Temperature measurement

Dr. Ahmed Elkholy

April 2021

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Introduction

Measurement of temperature is generally considered to be one of the simplest and

most accurate measurements performed in engineering.

Some important considerations when measuring temperature are:

1. The contact between the sensor and the substance being measured should be
satisfactory

2. The sensor should be small enough not to disturb the temperature conditions or cause
too much thermal lag during transient testing.

3. There should be no chemical reactions between the sensor and the substance which will
cause heat to be produced or absorbed.

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Temperature scales

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Considerations of Temperature Measurements

Thermal characteristics of temperature sensors

Temperature sensors pose thermal characteristic which largely depend upon their size and
shape and the materials from which they are made.

Disturbance of the medium

The introduction of temperature sensors into body tends to modify (change) the temperature
conditions at that point. Also, the body will be modified by any holes drilled in it to insert the
probe, etc. The measured value will therefore be the modified value and not the true value.

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Considerations of Temperature Measurements

Error due to signal transmission

In most cases, the sensor is connected to a recording instrument by means of an intermediate
system. The intermediate system and the recorder may be subjected to temperature or other
changes and so compensating device are usually to reduce or eliminate errors.

Ways of energy transfer

Heat is transferred from place to place by conduction, convection and radiation. It is necessary to
take these into account when choosing a temperature measuring method.

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Classification of Temperature Measuring Devices

1. Non-electrical methods
• Expansion thermometers:

2. Electrical methods
• Thermocouples.

• Resistance temperature thermometer.

3. Radiation and optical (not included)

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Non-Electrical Temperature Measuring Devices

Expansion thermometers
Most solids and liquids expand when they are subjected to an increase in
temperature. The direct observation is an increase in their size. This is
used to indicate temperature in many thermometers.

Expansion of solids
• Rod thermostat.
• Bimetallic thermometers.

Solid rod and bimetallic thermometer are designed using the

principle that some metals expand more than others when they are
subjected to the same rise in temperature

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Rod Thermostat

The change (DL) of the original length of a solid due to a change (DT) of temperature is
given by:
DL  L    DT
The displacement of rod A is (x) which is given by:

x   A   B   DT

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Bimetallic Thermometer

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 Bimetallic Thermometer
dT

L B r  d L 0 1     B  1     B  r 1     A 
   
LA r L 0 1     A  1     A  d    B   A 

If Invar* is used for strip A, then αA is virtually zero

d
r
  B
It is seen that for thinner strips, r is
smaller, i.e. more bending occurs.

Invar, also known as FeNi36 (64FeNi in

the US), is a nickel–iron alloy notable for
its uniquely low coefficient of thermal
expansion (α).
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Bimetallic Thermometer

The longer the bimetal, the greater the bend and thus the sensitivity for temperature
measurement. For this reason, a long bimetal strip is often wrapped into a coil.

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Bimetallic Thermometer
To increase the sensitivity, bimetal are coiled in helical form.

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Bimetallic Thermometer
The following are essential characteristics of the bimetal strip thermometer:
• Inexpensive: often used instead of liquid in glass thermometers.

• Compact: the volume of metal used in the protective sheath is small and thus of low thermal capacity. This of
course improved its response.

• Robust: good resistance to mechanical shock due freely floating spindle.

• Close linearity: throughout the temperature range.

• Range of application:

low temperature -30˚C to 200˚C

high temperature 0˚C to 550˚C

• Accuracy:

low temperature 1% of scale range

high temperature 2% of scale range

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Liquid in Glass Thermometer

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Liquid in Glass Thermometer

The increase in temperature causes the liquid and the container to expand.

The change (DV1) of the volume (V1) of a liquid due to change (DT)
of its temperature is given by

DV1  V1  1  DT
The container will also have a volume changes (DVc), and its
temperature changes is the same (DT), then

DVc  Vc  c  DT

But V1 = Vc. Hence the apparent volume changes (DV)

DV  DV1  DVc   1  c Vc  DT

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Liquid in Glass Thermometer

The advantages of liquid in glass thermometers are:

• Inexpensive
• Simple in design
• Portable
• No additional indication instruments are required

The disadvantages of liquid in glass thermometers are:

• Fragile and can be easily braked.
• Not suitable for distant readings
• Not suitable for surface temperature measurements
• Not suitable for dynamic measurements because it possesses high heat
capacity

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Thermometric liquids

The liquids used in such thermometers must have certain properties in order
to be suitable for use.
1. The liquid must not freeze at low temperatures, which is why water, for example,
is not suitable.
2. The liquids should also have a sufficiently high boiling point so that they do not
vaporize at high temperatures.
3. The liquid must expand evenly with the temperature in the measuring range
used. Otherwise, an uneven division of the scale on the thermometer would be
necessary.

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 • Highly toxic
• Freezing point of -39 °C and a
boiling temperature of 357 °C

• Nontoxic
• Freezing point of -115 C and
a boiling point of 78 C

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Immersion Errors

Complete immersion:
By definition, if the complete bulb and stem are immersed at
the same temperature, the thermometer is completely
immersed.

Total immersion:
Total immersion applies to the situation where all the
thermometric liquid, i.e., all the mercury in the bulb, the
contraction chamber, and the stem, is at the temperature of
interest.

Partial immersion:
One way around the problem of scale visibility and the need
to move the thermometer is to immerse the thermometer to
some fixed depth so that most, but not all, of the mercury is at
the temperature of interest.

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Immersion Errors

For partial immersion thermometers, the true temperature reading

t is given by:

t  t i  N  t 2  t 1   K

Where;
ti  is the indicated temperature,
N  is the length of emergent column expressed in degrees
t2  is the mean temperature of the emergent column when calibrated
t1  is the mean temperature of the emergent column in use and
k  is a coefficient of expansion of the thermometric liquid used in the glass

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Thermocouples

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Thermocouples

The thermocouple thermometer operates on the principle that electromotive

force (emf) is generated and an electric current will flow in a closed circuit of
two dissimilar metals when the junctions of the metals are at two different
temperatures.

Thomas Seebeck made this discovery in 1821

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Thermocouples

The magnitude of the generated emf depends on:

1. The temperature of the junction T1 and T2.
2. The materials of the wires A and B.

Thomas Seebeck made this discovery in 1821

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Thermocouples

The measuring junction J1 (or hot junction) is exposed to the medium

whose temperature is to be measured. The reference (or cold junction) is
placed in ice bath.

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Thermocouple Materials

1. High emf values per degree temperature, i.e. high sensitivity that could
be detected with standard measuring equipment.

2. Reasonably linear temperature–emf relationship

3. Stability of emf, i.e. stable calibration.

4. The Thermocouple must withstand:

• High temperature.

• Rapid temperature change (response time)

• Effect of corrosive medium; i.e. resistance to chemical changes

5. Cheapness

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Thermocouple Materials

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Thermocouple Materials

Certain combinations of alloys have become popular as industry standards. Selection of the
combination is driven by cost, availability, convenience, melting point, chemical properties,
stability, and output.

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 Thermocouple tables

Type

Temperatures
Voltages

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Thermocouple Time Constant

The time constant of any sensor is defined as the time required for that
sensor to respond to 63.2% of its total output signal when subjected to a
step change.

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Thermocouple Time Constant

If a thermocouple is placed in a gas stream of temperature Tg. Assuming

that the thermocouple junction is a sphere of diameter d. Assume also that
heat is transferred to the thermocouple by convection only.

Rate of heat absorbed by the thermocouple = rate of heat transfer by convection

 h  A  Tg  Tth 
dTth
m  cp
dt
m  c p dTth dTth
Tg  Tth   Tg  Tth   
h  A dt dt
The bigger the diameter, the
higher the time constant.
4 3r 3    c p r    cp d    cp

h  4r 2

3h

6h
𝜀 𝛼 𝑑

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Laws of Thermocouples
Law of homogeneous circuits
If two thermocouple junctions are at T1 and T2, then the thermal emf generated
is independent and unaffected by any temperature distribution along the wires.

In above Figure, a thermocouple is shown with junction temperatures at T1 and

T2. Along the thermocouple wires, the temperature is T3 and T4. The thermocouple
emf is, however, still a function of only the temperature gradient T2 – T1.

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Laws of Thermocouples
Law of intermediate metals
The law of intermediate metals states that a third metal may be inserted into
a thermocouple system without affecting the emf generated, if, and only if,
the junctions with the third metal are kept at the same temperature.

The law of intermediate metals states that the introduction of a third metal (Could be
the instrument used to measure the emf) into the circuit will have no effect upon the
emf generated so long as the junctions of the third metal are at the same
temperature

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Laws of Thermocouples
Law of intermediate temperatures
The law of intermediate temperatures states that the sum of the emf developed by
a thermocouple with its junctions at temperatures T1 and T2, and with its junctions
at temperatures T2 and T3, will be the same as the emf developed if the
thermocouple junctions are at temperatures T1 and T3.

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Resistance Temperature Detector
(RTD)

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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Passive device

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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

The sensitive portion of an RTD, called an element, is

a wire of small-diameter, usually constructed of
platinum, copper, or nickel.
The material has an accurate resistance/temperature Thin film element
relationship which is used to provide an indication of
temperature.

Wire-wound element

Coil-element element
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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Thin film element

Wire-wound element

Coil-element element
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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Thin film element

Wire-wound element

Coil-element element
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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

The linear temperature coefficient of resistance a is defined by


R 2  R 1 
R 1 T2  T1 

Where R1 and R2 are the resistance at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively.

For wider temperature ranges the resistance of the material is usually

expressed by a quadratic relation:
R  R 0 1  aT  bT2 
R = resistance at temperature T
Ro = resistance at reference temperature To
a, b = experimentally determined coefficients

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Thermistors

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The thermistor

1. A thermistor is a resistor whose value of the resistance alters

with the change of the temperature.
2. While the thermocouple is the most adaptable temperature
transducer, and the RTD is the most stable, the word that best
describes the thermistor is sensitive.
3. Thermistors are generally composed of semiconductor materials.
4. Most thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient

1
 a  b ln R  c ln R 
3

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Comparison between Thermocouple, RTD, and Thermistor

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