [rpm]
Engine speed at maximum torque : 4000 [rpm]
Gear ratios : 3.577, 2.022, 1.348, 0.977, 0.809
Tyres : 215/50 R 17 91 W
Table of the net tractive effort polynomial coefficients.
Gears
Coefficients
I II III IV V aiR
a1 [N/kph2] -4.867 -0.908 -0.293 -0.133 -0.091 0.0348
a2 [N/kph] 313.6 100.2 44.5 23.4 16.0 0
a3 [N] 3036 1639 1034 700 549 178
Ans. : 11.3 [s]
15) Reformulate the clutch engagement problem and
a) obtain expressions for the synchronization time and speed as well as the energy
dissipated, in the case where the engine speed is kept constant by the driver controlling the
throttle opening accordingly.
b) If the vehicle specified in Exercise 13 is on a gradient of 3 % gradient, estimate

synchronization time and speed, and the energy dissipated; assuming that the driver
accelerates the engine to 2500 rpm at full throttle, while the vehicle is stationary in first gear
and takes his foot off the clutch pedal and manipulates the throttle opening to keep the engine
speed constant to the end of the synchronization period. Assume that the maximum friction
torque is 30 % higher than the maximum engine torque
V - 38
Example VI-1
Consider a vehicle travelling at a constant speed of 99 [kph]. The driver notices an

obstruction on the road and brakes hard with a reaction time of 1.2 [s]. Estimate stopping
time and deceleration distance. Assume a brake application time of 0.15 [s], a deceleration
rise time of 0.25 [s] and a maximum deceleration of 6.0 [m/s2].
 km   h   1000 m 
99    
V t  h   3600s   km  0.25 s
tc  0  b    4.46 s
d max 2 m 2
 6.0   2 
s 
t T  t r  t a  t b  t c  1.2  0.15  0.25  4.46  6.1 s
 km   h   1000 m 
D1  V0 t r  t a   99   1.2  0.15s     37.1 m
 h   3600 s   km 
d  2  km   h   1000 m   6.0   m 
 t b  99  h  0.25 s   3600s   km    6   2  0.25 s 
2  2
D 2  V0 t b   max
 6          s 
 6.8  m 
2
  km   h   1000 m  
99   
V02 tb t 2b   h   3600s   km  
D3   V0  d max  
2 d max 2 8 m
2  6.0   2 
s 
 m   0.25s
2
 km   h   1000 m  0.25s
 99       6.0  2
 h   3600s   km  2 s  8
D3  59.6 m
DT  37.1  6.8  59.6  103.5 m
VI - 10
Example VI-2
The mass of a fully loaded large size saloon car is 2250 kg. The center of gravity height
is 508 mm and its distance from the lateral axis through the front wheel centers is 1458
mm. If the wheelbase is specified as 2865 mm, determine :
a) the variation of the ideal brake distribution factor with deceleration,
b) constant brake distribution factor to be provided if front wheels are to lock-

up before the rear wheels at decelerations below 0.8 g,
c) adhesion coefficients utilized at the front and rear wheels at a deceleration of

0.5 g
- if the constant brake force distribution factor is used.
- if the ideal brake force distribution factor is used.
Solution
a) The ideal brake distribution factor can be expressed as
b + hd (2865-1458)+  0.508 d
iideal = = = 0.491 + 0.177d
L 2865
Thus
iideal = 1- 0.509  +  0.177  d = 0.491 + 0.177d
b) If a constant brake force distribution factor with a critical deceleration of 0.8 g is to be

used,
i = iideal  d = 0.8  = 0.491 + 0.177  0.8   0.633
c) At a deceleration of 0.5 g, with the constant brake force distribution factor of 0.633 :
idL 0.633  0.5  2865

μf  = = 0.546
b + hd  2865 -1458  + 508  0.5 
So the front wheels will lock on any surface with an available adhesion coefficient of
below 0.546.
Similarly:
VI - 22
Example VI-3
For a vehicle with m=1360 kg, a/L=0.6, and h/L=0.24,
a) If it is required that front wheels are to lock first for decelerations (nondimensional) up
to 0.8, what should be the value of the fixed brake distribution factor to be used for the
vehicle ?
If the vehicle is braked on a road with =0.4 :
b) Calculate the maximum deceleration possible without locking for the front and rear
wheels. Which wheels are going to lock first?
c) Calculate the maximum total braking force that can be applied without locking any
wheels.
d) Find the minimum value of the actual brake distribution factor such that the vehicle
can decelerate at 5.4 m/s2 without locking any wheels. Which wheels are going to lock
first?
Solution
a) Since it is required that front wheels are to lock first for decelerations (non-
dimensional) up to 0.8, the value of the fixed brake force distribution factor should be
equal to the value of the ideal BFDF at 0.8 g.
b h
iideal   d  1  0.6    0.24  0.8   0.4  0.192  0.592
L L
b) For the front wheel
b
 
L   0.4 1  0.6 
d  0.323
 h  0.592   0.4  0.24 
i   
L
For the rear wheel
a
 
L  0.4  0.6 
d   0.476
 h  1  0.592   0.4  0.24 
   
1  i  
L
VI - 24
Thus at a maximum deceleration of 0.323 g, the front wheels will lock first (before the
rear wheels).
c) The maximum total braking force will be obtained from eqn. (VI-18), at the maximum
possible deceleration of 0.32 g (found previously) after which front wheels lock.
Ff  Fr  Wd  1360  9.81 0.32   4309  N 
d) Eqns. (VI-27) and (VI-28) can be manipulated to obtain the BFDF such that the vehicle
can be decelerated at a specified rate on a surface with specified available adhesion
coefficient.
5.4
d  0.55
9.81
For the front wheels
 b h 1 1
i     d    0.4  1  0.6   0.24  0.55    0.387
L L d 0.55
and for the rear wheels
 a h 1 1
i  1- μ  - d  = 1-  0.4   0.6 -  0.24  0.55   = 0.468
L L d 0.55
It is noted that a single BFDF cannot be found on this road surface without locking any
of the wheels at a deceleration of 0.55 g. However, if the available adhesion coefficient
is 0.6, then for the front wheels
 b h 1 1
i     d    0.6  1  0.6   0.24  0.55    0.580
L L d 0.55
and for the rear wheels
a h 1 1
i  1     d   1   0.6   0.6   0.24  0.55    0.491
L L d 0.55
Now, it is clear that in the range 0.491  i  0.580 on this road surface, neither front nor
rear wheels will lock at a deceleration of 0.55 g.
VI - 25
Example VI-4
Consider the front wheel drive car specified below.
At a deceleration of 0.6 [g], calculate:
a) dynamic front and rear axle loads, and
b) value of the ideal brake force distribution factor.
Determine:
c) brake force distribution factor (actual) set for the vehicle.
d) deceleration at which the ideal and actual BFD factors are equal.
e) suitability of the BFDF set for the vehicle.
On a road where the available adhesion coefficient is 0.80, calculate:
f) the decelerations at which the front and rear wheels (separately) lock.
g) state whether the front and rear wheels lock and calculate the front, rear, and
total braking forces at decelerations of
- 0.70 [g],
- 0.79 [g]
Mass (laden) : 1587 kg

Load distribution (laden) (f/r) : 53.0 / 47.0 %
Wheelbase : 2632 mm
Tire rolling radius : 302 mm
Height of center of gravity (laden) : 576 mm
Brake wheel cylinder diameter (f/r) : 63.2 / 21.07 mm
Brake factor (front disk/rear leading trailing shoe) : 0.88 / 2.8
Effective radius (front disk/rear drum) : 83 / 102.4 mm
VI - 26
Solution
b h    576  
a) Wf  W  + d   1587  9.81 0.53    0.6   10296[N]
L L    2632  
a h    576  
Wr = W  - d  = 1587  9.81 0.47 -   0.6   5273[N]
L L    2632  
b h  576 
b) iideal   d  0.53    0.6  0.661
L L  2632 
 A wc . BF. R eff f
iact 
 A wc . BF. R eff f   A wc . BF. R eff r
 63.22 
c)    0.88  83
 4 
    0.696
 63.22   21.07 2 
   0.88  83      2.8 102.4 
 4   4 
   
L b  W L 2632
d) d    iact    iact  f    0.696  0.53  0.758
h h  W h 576
e) Standards require the ideal and actual BFDF to be equal at or above 0.8g deceleration.
Thus the selected BFDF (actual!) falls just short of the required value and brake design
must be modified.
f) Front wheels will lock at:
b
 
L   0.8 0.53
d  0.814
h  576 
iact     0.696   0.8   
L  2632 
Similarly, rear wheels will lock at:
a
 
L  0.8 0.47 
d   0.785
1  iact      1  0.696    0.8 
h 576 

L  2632 
VI - 27
g) At a deceleration of 0.7g, none of the wheels will lock. The braking forces are :
Ff  iact Wd   0.696 1587  9.81 0.7   7585[N]
Fr = 1- iact  Wd = 1- 0.696 1587  9.81 0.7   3313[N]
Fb  Ff  Fr  7585  3313  10898[N]
or
Fb  Wd  1587  9.81 0.7   10898[N]
At a deceleration of 0.79g, only the rear wheels will lock. To find the braking forces
start with the locked wheels.
a h 
Frmax = μWrd = μW  - d 
L L 
  576  
=  0.8 1587  9.81 0.47 -   0.79   3700[N]
  2632  
Ff  Wd  Frmax  1587  9.81 0.79   3700  8599[N]
Obviously, the total braking force in this case is simply:
Fb  Ff  Frmax  Wd  1587  9.81 0.79   12299[N]
VI - 28
Exercises
VI-1) Consider a car travelling at a constant speed of 130 [kph]. The driver notices that a truck
about 100 meters in front rolls over and stays stationary on the road and brakes hard with a
reaction time of 1.0 [s]. If a brake application time of 0.12 [s] and a deceleration rise time of
0.20 [s] are assumed, what should be the maximum deceleration so that the car can stop just in
time before hitting the truck.
Ans. : 11.6 [m/s2]
VI-2) Examine the brake force distribution diagram for a certain vehicle carefully.
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Fr /W
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Ff/W
a) What is the value of deceleration at which front and rear wheels lock simultaneously?
b) For a deceleration of 0.7 [g], which wheels - front or rear - will lock first?
c) Estimate the value of fixed brake force distribution factor, if the position of the
marked point is given as (0.22, 0.39).
Ans.: a) ≈0.6 [g], b) Rear, c) 0.36
VI - 29
VI-3) Consider Example VI-1), for the case of empty vehicle. The mass of the vehicle is now
1730 kg, the the center of gravity height is 498 mm, its distance from the lateral axis through
the front wheel centers is 1442 mm. If the same constant brake force distribution factor is used,
what will be the critical deceleration value? Comment on the result.
Ans. : 0.45 [g]
VI-4) For a small car, with specifications given in the table below:
a) Calculate constant brake force distribution factors, if front wheels are to lock-
up before the rear wheels at decelerations below 0.8 g, for the fully loaded and empty vehicle.
b) Determine the deceleration above which the rear wheels are going to lock first,
if the BFDF determined in part a) for the fully loaded vehicle is implemented for the empty
vehicle.
c) Calculate adhesion coefficients utilized at the front and rear wheels at a

deceleration of 0.7 g, for the fully loaded and empty vehicle if the constant brake force
distribution factor for the fully loaded vehicle is implemented.
d) Calculate the braking efficiencies of front and rear brakes at a deceleration of

0.7 g. and interpret the results.
Fully Loaded Empty

Wheel base [mm] 2398
m [kg] 1240 853
h [mm] 540 550
a [mm] 1218 974
Ans. : a) 0.672, 0.777, b) 0.34 [g], c) 0.724, 0.655; 0.624, 0.935, d) 0.967, 1.069, 1.122, 0.749
VI - 30
VI-5) Consider the specifications of a car in loaded and unloaded (driver only) conditions.
a) Select a BFDF such that the front wheels are going to lock first at decelerations below
0.8 for the loaded vehicle.
b) If the BFDF selected in part a) is implemented, what will be the deceleration below
which the front wheels are going to lock first when the vehicle is unloaded.
c) Comment on the braking stability of the vehicle for the loaded and unloaded conditions.
Vehicle Data:
M (loaded): 2250 kg, a=1.458 m, h=0.508 m, L=2.865 m
M (unloaded): 1730 kg, a=1.333 m, h=0.632 m.
Ans.: a) 0.633, b) 0.445
VI-6) Consider the front wheel drive car specified below.
a) Calculate the dynamic front and rear axle loads at a deceleration of 0.5 [g].
b) Determine the brake force distribution factor (actual) set for the vehicle.
c) Calculate the ideal brake force distribution factor at a deceleration of 0.5 [g].
d) Calculate the deceleration at which the ideal and actual BFD factors are equal.
e) Comment on the suitability of the BFD factor set for the vehicle.
Mass (laden) : 1587 kg

Wheelbase : 2616 mm
Height of center of gravity (laden) : 559 mm
Ans.: a) 9448, 6121 [N], b) 0.66, c) 0.61, d) 0.75, e) Not suitable
VI - 31
VI-7) Consider the front wheel drive car specified below. Annotate all plots carefully.
a) Make the required calculations and fill in the table below. Plot variation of front and
rear axle loads versus deceleration for the driver only and laden vehicle.
d [g] 0.0 0.1 0.2 … 0.8 0.9 1.0

Driver only
Front axle load [N]
Laden
Driver only
Rear axle load [N]
Laden
b) Determine the brake force distribution factor (actual) set for the vehicle.
c) Make the required calculations and fill in the table below. Then plot front braking
force versus rear braking force for the driver only and laden vehicle. Mark deceleration values
on the curves.
d [g] 0.0 0.1 0.2 … 0.8 0.9 1.0

Driver only
Front braking force [N]
Laden
Driver only
Rear braking force [N]
Laden
d) Make a plot of the ideal brake force distribution factor for the two cases of the driver
only and laden vehicle on the normalized (divided by vehicle weight) rear braking force versus
normalized front braking force plane. Superimpose the constant deceleration and constant brake
force distribution factor lines on the same plot.
e) Calculate the decelerations at which the ideal and actual BFD factors are equal.
Comment on the selection of the brake system for this vehicle.
Ans.: b) 0.66, e) 0.05, 0.75

Mass (driver only / laden) : 1179 / 1587 kg
Load distribution (driver only) (f/r) : 65 / 35 %
Wheelbase : 2616 mm
Height of center of gravity (driver only / laden) : 559 / 559 mm
VI - 32
VI-8) Consider two road surfaces : icy (=0.1) and dry (=0.8) asphalt road.
a) Assume a braking efficiency of 100 % and calculate the front and rear braking forces.
If the brake force distribution factor is selected as 0.6:
b) Calculate the braking efficiencies on the specified road surfaces.
c) Calculate the front and rear braking forces on the specified road surfaces.
If a brake force distribution factor of 0.5 is selected:
d) Calculate the maximum deceleration that can be obtained on a road surface with =0.9.
Vehicle data:
Vehicle mass: 1400 kg, Weight distribution (f/r): 0.6/0.4,
Height of c.o.g.: 0.6 m, Wheelbase: 2.4 m.
Ans.: a) 858, 515; 8790, 2198 b) 1.043, 0.941; 1.5, 0.667 c) 775, 517; 4399, 2929 d) 0.497
VI - 33
VI-9) A braking efficiency, , related to the utilization of ground-tire adhesion, , of a brake

system of a vehicle is usually defined in the form
d


where d is the non-dimensional deceleration. This expression can be written separately for the
front and rear wheels, as the utilization of adhesion is in general different at the front and the
rear.
a) Obtain an expression for the braking efficiency of the front wheels, f, using
the relation for the achievable deceleration before the front wheels lock for d. Simplify the
expression such that the efficiency can be obtained from a knowledge of the load distribution
b/L, brake force distribution factor iact, the ratio of the height centre of gravity to the wheelbase
h/L for the vehicle, and the adhesion coefficient .
b) Similarly, obtain an expression for the braking efficiency of the rear wheels,
r, using the relation for the achievable deceleration before the rear wheels lock for d. Simplify
the expression such that the efficiency can be obtained from a knowledge of the load
distribution a/L, brake force distribution factor iact, the ratio of the height centre of gravity to
the wheelbase h/L for the vehicle, and the adhesion coefficient .
c) Use the data set given to plot the efficiency versus adhesion coefficient for the
front and rear wheels on the same set of axes. Carefully annotate the plot.
d) Determine the adhesion coefficient at which the front and rear wheel
efficiencies become equal. What is the significance of this adhesion coefficient? What happens
on roads where the available adhesion coefficient is less or higher than the value found?
e) Replot efficiency versus tire-ground adhesion coefficient for brake force

distribution factors 5% more and 5% less than the specified value. Determine the adhesion
coefficient at which the front and rear wheel efficiencies become equal. Comment on the results.
Which of the three BPDF provides the best braking?
Data : Load distribution (f/r) = 64 / 36 [%], iact = 0.745, h/L = 0.21
Ans. : d) 0.5, e) 0.675, 0.325
VI - 34
VI-10) Consider a passenger car with the specifications given below. Calculate the braking
efficiency and pedal force for a master cylinder pressure of 50 [bar] for the empty (only driver)
and loaded cases. Comment on the acceptability of the brake system implemented on the
vehicle.
Note that:
- The front and rear brake force are calculated using
Fxi  K i Pi
where Pi is the master cylinder pressure and the brake gain is given by
R 
K i  n i A wci ci BFi  i  with i=f, r (for front and rear brakes)2
 r 
where Awc is the wheel cylinder area.
- The deceleration is simply the total brake force divided by the weight of the vehicle.
- The adhesion coefficient utilization for the front or rear wheels is given by the ratio
of the front or rear braking force to the corresponding dynamic axle load.
- The braking efficiency is the minimum of the front and rear braking efficiencies.
- Pedal force, Fp, is determined using the equation*
PA
Fp  l mc
l pp
where Amc is the master cylinder area.

Please make sure that you use compatible units in the equations.
Mass (driver only/loaded), M : 1179/1587 kg
Wheelbase, L : 2616 mm
Tire rolling radius, r : 300 mm
Height of center of gravity (driver only/loaded), h : 559/559 mm
Brake wheel cylinder diameter (f/r), dwc : 57.1 / 19.05 mm
Wheel cylinder efficiency (front disk/rear drum) : 0.98 /0.96
Brake factor (front disk/rear leading trailing shoe), BF : 0.64 / 2.9
Effective radius (front disk/rear drum), R : 99 / 101.6 mm
Number of brakes (f/r), n : 2/2
Master cylinder diameter, dmc : 20.64 mm
Pedal lever efficiency, p : 0.8
Pedal lever ratio, lp : 5.5
2
* R. Limpert, “Brake Design and Safety”, SAE, 1992.
VI - 35
Example VII-1 :
Estimate the power limited gradability for a vehicle (in first gear, fully loaded vehicle)
with specifications as given below.
Mass : 2380 kg
Axle Loads (f/r) : 1357/1023 kgf
Gear Ratios : 3.92, 1.95, 1.30, 0.94, 0.75
Tyres : 225/70 R 16 102 T
Tyre Pressures (f/r) : 2.0/2.0 kgf /cm2
Solution:
 2.0   400 
a"f  0.0125 1.3  0.3  1.3  0.3   0.0132
 1.65   1357 / 2  
 2.0   400 
a"r  0.0125 1.3  0.3  1.3  0.3   0.0125
 1.65   1023 / 2  
a '' W  a ''r Wr 0.0132 1357   0.0125 1023

a f f   0.0129
W 2380
16  25.4  225 

rw  0.96   0.7   0.346  m 
 2000 1000 
T n 200  4000 
P2  max 2   83.78  kW 
9549 9549
A = 0.532
B = 1.498
C = - 1.03
9549  0.88 3.92  4.56  107  0.532 

a 3'    2380  9.81 0.0129   4583.6  N 
0.346 1-0.08  5500
2
  3.92  4.56   107 1.498 
a 2   2.65 9549  0.88      2380  9.81 0.000015
 0.346 1  0.08   55002
VII - 6
 371.7  N / kph 
3
2   3.92  4.56   107  1.03
a1   2.65  9549  0.88     0.047  0.39  2.56   6.969
 0.346 1  0.08   55003
a 371.7
V 2   26.7  kph 
2a1 2  6.969 
2.65  3.92  4.56  26.7 

ne   3973[rpm]
0.346 1  0.08 
   371.7 2  
1  1
  sin     4583.6    sin 1  0.4086 
 2380  9.81  4  6.969  

 = 45 % (24.1o)
VII - 7
Example VII-2 :
Determine the slip limited gradability of the vehicle in Example VII-1 on wet asphalt
road with an available adhesion coefficient of 0.70.
Power limited gradability : 45.0 % (1st gear)

Drive type : FWD
Axle Loads (f/r) : 1357/1023 kgf
Wheelbase : 2553 mm
Maximum Height : 1445 mm
a = 0.0129
Solution:
Calculate the position of the center of gravity, i.e., a and b.
 1023 
a=  2553  1097  mm 
 2380 
 1357 
b=  2553  1456[mm]
 2380 
Neglect velocity dependence of rolling resistance coefficient, i.e., take b = 0. Then

f r = a = 0.0106
Neglect air resistance and use the approximate expression to calculate the slip limited
gradeability.
 1456 
 2553  0.70 - 0.0129
tanθ =    0.333
 0.4 1445  
1+   0.70
 2553 
θ = 33.3[%]
Thus, on a wet asphalt road :
Power limited gradeability is 45.0 %.
Slip limited gradeability is 33.3 %.
The gradeability of the vehicle then can be specified as 33 % and is limited by slip on
wet asphalt road.
VII - 12
Exercises :
1) If the maximum gradient that a vehicle can climb in second gear on a certain road surface
is 15 %, what is the maximum acceleration that can be achieved in the same gear on a level
road with the same surface ?
Hint : The part of the tractive effort used to overcome the gradient resistance on a slope will
be available for acceleration on a level road.
2) Consider the setup for the determination of the center of gravity height of a vehicle
illustrated in the figure. The vehicle is positioned on a platform which is balanced on a knife
edge, i.e., the knife edge location corresponds to the horizontal position of the center of
gravity. Then the platform is tilted at a small angle  and a vertical force F is applied at some
point at the rear of the platform to keep the whole system in equilibrium in the tilted position.
L
h
W  F
Show that the center of gravity height can be obtained from a moment balance about the knife
edge support. Note that for accurate results, the contribution of the platform should be taken
into account.
3) A motor vehicle is parked on a slope and should start climbing up the 1 in 10 gradient. Can
it achieve an instantaneous acceleration of 0.3 g up the slope? The specifications of the
vehicle are as follows.
Vehicle Data :

Wheelbase : 2430 mm
Gear Ratios : 3.063, 1.826, 1.286, 0.975, 0.810
Tyres : 175/65 R 14
VII - 13
4) A vehicle, specified below, is towing a semi-trailer (a trailer with a single axle). Estimate
both the power and slip limited gradeabilities of the combination on a dry asphalt road
surface, if the mass of the semi-trailer is 600 kg, and its tyres are designated as 145 SR 12 and
inflated to 1.6 kgf/cm2. You can neglect the rotary masses associated with the trailer, assume
a drag coefficient of 0.6 and a frontal area of 2.0 m2 and a towing hinge height of 0.55 m.
Hint : Treat the semi-trailer as a separate load parallel to the road surface applied on the
vehicle at the towing hinge. Neglect the vertical component of the force at the hinge.
Vehicle Data :
Mass : 1033 kg
Load Distribution : 59/41 %
Wheelbase : 2469 mm
Gear Ratios : 3.45, 1.85, 1.28, 0.97, 0.76
Tyres : 165/70 TR 13 SBR
Ans. : 25 [%]
5) Estimate the required adhesion coefficient if the vehicle specified below is to climb a
gradient of 38 % ? Assume that sufficient power is available.
Vehicle Data :
Mass : 1394 kg
Wheelbase : 2600 mm
Gear Ratios : 3.55, 2.16, 1.48, 1.13, 0.89
VII - 14
6) Estimate the gradability of the vehicle specified below and fill in the table.
Gradeability [%]
Road Surface/Condition Dry Wet Greasy Frozen
Cement-Concrete
Asphalt
Cobbled stone-large
Cobbled stone-small
Vehicle Data :
Max. Engine Power / Torque : 84 kW at 5750 rpm / 157 N.m at 3750 rpm
Gear Ratios : 3.42, 2.14, 1.45, 1.03, 0.77
7) Assume that slip and power limited gradeabilities of a vehicle in third gear are equal. What
can you say about the gradeabilities of the vehicle in 1st, 2nd, and 4th gears ?
Ans. : Slip limited in 1st and 2nd gears, power limited in 4th gear.
8) Slip and power limited gradeabilities of a vehicle are specified as 35 and 39 %,

respectively. In an effort to improve the performance of the vehicle, its engine is modified to
produce a maximum of 72 [kW] instead of the previous maximum of 67 [kW]. What will be
the maximum grade the modified vehicle can climb?
Ans. : 35 [%]
VII - 15
9) Consider the vehicle specified below.
a) Calculate the value of the adhesion coefficient required for the slip limited
gradeability to be equal to the power limited gradeability at a constant speed of 70 kph in fifth
gear. What kind of a road surface will be required?
b) What is the maximum gradient that the vehicle can climb at a constant speed
of 70 kph in fifth gear on a road surface with a tire-road adhesion coefficient of 0.22.
Mass : 1530 kg
Load distribution (f/r) : 52.9 / 47.1 %
Wheelbase/ Height of center of gravity : 2614 mm / 565 mm
Engine displacement : 1796 cc
Gear Ratios : 3.73, 2.14, 1.41, 1.12, 0.89
Coefficients of the net tractive effort polynomial on level road & negligible wind
Coefficients I II III IV V
Tractive -2.240 -0.423 -0.121 -0.061 -0.060
a1 [N/kph2]
Resistive 0.0292
Tractive 130.0 42.8 18.6 11.73 7.20
a2 [N/kph]
Resistive 0.225
Tractive 5706 3274 2157 1714 1362
a3 [N]
Resistive 173
Ans.: a) 0.2, b) 8.3 [%]
VII - 16
10) Determine the maximum gradient on which the vehicle can maintain a constant speed of
90 kph in 5th gear on a road surface covered with hard packed snow.
Hint: You do not have to use the simplified formula for the required adhesion coefficient as
velocity of the vehicle is known.

Wheelbase : 2511 mm
Height of centre of gravity : 561 mm
Gear Ratios : 3.909, 2.238, 1.444, 1.029, 0.767, 0.649
Note that coefficients of the tractive effort polynomial and the resistive parts are given
separately.
Gear
Coefficients aiR
V
a1T [N/kph2] -0.099 0.0366
a2T [N/kph] 14.6 0.177
a3T [N] 1401 124.8
Ans. : 7.6 [%]
VII - 17
11) Can the vehicle specified below climb a gradient of 30 % at a speed of 45 kph in third
gear on a wet asphalt road with an available adhesion coefficient of 0.68?
Hint: Do not use the simplified formula for the required adhesion coefficient.

Wheelbase : 2640 mm
Engine Capacity : 1997 cc
Max. Engine Torque : 320 N.m at 2000 rpm
Gear Ratios : 3.231, 1.864, 1.241, 0.842, 0.886, 0.711
Differential Ratio : 4.071 for it = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 2.850 for it = 5, 6
Tires : 205/50 R 17 V
Rolling resistance coefficient : fr = 0.0116 +1.5x10-5V[kph]
- Full coefficients ai of the net tractive effort on level road in each gear are given in the
table below.
- Resistive parts of the coefficients are also provided on the last column of the table; Note
that a i  a iT  a iR .
Gears
Coefficients aiR
I II III IV V VI
a1 [N/kph2] -10.03 -1.95 -0.597 -0.208 -0.104 -0.068 0.0334
a2 [N/kph] 350.4 116.5 51.5 23.6 12.7 8.09 0.228
a3 [N] 8855 5034 3293 2177 1558 1215 176
Ans. : Yes (Power limited gradeability: 30.3 [%], required adhesion coefficient: 0.67)
VII - 18
Exercises :
1) A passenger car is advertised to have a fuel consumption of 5.6 L/100 km at a speed of 120
kph. Is this fuel consumption value acceptable? Explain.
Vehicle Data
Mass : 1250 kg
Frontal Area / Drag Coefficient : 1.82 m2/ 0.35
Max. Engine Power/Torque : 120 kW at 5800 rpm / 205 Nm at 3000 rpm
Gear Ratios : 3.600, 2.125, 1.4583, 1.0714, 0.8286
Tires : 180/70 VR 15 Steel Belted
Tire Pressures : 2.0/2.0 kgf/cm2
2) An experimentally obtained specific fuel consumption map for a spark ignition engine
indicates the lowest specific fuel consumption of 205 g/kWh. Noting that the peak brake
thermal efficiency for such an engine is below 30 % and that the calorific value of fuel is
about 46000 kJ/kg, comment on the reliability of this experiment. Support your decision by
calculation.
Ans.: Not acceptable!
3) The best value of specific fuel consumption for the diesel engine of a passenger car is
obtained to be 236 g/kWh. Estimate the maximum brake thermal efficiency for this engine.
Ans.: 36.2 [%].
4) The idling fuel flow rate of a four stroke engine can be estimated using the expression
below2.
Vd v i
Qf  pfo
Hf 4S
where pfo is the idling mean fuel pressure, vi is the idling mean piston speed, and S is the
stroke. Estimate the idling fuel flow rate of a small engine for which Vd= 710 cc, pfo=4 bar,
vi=1.9 m/s, S=6.7 cm, H=43.5x106 J/kg, and f=0.78 kg/L.
Ans.: 0.21 [L/h]
2
Guzzelle, L., Sciaretti, A., “Vehicle Propulsion Systems”, 2nd Edition, Springer, 2007.
VIII - 7
Example VIII-2 :
Calculate the fuel consumption of the vehicle specified below at a constant speed of
120 kph in fourth gear, on level road.
Vehicle Data
Mass : 1358 kg
Load Distribution : 54.9/45.1 %
Wheelbase : 2665 mm
Engine Disp. Volume : 1997 cc
Gear Ratios : 3.91, 2.17, 1.37, 1.00, 0.78
Tires : 175/70 R 14 TBR
Tire Pressures (f/r) : 29/32 psi
Solution
First, the resistance to motion for the particular driving mode should be calculated. Then
the power developed by the engine to overcome this resistance can be found.
14  25.4  175 

rw  0.96   0.7   0.288[m]
 2000 1000 
VIII - 10
Front and rear axle loads :
W f  (0.549) 1358 = 746 [kg f]
W r  (0.451) 1358 = 612 [kg f]
pf = 29 (0.07) = 2.04 kgf/cm2
pr = 32 (0.07) = 2.25 kgf/cm2

Then
2.04 400
a f" = 0.0135 (1.5 - 0.5 ) (1.5 - 0.5 ) = 0.012
1.8 (746/2)
2.25 400
a r" = 0.0135 (1.5 - 0.5 ) (1.5 - 0.5 ) = 0.010
1.8 (612/2)
a f" W f + a r" W r (0.012) (746) + (0.010) (612)

a = = = 0.011
W 1358
Af = 0.8 (1.678)(1.383) = 1.86 [m2]

2
R T = [0 .0 1 1 + 0 .0 0 0015(120)](1358)(9.81) + 0.047(0.33)(1.86 )(1 2 0 ) = 5 8 5 [N]
R T V 5 8 5 (120)
PR = = = 19. 5 [kW]
3600 3 6 00
PR 19. 5
0. 9 
Pe = = 21. 7 [kW]
t
2.65 1.003.23 120

ne   3677 rpm
0.288 1  0.03
9549Pe 9549(21.7)
Te    56 Nm
ne 3677
It should be noted here that if one calculates the engine torque without using
the engine speed, a slightly higher value will be obtained since slip factor will then not
be included in the calculations.
56
bmep = 4000π  352 kPa 
1997
VIII - 11
The two values, ne = 3677 [rpm] and bmep = 352 [kPa], correspond to the
operating point on the specific fuel consumption map. The specific fuel consumption of
the vehicle at this operating point is established as 335 g/kW.h, by interpolation from
the specific fuel consumption map of the engine. The fuel consumption of the vehicle at
the constant speed of 120 kph is therefore calculated as:
Vf  g.s   h   105 m   1 L 1 

  335        585  N       8.4  L / 100km 
D  1000 N.m.h   3600s   100 km   720   g   0.9 
VIII - 12
Example VIII-3 :
Assume that the specific fuel consumption of an engine is available in tabulated form,
together with the fully open throttle torque characteristic.
a) Enter the m-string file below to generate a contour plot of bsfc, i.e., the brake specific
fuel consumption map of the engine.
% -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
% Generation of the specific fuel consumption map
engine_speed =[1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000 3250 3500 3750
4000 4250 4500]
engine_torque=[16 31 47 62 78 93 109 124 140 155 171 186 202 217]
bsfc=[600 340 260 240 230 220 215 212 214 216 214 210 208 202;
600 320 265 240 225 217 210 207 207 208 205 205 200 199;
600 320 270 245 235 220 214 208 204 202 202 201 198 198;
600 340 275 248 240 225 218 210 207 200 199 198 197 198;
650 360 280 250 245 229 220 215 210 202 200 199 199 198;
650 380 290 260 250 232 230 220 215 206 201 201 201 201;
650 400 300 270 260 240 234 225 220 211 208 207 207 207;
700 440 320 280 265 245 237 230 223 214 214 212 212 210;
700 460 340 285 270 250 241 233 227 218 218 218 215 214;
700 500 360 290 280 255 245 236 230 222 222 221 222 221;
700 500 380 295 283 260 250 239 235 228 230 230 232 233;
700 520 380 300 289 265 253 242 240 235 232 235 239 236;
800 520 390 310 293 270 254 245 245 240 235 240 250 251;
800 520 400 315 297 275 255 250 250 250 240 243 253 257;
900 540 420 320 300 280 256 252 255 255 243 247 257 262]
% Values of bsfc on isolines
V=[197; 200 ; 210 ; 220 ; 230 ; 250 ; 280 ; 320 ; 400 ; 500 ; 600]
figure
c=contour(engine_speed,engine_torque, bsfc',V);
clabel(c);
hold;
% Full throttle engine torque
Engine_torque_ft=[155 175 202 213 217 213 205 199 194 186 179 171 150 135 95]
plot(engine_speed,engine_torque,'r','linewidth',2);
xlabel('Engine Speed [rpm]')
ylabel('Engine Torque [Nm]')
title('Specific Fuel Consumption Map')
grid on
end
% -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
VIII - 13
The specific consumption map produced by the m-file above should look like :
Specific Fuel Consumption Map
197
200
180 200
160
Engine Torque [Nm] 210 220
140
120
250
100
230
80
60
280 400
40 320
500 600
20
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Engine Speed [rpm]
b) Draw a Simulink diagram to calculate the fuel rate and the total fuel volume
consumed, given the engine torque and engine speed calculated elsewhere.
 rad   g 
ne  Te  Nm  bsfc 
 s   kWh   kWs   h 
pi/30
  lt  =
Q f     
[rpm] to [rad/s] s g  1000Nm   3600s 
ρf  
lt
 
2-D T(u)
1 Fuel
consumed
ne [rpm] 1
[lt/s]
1/3600/1000 1/fuel_den s 1
Fuel
2 Integrator consumed
[g/kWh] to [g/Ws] [g] to [lt]
Te [Nm] [lt]
bsfc Lookup
Table (n-D) Product
c) Draw a Simulink diagram to calculate the fuel consumption assuming that the fuel
rate and engine speed calculated elsewhere are available.
Qf [lt/s]
2
1 1/3.6
V [kph]
kph to m/s Product1
1 100000
lt/100 km
lt/m to lt/100km
VIII - 14
Exercises :
1) During a test ride the data presented below were obtained. Calculate the overall fuel
consumption of the vehicle in L/100 km. Can you guess on the type of vehicle?
Duration Travel Distance Fuel Consumed

Driving mode [s] [m]
Idling 40 - 2.00 [kg/h]
Acceleration to 50 kph 360 8650 2.73 [L]
Constant speed drive 314 8980 2.75 [L]
Deceleration to standstill 36 530 0.03 [L]
Ans.: 30.5 [L/100 km]
2) Consider the specific fuel consumption map for a 3.5 L passenger car spark ignition engine.
a) What is the highest brake thermal efficiency of the engine, in %, indicated on

the map?
b) Calculate the maximum torque this engine can develop. Estimate the engine
speed at maximum torque point.
c) During a test run on chassis dynamometer, operation of a FERWD passenger

car equipped with this engine, at a constant speed of 40 kph in second gear is simulated.
Calculate the engine power corresponding to minimum specific fuel consumption during the
test run. The tire radius is 293 mm and the gearbox and differential ratios are specified as 2.27
and 3.45, respectively.
Ans.: a) 30.2 [%], b) 334 [N], c) 70 [kW]
VIII - 15
3) Estimate the fuel consumption of the vehicle specified below at constant speeds of 90 and
120 kph in top gear,
a) On level road.
b) Up a 2 % gradient.
Vehicle Data
Mass : 920 kg
Load Distribution : 59/41 %
Wheelbase : 2335 mm
Engine Disp. Volume : 1.1 L
Gear Ratios : 3.45, 1.95, 1.25, 0.89
Tires : 165/65 SR 13
Tire Pressures (f/r) : 1.7/1.9 kgf/cm2
VIII - 16
4) For the vehicle specified below:
a) What is the overall fuel consumption, in L/100 km, for a cycle consisting of 3
minutes of idling and 5 minutes of 60 kph constant speed cruise in 3rd gear (acceleration and
deceleration periods are neglected), if the fuel consumption of the engine during idling is 0.72
L/h?
b) Estimate the fuel consumption, in L/100 km, at 90 kph in 4th gear.
Length/width/height : 3493/1524/1397 mm
Wheelbase : 2400 mm
Max. Engine Power : 45 hp at 5600 rpm
Gear Ratios : 3.83, 2.24, 1.46, 1.026
Tires : 135 SR 13
Tire Pressures (f/r) : 25/28 psi
Specific Fuel Consumption as a function of engine power and speed
Engine Engine Speed [rpm]

Power
[kW] 1000 1400 1800 2200 2600 3000 3400 3800 4200 4600
7 292 295 310 330 350 390 420 450 460 470
10 - 282 290 298 310 328 345 370 395 420
13 - - 270 280 293 300 312 330 340 360
16 - - - 260 275 290 296 308 320 330
19 - - - 262 265 278 286 295 302 315
22 - - - - 268 270 278 286 292 300
VIII - 17
5) It is suggested that to improve fuel consumption for long distance travels, reduction of the
differential ratio to 3.12 would be effective. Considering travel at 180 kph on level road in top
gear (on German highways!), check if this suggestion can be justified.
Vehicle Data:

Track (f/r) : 1380/1374 mm
Wheelbase : 2272 mm
Engine Capacity : 3164 cc
Gear Ratios : 3.500, 2.059, 1.407, 1.086, 0.868
Tyres (f,r) : 205/55 ZR 16, 225/50 ZR 16
10
8
300
Bmep [bar]
260 [g/kWh]
6
280
4
350
400
2 500
700
1000
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Engine Speed [rpm]
VIII - 18
6) For the truck specified below,
a) If the maximum brake thermal efficiency value corresponding to the maximum

efficiency point indicated on the specific fuel consumption map is given as 48 %,
determine the minimum specific fuel consumption value in [g/kWh].
b) Estimate the minimum fuel consumption in [L/100km] for the truck at a constant
speed of 90 km/h on level road.
For the rolling resistance of radial ply truck tires, you can use the relation
f r  0.006  2.3x107 V 2
where V is the truck speed in [kph]. Neglect slip.
Truck Data : Engine

2 Torque [g/kWh]
Total mass = 40 [ton] [kNm]
Max. engine power =340 [kW]
Drag coefficient = 0.6 195
Frontal area = 9 [m2] 190
Gear ratios, it10, it11, it12 =
1.70, 1.30, 1.00 1 200
Final drive ratio = 2.9
Tyre rolling radius = 0.5 [m]
Fuel density = 830 [g/L] 210 230
Fuel heating value = 35000 [kJ/L]
Ans.: 37.3 [L/100 km]

1000 Engine Speed [rpm] 2000
VIII - 19
7) Estimate the fuel consumption of the vehicle, in [L/100km], in first gear for
a) constant speed travel at 30 kph on level road,
b) constant speed travel at 30 kph up a 15 % gradient,
c) acceleration (constant) from 0 to 30 kph in 5 seconds on level road.

Wheelbase : 2511 mm
Gear Ratios : 3.909, 2.238, 1.444, 1.029, 0.767, 0.649
Idle fuel consumption : 0.79 L/h
Gear
Coefficients
I aiR
2 -13.03 0.0366
a1T [N/kph ]
a2T [N/kph] 379.1 0.177
a3T [N] 7138 124.8
197
200
g/kWh
180 200
160
210 220
Engine Torque [Nm]
140
120
250
100
230
80
60
280 400
40 320
500 600
20
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Engine Speed [rpm]
Take bsfc=1000 [g/kWh] for engine torques below 20 [Nm].
Ans. : a) 6.2 [L/100 km], b) 29.2 [L/100 km], c) 25.8 [L/100 km]
VIII - 20
Example VIII-4 :
Estimate the fuel consumption in [L/100km] of a vehicle for the driving cycle specified
below.
Drive cycle consisting of five stages :

V [kph]
40 1. Idling for 8 seconds,
2. Acceleration (constant) to 40 kph in

12 seconds in first gear (use at least
two divisions !),
8 20 34 44 53
t [s] 3. Constant speed travel for 14 seconds,
4. Deceleration to stand still in 10 seconds with the clutch disengaged.
5. Idling for 9 seconds.
Take any specific fuel consumption below the line of 500 g/kWh as 1000 g/kWh.
Vehicle Specifications
Mass : 1290 kg
Gear Ratios : 3.77, 2.09, 1.32, 0.91, 0.9, 0.76
The coefficients of the net tractive effort polynomial on level road and the specific fuel
consumption map of the engine are given below. The idling fuel consumption of the
engine is 0.5 kg/h.
Coefficients I II III IV V VI
a1 Tractive -6.887 -1.173 -0.296 -0.097 -0.094 -0.056
[N/kph2] Resistive 0.0314
Tractive 251.1 77.2 30.8 14.63 14.31 10.20
a2 [N/kph]
Resistive 0
Tractive 8432 4674 2952 2035 2013 1700
a3 [N]
Resistive 152
VIII - 26
18
Mean effective pressure [bar]

14
10
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 ne [rpm]
Solution :
1st stage :
 kg   L   h  4  L 
Idling consumption = 0.5       1.67x10  
 h   0.83kg   3600s  s
L
Consumption = 1.67x104   8 s   1.34x103  L 
s
2nd stage :
Let us divide the acceleration range into two parts. V [kph]

The average speeds in part 1 and part 2 will then be
40
10 and 30 kph, respectively. 30
Acceleration:
10
 km   h  1000m  8 14 20 t [s]
40    
h   3600s  km  m
a   0.926  
12 s   s2 
Calculate the total resistances at 10 and 30 kph, use

γ = 1.03 + 0.0016  3.77  2.96  = 1.23 meq = γm = 1.23 1290   1587[kg]
2
RT (10 kph) = a3R + a2R + a1R + Ri = 152 + 0 + 0.0314(10)2 + 1587(0.926) = 1625 [N]
RT (30 kph) = a3R + a2R + a1R + Ri = 152 + 0 + 0.0314(30)2 + 1587(0.926) = 1650 [N]
VIII - 27
RT V
Calculate engine power, Pe  , at 10 and 30 kph :
t
 km   h   1000m 
1625  N 10    
 h   3600s   km   5129 W
Pe 10 kph    
0.88
30  m 
1650  N 
3.6  s 
Pe  30 kph    15625  W 
0.88
Vi t1id
Calculate engine speed, n e  , at 10 and 30 kph :
rw
10  m 
 3.77  2.96 
3.6  s   rev   60s 
n e 10 kph       1042  rpm 
0.284  m   2rad   min 
30  m 
 3.77  2.96 
3.6  s   rev  60s 
n e  30 kph       3126  rpm 
0.284  m   2rad  min 
P
Calculate engine torque, Te  e , at 10 and 30 kph :
ne
 Nm 
5129 
Te 10 kph    s   47  Nm 
 rev   2 rad   min 
1042    
 min   rev   60s 
 Nm 
15625 
Te  30 kph    s   48  Nm 
 rev   2rad   min 
3126    
 min   rev   60s 
T
Calculate bmep, bmep  4000 e , at 10 and 30 kph :
VD
47
bmep 10 kph   4000  312  kPa   3.1 bar 
1896
48
bmep  30 kph   4000  318  kPa   3.2  bar 
1896
VIII - 28
Determine bsfc, from the specific fuel consumption map, at 10 and 20 kph :
bsfc (10 kph – 1042 rpm, 3.1 bar)  435 [g/kWh]

bsfc (30 kph – 3126 rpm, 3.2 bar)  420 [g/kWh]
18
Mean effective pressure [bar]
14
10
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 ne [rpm]
Vf bsfc R T
Calculate fuel consumption, = at 10 and 30 kph :
D ρf ηt
 
 g   kW   h 
435     1625  N 
 kWh   1000 Nm   3600s 
Vf  s  L
(10 kph)   2.7x104  
D g m
830   0.88
L
 
 g   kW  h 
420       1650  N 
 kWh   1000 Nm   3600s 
Vf  s  L
(30 kph)   2.6x104  
D g m
830   0.88
L
3rd stage :
Note that inertial resistance is zero at constant speed cruise.
RT (40 kph) = a3R + a2R + a1R + Ri = 152 + 0 + 0.0314(40)2 +0= 202.2 N
40  m 
202  N 
3.6  s 
Pe  40 kph    2551 W 
0.88
VIII - 29
40  m 
 3.77  2.96 
3.6  s   rev  60s 
n e  40 kph       4169  rpm 
0.284  m   2rad  min 
 Nm 
2551 
Te  40 kph    s   6  Nm 
 rev   2 rad   min 
4169    
 min   rev   60s 
6
bmep  40 kph   4000  40  kPa   0.4  bar 
1896
Take bsfc = 1000 [g/kWh]

 
 g   kW   h 
1000     202  N 
 kWh   1000 Nm   3600s 
 
Vf  s  L
(40 kph)   7.7x105  
D g m
830   0.88
L
4th Stage :
Since the clutch is disengaged, the use of idling fuel consumption - calculated in 1st
stage - is appropriate at this stage.
5th Stage :
Same as 1st stage again.
Now, let us summarize all the results in a table.
Speed Acceleration Duration Distance Consumption

Mode
[kph] [m/s2] [s] [m] [L]
1 Idling - - 8 0 1.34x10-3
2a Acceleration 10 0.926 6 17 4.48x10-3
2b Acceleration 30 0.926 6 50 13.2x10-3
3 Constant Speed 40 - 14 156 11.96x10-3
4 Deceleration 40-0 -1.111 10 56 1.67x10-3
5 Idling - - 9 0 1.51x10-3
TOTAL 279 3.4x10-2
Vf 0.034  L  L 
Thus the overall fuel consumption is :  100   12.2  
D cycle 0.279  km   100 km 
VIII - 30
Exercises :
1) Estimate the fuel consumption of the vehicle, in [L/100km], for the driving cycle specified
below. The idling fuel consumption of the engine is 0.55 kg/h. Take any specific fuel
consumption below the line of 360 g/kWh as 500 g/kWh.
V [kph] Drive cycle consists of seven stages:

70
1. Idling for 6 seconds,
40 2. Acceleration (constant) to 40 kph in 7

seconds in first gear (you may use only one
division!),
t [s]
0 3. Gear shift, clutch disengaged for 2
6 13 15 23 43 52 62
0 seconds (neglect velocity change!),
4. Acceleration (constant) to 70 kph in 8 seconds (you may use only one division!),
5. Constant speed travel at 70 kph in second gear up a gradient of 7 % for 20 seconds,
6. Deceleration with clutch engaged (foot off the clutch pedal !) for 9 seconds,
7. Braking to stand still in 10 seconds with the clutch disengaged.
Vehicle Specifications
Mass : 1530 kg
Gear Ratios : 3.73, 2.14, 1.41, 1.12, 0.89
Coefficients of the net tractive effort polynomial on level road: Note that the rolling
resistance model used in the calculations is given by :
f r  a  bV
and the wind speed is assumed to be negligible.
Performance coefficients and specific fuel consumption map are given in the following
table and figure, respectively.
VIII - 31
Coefficients I II III IV V
Tractive -2.240 -0.423 -0.121 -0.061 0.060
a1 [N/kph2]
Resistive 0.0292
Tractive 130.0 42.8 18.6 11.73 7.20
a2 [N/kph]
Resistive 0.225
Tractive 5706 3274 2157 1714 1362
a3 [N]
Resistive 173
Bmep
[bar]
ne [rpm]
Ans. : 18.8 [L/100 km] (Total distance travelled : 765 [m], Fuel consumed : 0.13 [L])
VIII - 32
2) The fuel consumption in [L/100 km] for a city bus on the driving cycle below, on level
road, is to be estimated.
A coast down test, in which the vehicle is allowed to decelerate from 15 m/s down to zero
speed with the gearbox in neutral or with the clutch disengaged, has been performed with the
bus and the result is shown below. The mass of the bus is 15 000 kg, and the combined (from
fuel energy content to traction power on the drive shafts) engine & transmission efficiency
can be assumed to be constant at 30%,. The fuel has a lower heating value of 40 MJ/kg.
Hints:
- Discuss and decide if air resistance is negligible or not – see result of coast down test.
- Determine the rolling resistance. Can it assumed to be constant?
- Neglect fuel consumption during decelerations, i.e. braking, due to fuel cut off.
A detailed specific fuel consumption map for the engine may not be available in
some cases. An approximate analysis can still be carried out, however, using the available
brake specific fuel consumption characteristics of a similar engine with scaled parameters3.
The brake specific consumption, bsfc, of the new engine at a given operating condition will be
a function of the scaled brake mean effective pressure, bmeps, and engine speed, ns.
bsfc  f  bmeps , n s 
3
Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles, 4th Edition, Edited by W-H. Hucho, SAE International, London, 1998.
VIII - 33
Let us assume that the short specifications of the reference and the new engines

are specified in terms of P1r , n1r  and  P1, n1  . Then the corresponding scaled brake mean
effective pressure and engine speed values to determine the brake specific fuel consumption
value using the reference engine map are obtained as :
 Pr 
bmeps   1  bmep
 P1 
 
 nr 
ns   1  n e
 n1 
 
To scale the idling fuel consumption, the displacement volumes, VDf and VD of
the reference and new engines are used. The fuel mass flow rate of the new engine, mf , is
obtained from that of the reference engine, mfr , by the relation :
V 
mf   D  mfr
 Vr 
 D
VIII - 34
Example VIII-1
Estimate the specific fuel consumption of an engine with a maximum power of 110
[kW] at 5800 [rpm] at the operating point
bmep = 5 [bar], and

ne = 2000 [rpm]
bmep [bar]
using the specific fuel
consumption map of an engine
with a maximum power of 136
[g/kW.h]
[kW] at 6200 [rpm], given in the
figure.
Ne [rpm]
Solution :
First calculate the scaled values of the brake mean effective pressure and the engine
speed.
 Pr   136 
bmeps =  1  bmep =   5 = 6.2[bar]
 P1   110 
 
 nr   6200 
ns =  1  ne =   2000 = 2138[rpm]
 n1   5800 
 
Using the scaled parameters, the specific fuel consumption of the engine can be
estimated to be 260 [g/kW.h] from the specific fuel consumption map of the reference
engine. Note that without scaling, the specific fuel consumption would be read as 280
[g/kW.h].
bmep [bar]
[g/kW.h]
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VIII - 35

ExamplesExercises ME466 PerformanceOfRoadVehicles

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ExamplesExercises ME466 PerformanceOfRoadVehicles

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Performance of Road Vehicles Y.

Pmax = 44 [kW] at 5600 [rpm]

The resulting approximate polynomial expressions have been plotted together

10 Correct Torque Peak

(a) Engine power curves

Correct Torque Peak

(b) Engine torque curves

% 3rd order polynomial fit to engine power

Prepare a Simulink diagram using an 2D lookup table for the determination of

a) A Simulink diagram is shown below.

From Simulink Library Browser :

Throttle Load Data

Ans.: a) 9549, b) 5254, c) 7026

3) The short specifications for an IC engine are given as below.

Ans.: 157 kW, 333 Nm

4) Various different polynomial approximations to engine performance characteristics have

6) a) Show that applying the relevant conditions on a fourth order polynomial

Engine speed [rpm]

Ans. : 104.9 [Nm]

Vehicle mass (test) : 1335 kg

The results of the calculations are summarized below.

Maximum Torque Point Maximum Power Point

b) Rigid box body truck

a) vehicle speed at maximum allowable engine speed, and

b) the upper limit for maximum vehicle acceleration.

4) For the vehicle specified as below, calculate

a) the rotational speed of the

for a vehicle speed of 75 kph .

b) tractive effort corresponding to an engine torque of 180 Nm in 2nd gear.

Ans.: a) 8.3-16.7, 11.5-23, 15.5-30.9, 20.5-41.1, 28.6-57.2, 39.4-78.8, 53.2-106.4, 70-140

Maximum power = 190 kW at 7000 rpm,

Would you keep silent or object to his statement? Explain by calculation.

The specifications for a medium size sports car are as follows:

Tires : 190/65 HR-390 SBR

Compute the coefficient of rolling resistance at a vehicle speed of 70 [mph]. Road

Using the conversion factors :

1 [lbf] = 0.4536 [kgf] = 4.448 [N]

For stone paved road :

Rr = 1.5 Rr' = 1.5 (146) = 219 [N]

Tire 1 : 175/70 R 14, rw=0.292, Fr = a + bV + cV2 with a = 0.0119, b = 0, c = 2.1x10-6.

Tire 2 : 175 SR 15, rw=0.291, Fr = a + bV + cV2 + dV3 with a = 0.01179, b = 0,

Calculate the resistances to motion of the vehicle specified below, considering

Vehicle mass (laden) : 1580 kg

Vehicle Speed [kph]

Prepare Simulink diagrams to obtain the variation of the

for a specified variation of vehicle speed with time.

Total mass: 1285 [kg]

Jw = 4(25)(0.26)2 = 6.76 [kgm2]

Jp = 12(0.05)2 = 0.03 [kgm2]

Je = 50(0.075)2 = 0.28 [kgm2]

Ist gear : JT = Jw + Jp id2 + Je i2 id2

m eff = m  1 = 1285 (1.8) = 2313 [kg]

Similar calculations result in:

Gear JT (kgm2)  meff [kg]

I 80.5 1.80 2313

a) the power at the driving wheels, and

Ans. : a) 22.5 [kW], b) 25.6 [kW]

Ans.: 25.1 [kW]

5) In trucks with two rear axles, it

Assume that when the lift axle is 4050 1350

Ans.: a) 588 [N], 573 [N]; b) 375 [W]

1250 226 1726 240