Ch-5 Data Structure

Q.1 what is data structure in python?

A.1 Data Structures allows you to organize your data in such a way that enables you to store collections of data,
relate them and perform operations on them accordingly. 

Types of Data Structures in Python:

Python has implicit support for Data Structures which enable you to store and access data. These structures are
called List, Dictionary, Tuple and Set.

Python allows its users to create their own Data Structures enabling them to have full control over
their functionality. The most prominent Data Structures are Stack, Queue, Tree, and Linked List and so on which
are also available in other programming languages..

Q.2 what are the different categories of data structure in python? Give some examples.

A.2 Lists: Lists in Python are one of the most versatile collection object types available. The other two types are
dictionaries and tuples, but they are really more like variations of lists.

Python lists do the work of most of the collection data structures found in other languages and since they are
built-in, you don’t have to worry about manually creating them.

Lists can be used for any type of object, from numbers and strings to more lists.

They are accessed just like strings (e.g. slicing and concatenation) so they are simple to use and they’re variable
length, i.e. they grow and shrink automatically as they’re used.

In reality, Python lists are C arrays inside the Python interpreter and act just like an array of pointers.

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist)

Dictionary: In python, dictionary is similar to hash or maps in other languages. It consists of key value pairs. The
value can be accessed by unique key in the dictionary. 

Keys are unique & immutable objects.

Syntax: 

dictionary = {"key name": value}

d1={1:”heera”}

Tuple: Python tuples work exactly like Python lists except they are immutable, i.e. they can’t be 
changed in place. They are normally written inside parentheses to distinguish them from lists (which use square
brackets), but as you’ll see, parentheses aren’t always necessary. Since tuples are immutable, their length is
fixed. To grow or shrink a tuple, a new tuple must be created.

Sets: Unordered collection of unique objects. 

Set operations such as union (|), intersection (&), difference (-) can be applied on a set.

Frozen Sets are immutable i.e. once created further data can’t be added to them

{} are used to represent a set. Objects placed inside these brackets would be treated as a set.

Q.3 explain the term top with reference to stack.

A.3 a stack is an abstract data type that serves as a collection of elements, with two main operations:

Push, which adds an element to the collection, and

Pop, which removes the most recently added element that was not yet removed.

In stack the push and pop operations occur only at one end of the structure, referred to as the top of the stack.
This data structure makes it possible to implement a stack as a singly linked list and as a pointer to the top
element. 

top() / peek() – Returns a reference to the topmost element of the stack – Time Complexity: O(1)

Q.4 write and explain the various operations that can be performed on stack.
A.4 1. push ()

Push is a function in stack definition which is used to insert data at the stack's top.

POP  Operation:

Pop operation refers to the removal of an element. Again, since we only have access to the element at the top
of the stack, there’s only one element that we can remove. We just remove the top of the stack.  Note: We can
also choose to return the value of the popped element back, its completely at the choice of the programmer to
implement this.

PEEK  Operation

Peek operation allows the user to see the element on the top of the stack. The stack is not modified in any
manner in this operation.

isEmpty: Check if stack is empty or not

To prevent performing operations on an empty stack, the programmer is required to internally maintain the size
of the stack which will be updated during push and pop operations accordingly. isEmpty() conventionally returns
a boolean value: True if size is 0, else False.

Q.5 what are the applications of the stack data structure in real life?

Applications of Stack in Real Life

Stack is used very often in real life, even normal people use applications of Stack in their daily life routines. Here is
some example of the stack in real-life. Below are the 10 Applications of Stack in Real Life.

Women Bangles: Women wear a bangle one by one and to pull the first one they have to first pull out the last one.

Books and Clothes: Piled on top of each other is a great example of the stack.

Floors in a Building: A person is living on a top floor and wants to go outside, he/she first need to land on the
ground floor.

Browsers: Web browsers use the stack to keep track of the history of web sites if you click back then the previous
site opens immediately.

Mobile Phone: Call log in mobiles uses the stack, to get a first-person call log you have to scroll.

Companies: When a company want to reduce its workforce. Typically they follow “last hired, first fired”

Garage: If a garage is not wide enough. To remove the first car we have to take out all the other cars in after it.

Tubewell Boring Machine: Tubewell boring machine use stack to pull or push same as stack

Text Editors: Undo or Redo mechanism in the Text Editors (Excel, Notepad or WordPad etc.)

The CD/DVD stand.

Q.6 Fill in the blanks with the term used in stack:

A stack is a LIFO data structure. It has three primitive operations:

A ______________: Add an element to the stack.

B _______________: Remove an element from the stack.

C_______________: Get the topmost element of the stack

A.6 (A) PUSH ()

(B) POP ()

(C) PEEK ()

Q.7 explain underflow, overflow, and empty conditions with a suitable python example.

A.7 The underflow condition checks if there exists any item before popping from the stack. An empty one cannot
be popped further.

if (top == -1) {

// underflow condition

The overflow condition checks if the stack is full (or more memory is available) before pushing any element. This
prevents any error if more space cannot be allocated for the next item.

if (top == sizeOfStack) {

// overflow condition

empty() An error condition that occurs when an item is called for from the stack, but the stack is empty.

We can check empty stack by using isempty() function.

Q.8 write a python program to implement the stack as a list and do the following:

A add the names of your family members in a stack from youngest to eldest.

B display all the names stored in list.

A.8 stack=[]

stack.append("aman")

stack.append("chaman")

stack.append("gaman")
print(stack)

Ch-6 Computer network I

Q.1 what is computer network?

A.1 Computer networking refers to interconnected computing devices that can exchange data and share resources
with each other. These networked devices use a system of rules, called communications protocols, to transmit
information over physical or wireless technologies.

Nodes and links are the basic building blocks in computer networking. A network node may be data
communication equipment (DCE) such as a modem, hub or, switch, or data terminal equipment (DTE) such as two
or more computers and printers. A link refers to the transmission media connecting two nodes. Links may be
physical, like cable wires or optical fibers, or free space used by wireless networks.

In a working computer network, nodes follow a set of rules or protocols that define how to send and receive
electronic data via the links. The computer network architecture defines the design of these physical and logical
components. It provides the specifications for the network’s physical components, functional organization,
protocols, and procedures.

Q.2 what is internet?

A.2 The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other electronic devices. With the Internet, it's
possible to access almost any information, communicate with anyone else in the world, and do much more. You
can do all of this by connecting a computer to the Internet, which is also called going online. When someone says a
computer is online, it's just another way of saying it's connected to the Internet.

Q.3 what is node?

A.3 a network node is a connection point in a communications network. Each node is an endpoint for data
transmissions or redistribution. Nodes have either a programmed or engineered capability to recognize, process
and forward transmissions to other network nodes. The concept of network nodes came into being with the use of
distributed networks and packet switching. Depending on the application, network nodes perform a variety of
functions.

A network node sits at a point in the network where it sends, receives, stores or creates information. It transmits
data to communicate with other nodes in the network. In a computer network, nodes can be physical networked
devices, such as modems, PCs and printers. These devices recognize transmissions from other nodes and forward
them to other nodes. A node checks for identification, such as an IP address, to grant access to the node, Nodes
connect over a link or communication channel. In a computer network these may be cable, fiber optic or wireless
connections.

Q.4 what is NSFNet?

A.4 The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNet) is a wide area network that was developed by the National
Science Foundation to replace ARPANET as the main network linking government and research facilities. NSFNet
was a major force in the development of computing infrastructure and enhanced network services. By making
high-speed networking available to national computer centers and inter-linked regional networks, NSFNet created
a network of networks, which laid the foundation for today's Internet.

NSFNet was dismantled in 1995 and replaced with a commercial Internet backbone.

Q.5 what is TCP/IP?

A.5 TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is a suite of communication protocols
used to interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP/IP is also used as a communications protocol in a
private computer network (an intranet or extranet).The entire IP suite -- a set of rules and procedures -- is
commonly referred to as TCP/IP. TCP and IP are the two main protocols, though others are included in the
suite. The TCP/IP protocol suite functions as an abstraction layer between internet applications and the routing
and switching fabric.

The two main protocols in the IP suite serve specific functions. TCP defines how applications can create channels of
communication across a network. It also manages how a message is assembled into smaller packets before they
are then transmitted over the internet and reassembled in the right order at the destination address.IP defines
how to address and route each packet to make sure it reaches the right destination. Each gateway computer on
the network checks this IP address to determine where to forward the message.

Q.6 what is data communication?

A.6 Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more computers and a
computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. The
physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either cable media or wireless
media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.
Q.7 list the types of data communication?

A.7 broadly data communication is as follows:

Simplex: In simplex transmission mode, the communication between sender and receiver occurs in only one
direction. The sender can only send the data, and the receiver can only receive the data. The receiver cannot reply
to the sender.

Half Duplex:

A half-duplex data communication system provides messages in both directions but only allows transfer in one
direction at a time. Once a party begins sending a transmission, the receiver must wait until the signal stops before
responding. If the two data transfers attempt to send at the same time, they both fail. For instance, if you talk on a
CB radio, you press a button and speak. If the receiver attempts to press the button and speak at the same time,
neither one of you hear either message. The system is not capable of sending both ways simultaneously.

Full Duplex:

A full duplex is a communication that works both ways at the same time. Essentially, full duplex data
communication is a set of two simplex channels, one works as a forward channel and the other as a reserve
channel. The two channels link together at some point. An example of a full duplex communication system is a
landline telephone. When talking on a telephone, both parties have the ability to speak at the same time. The data,
carried both ways through the telephone line, runs simultaneously.

Q.8 what is data transfer rate? List different measurement units of data transfer rate.

A.8 Data Transfer Rate (DTR) can be defined as the ratio of the total amount of digital data transferred between
two points in some defined period of time. Where the two points can be two network components say two
computers or data can be transferred between a thumb drive and a hard drive. Data transfer rate is actually a
measure of the speed at which network components can exchange data(send or receive). It is measured in
either bits per second or bytes per second. For practical purposes, it is measured in Megabits per second or
Megabytes per second. But you have usually seen KBps (Kilobyte per second) while uploading or downloading
something. Japan has shown the highest data transfer rate of 14 terabits per second using only a single optical
fiber cable.
Data Transfer Rate(DTR) = Total amount of Digital data transmitted/Total time taken

Question 1: What is the data transfer rate if 50 Megabyte is transferred in 4 minutes?

Solution:

Step 1:  Convert the time into seconds

4 minutes = 4 × 60 seconds

= 240 seconds

Step 2:  Calculate data transfer rate using formula 

Data Transfer Rate = Total amount of Digital data transmitted/Total time taken

D = A/T 

= 50/240

= 0.208 Megabyte per second

Here the data transfer rate is in Megabyte per second so convert it to Megabit per second

Step 3:  Converting MBps tp Mbps

0.208×8 = 1.664 Megabits per second

We multiplied by 8 as there are 8 bits in one byte.

Question 2: How much data will be transferred in 1 hour at a rate of 100 bits per second?

Solution:

Step 1:  Convert the time into seconds

1 hour = 60 minutes = 60×60 seconds

= 3600 seconds

Step 2:  Using formula   D = A/T 

Amount of data = Data transfer rate × time

= 100 × 3600

= 360000 bits 

Step 3:  Convert it to bytes

= 360000/8

= 45000 bytes

You can also convert it kilobytes by dividing it by 1024.

Question 3: How much time will be taken to transfer 50 GB data at a rate of 4 MBps ? 

Solution:

Step 1:  Convert 50 GB data to MB as data transfer rate is in MBps

50 GB = 50   × 1024 MB

= 51200 MB

Step 2:  Using formula   D = A/T 

time = 51200/4

= 12800 seconds

Step 3:  Converting it to hours 

12800 seconds = 12800/3600 hours

= 3.55 hours

Question 4: What is the data transfer rate in KBps if 100 Megabyte is transferred in 2 minutes?

Solution:

Step 1:  Convert the time into seconds

2 minutes = 2 × 60 seconds

= 120 seconds

Step 2:  Calculate data transfer rate using formula

Data Transfer Rate = Total amount of Digital data transmitted/Total time taken

D = A/T

= 100/120

= 0.83 Megabyte per second

Here the data transfer rate is in Megabyte per second so convert it Kilobyte per second

Step 3:  Converting MBps to KBps

0.83 × 1024 = 849.92 KBps

Question 5: How much time will be taken in minutes to transfer 25 GB data at a rate of 10 MBps ?  

Solution:

Step 1:  Convert 25 GB data to MB as data transfer rate is in MBps

25 GB = 25   × 1024 MB

= 25600 MB

Step 2:  Using formula   D = A/T

time = 25600/10

= 2560 seconds

Step 3:  Converting it to minutes

2560 seconds = 2560/60 minutes

= 42.66 minutes

Q.9 explain channel, Baud.

A.9 Channel: A channel is a passageway, a means of access for a thing, a communication, or an idea. Think of a
channel as sort of a tunnel or a funnel that moves something directly through. 

The term channel is used in a number of ways. 1) In telecommunications in general, a channel is a separate path
through which signals can flow. 2) In the public switched telephone network (PSTN), a channel is one of multiple
transmission paths within a single link between network points.

Baud: the baud rate is the rate at which information is transferred in a communication channel. Baud rate is
commonly used when discussing electronics that use serial communication. In the serial port context, "9600 baud"
means that the serial port is capable of transferring a maximum of 9600 bits per second.

At baud rates above 76,800, the cable length will need to be reduced. The higher the baud rate, the more sensitive
the cable becomes to the quality of installation, due to how much of the wire is untwisted around each device.

Q.10 full form of NSFNet, TCP, IP, STP, UTP, Hz, bps.

A.10 NSFNet: National science foundation network.

TCP: transfer control protocol

IP: internet protocol

STP: straight through processing

UTP: unshielded twisted pair

Hz: hertz

Bps: bits per second

Q.11 name all the components of data communication.

A.11 Data communication is nothing but the exchange of data between any two devices via transmission media.

Components

There are five main components of data communication and they are explained below −
Message

This is the most valuable asset of a system for data communication. The message actually refers to data that is to
be shared or a piece of information. A message is in any form, like a text file, an audio file, a video file, and so on.

Sender

Someone who can play the role of a source must be there to pass messages from source to destination. The sender
plays a part of the data communication device root. A device that sends data messages is easy. The node can be a
computer, mobile device, telephone, laptop, video camera, workstation, etc.

Receiver

It is the destination where messages sent by the source have finally arrived. It is a message-receiving system. The
receiver is in the form of a computer, cell phone, workstation, etc., identical to the sender.

Transmission Medium

There must be something in the entire data communication process that could act as a bridge between sender and
receiver. The transmission is the physical path from the sender to the recipient where the information or message
passes.

The examples of transmission medium are twisted pair cable, fibre optic cable, radio waves, microwaves, etc. The
transmission medium could be guided (with wires) or unguided (without wires).

Protocol

Different sets of rules have already been designed by the designers of communication systems to control data
communication, reflecting a sort of agreement between communicating devices. These are characterized as
protocols.

The protocol is also called as a set of rules regulating data communication. If two separate devices are connected,
but there is no protocol between them, there will be no contact between the two devices of any sort.

Q.12 what is interspace?

A12. Interspace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate online with real-
time audio video and text chat I dynamic 3D environments. Provide most advanced form of communication. It is an
application environment for interconnecting spaces to manipulate information.

The Interspace is a vision of what the Internet will become, where users cross-correlate information in multiple
sources. It is an applications environment for interconnecting spaces to manipulate information, much as the
Internet is a protocol environment for interconnecting networks to transmit data.

Q.13 what is transmission media. Differentiate guided and unguided media.

A.13

Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to the receiver. Data
is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.

The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form of bits through LAN(Local
Area Network).

It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.

In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.

In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.

In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered
to be as a Layer 1 component.

The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere, water, and vacuum.

The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the characteristics of medium and signal.

Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired media, medium characteristics
are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics are more important.

Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation and
maintenance.

The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model, i.e., Physical layer.

Q.14 what are types of twisted pair cables?

A.14

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the categories of the unshielded
twisted pair cable:

Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.

Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.

Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.

Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance communication.

Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Shielded Twisted Pair: A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that
allows the higher transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.

An installation of STP is easy.

It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.

It has a higher attenuation.

It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Q.15 write a short note on ARPANET.

A.15 Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, ARPANET or ARPAnet began development in 1966 by the
United States ARPA. ARPANET was a Wide Area Network linking many Universities and research centers, was first
to use packet switching, and was the beginning of what we consider the Internet today. ARPANET was created to
make it easier for people to access computers, improve computer equipment, and to have a more effective
communication method for the military.
ARPANET started when the first two nodes were established between UCLA and SRI (Stanford Research Institute)
in 1969 followed shortly after that by UCSB and the University of Utah. The picture below is an example of what
ARPANET looked like in March 1977.

Q.16 explain the working of internet.

A.16 The internet is a worldwide computer network that transmits a variety of data and media across
interconnected devices. It works by using a packet routing network that follows Internet Protocol (IP) and
Transport Control Protocol (TCP) .TCP and IP work together to ensure that data transmission across the internet is
consistent and reliable, no matter which device you’re using or where you’re using it.

When data is transferred over the internet, it’s delivered in messages and packets. Data sent over the internet is
called a message, but before messages get sent, they’re broken up into tinier parts called packets.
These messages and packets travel from one source to the next using Internet Protocol (IP) and Transport Control
Protocol (TCP). IP is a system of rules that govern how information is sent from one computer to another computer
over an internet connection.
Using a numerical address (IP Address) the IP system receives further instructions on how the data should be
transferred.
The Transport Control Protocol (TCP) works with IP to ensure transfer of data is dependable and reliable. This helps
to make sure that no packets are lost, packets are reassembled in proper sequence, and there’s no delay
negatively affecting the data quality.

Q.17 describe the role of IP address.

A.17 IP address stands for “Internet Protocol address.” The Internet Protocol is a set of rules for communication
over the internet, such as sending mail, streaming video, or connecting to a website. An IP address identifies a
network or device on the internet.
The internet protocols manage the process of assigning each unique device its own IP address. (Internet protocols
do other things as well, such as routing internet traffic.) This way, it’s easy to see which devices on the internet are
sending, requesting, and receiving what information.
IP addresses are like telephone numbers, and they serve the same purpose. When you contact someone, your
phone number identifies who you are, and it assures the person who answers the phone that you are who you say
you are. IP addresses do the exact same thing when you’re online — that’s why every single device that is
connected to the internet has an IP address.
There are two types of IP addresses: IPv4 and IPv6. It’s easy to recognize the difference if you count the numbers.
IPv4 addresses contain a series of four numbers, ranging from 0 (except the first one) to 255, each separated from
the next by a period — such as 5.62.42.77.
IPv6 addresses are represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, with the groups separated by colons. A
typical IPv6 address might look like this: 2620:0aba2:0d01:2042:0100:8c4d:d370:72b4.

Q.18 what are the different types of switching techniques.

A.18

Circuit Switching:

o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and receiver.

o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path will remain
to exist until the connection is terminated.
 o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.

o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.

o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a request signal
is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the
dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.

o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.

o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

o Circuit establishment

o Data transfer

o Circuit Disconnect

Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Message Switching:

o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete unit and
routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.

o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between the sender and
receiver.

o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a dynamic routing as
the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the information available in the message.

o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most efficient routes.

o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This type of network
is known as store and forward network.
 o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Packet Switching:

o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it is divided into
smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.

o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique number to
identify their order at the receiving end.

o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination address and
sequence number.

o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.

o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.

o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be sent.

Q.19 explain the advantage of optical fiber cable over twisted pair cable.
A.19 1. Greater Bandwidth

Copper cables were originally designed for voice transmission and have a limited bandwidth. Fiber optic cables
provide more bandwidth for carrying more data than copper cables of the same diameter. Within the fiber cable
family, single mode fiber delivers up to twice the throughput of multimode fiber.
2. Faster Speeds

Fiber optic cables have a core that carries light to transmit data. This allows fiber optic cables to carry signals at
speeds that are only about 31 percent slower than the speed of light—faster than Cat5 or Cat6 copper cables.
There is also less signal degradation with fiber cables.

3. Longer Distances

Fiber optic cables can carry signals much farther than the typical 328-foot limitation for copper cables. For
example, some 10 Gbps single mode fiber cables can carry signals almost 25 miles. The actual distance depends on
the type of cable, the wavelength and the network.

4. Better Reliability

Fiber is immune to temperature changes, severe weather and moisture, all of which can hamper the connectivity
of copper cable. Plus, fiber does not carry electric current, so it’s not bothered by electromagnetic interference
(EMI) that can interrupt data transmission. It also does not present a fire hazard like old or worn copper cables can.

5. Thinner and Sturdier

Compared to copper cables, fiber optic cables are thinner and lighter in weight. Fiber can withstand more pull
pressure than copper and is less prone to damage and breakage.

6. More Flexibility for the Future

Media converters make it possible to incorporate fiber into existing networks. The converters extend UTP Ethernet
connections over fiber optic cable. Modular patch panel solutions integrate equipment with 10 Gb, 40 Gb and
100/120 Gb speeds to meet current needs and provide flexibility for future needs. The panels in these solutions
accommodate a variety of cassettes for different types of fiber patch cables.

7. Lower Total Cost of Ownership

Although some fiber optic cables may have a higher initial cost than copper, the durability and reliability of fiber
can make the total cost of ownership (TCO) lower. And, costs continue to decrease for fiber optic cables and
related components as technology advances.

Q.20 explain the purpose and advantage of coaxial cable.

A.20 A coaxial cable is an electrical cable with a copper conductor and an insulator shielding around it and a
braided metal mesh that prevents signal interference and cross talk. Coaxial cable is also known as coax.
The core copper conductor is used for the transmission of signals and the insulator is used to provide insulation to
the copper conductor and the insulator is surrounded by a braided metal conductor which helps to prevent the
interference of electrical signals and prevent cross talk. This entire setup is again covered with a protective plastic
layer to provide extra safety to the cable.
Structure of Coaxial Cable

Advantages
1. Coaxial cables support high bandwidth.
2. It is easy to install coaxial cables.
3. Coaxial cables have better cut-through resistance so they are more reliable and durable.
4. Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
5. Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Q.21 what are the advantages of radio waves over infrared waves?

A.21 Infrared Light

Infrared light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and is an electromagnetic form of radiation. It comes
from heat or thermal radiation, and it is not visible to the naked eye. More radiation is produced as temperature
increases. Ice emits infrared light. Charcoals when hot, will not glow, or emit visible light; however, you will feel
the infrared heat that it generates. There are three types of infrared light, near, mid and far. Near infrared light
is microscopic. Asteroids radiate most of their infrared light in the mid infrared spectrum. According to NASA,
far infrared light is thermal. Humans can feel this type of radiation, from sunlight, fire, a radiator or warm sand.
Although humans cannot see infrared light, a rattlesnake can detect infrared light.

Radio Waves

According to NASA, radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum; they emit low
frequency and low energy light. Although invisible, radio waves are used daily, this includes shortwave radio,
aircraft and shipping bands, AM radio, TV and FM radio. The various sources of radio waves are stars, gases or a
radio station.

The Difference between Radio Waves and Infrared Light

According to NASA, radio waves have a longer wavelength than infrared light, in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Radio waves are able to reach the earth’s surface, unlike most infrared light. Majority of what is contained in
the universe, including people, emit infrared light. Stars, the sun, black holes and neutron stars create magnetic
fields, which creates radio waves. According to Harvard University, radio waves and infrared light are
fundamentally different in wavelengths, frequency and energies of light. Radio waves are used for many things
each day, this includes communication, cell phone use, internet, cable television and security alarm systems.
Infrared light only functions through line of sight, whereas radio waves can effectively be used from a long
distance. A remote control uses infrared light to change the channel on your TV, while radio waves are used to
receive TV shows. If you want to communicate through the use of infrared technology, you will not be
regulated; however, if you want to operate a radio station, you must obtain a Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) license. According to the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), devices used to
detect infrared light and radio waves are designed differently because the wavelengths differ significantly.

Ch-7 Computer network II

Q.1 what does TCP/IP stands for?

A.1 TCP stands for transfer control