ICE Fundamentals Book

Mechanical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering, Mataria, Helwan University

Internal Combustion Engines Fundamentals
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Chapter 1
Engine classification and engine components.
1.1 Heat Engines Classifications

Heat engine converts chemical energy in a fuel into mechanical energy,
usually made available on a rotating output shaft. Chemical energy of the fuel is
first converted to thermal energy by means of combustion or oxidation with air
inside the engine. This thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the
gases within the engine and the high-pressure gas then expands against the
mechanical mechanisms of the engine.
Figure (1-1): Engine Classification

Heat engines can be classified as in figure (1-1); external combustion type in
which the working fluid is entirely separated from the fuel- air mixture (ECE), and
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the internal combustion (ICE) type, in which the working fluid consists of the
products of combustion of the fuel- air mixture itself.
1.1.1 Comparison between the Different Kinds
1. The Reciprocation Piston Engine:
Figure (1-2): Diagrammatic representation of reciprocating piston engine.
2. Open Cycle Gas Turbine:
Figure (1-3): Diagrammatic representation of gas turbine
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3. The Wankel Engine
Figure (1-4): Wankel four- process cycle
4. Steam Power Plant
Figure (1-5): Diagrammatic representation of steam power plant
The Reciprocating I.C.E. is one unit and does not need other devices, the
efficiency of the engine is relatively high, and the fuel used is relatively expensive.
The gas turbine group needs a compressors, its weight is smaller than
reciprocating I.C.E. of the same power, its efficiency is lower, the fuel relatively
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cheap, and it is suitable for air craft. Rotary engine is a substitute for the
reciprocating I.C.E.
Wankel engine has a three lobe rotor which is driven eccentrically in a casing in
such a way that there are three separate volumes trapped between the rotor and the
casing. These volumes perform induction, compression, combustion, expansion
and exhaust process in sequence. This design has a good power/volume ratio. Seal
wear and heat transfer, were some of the initial development problems of the
Wankel engine. These problems have now been largely solved.
The steam turbine is suitable for very large powers, its efficiency is reasonable;
the fuel used in the boiler is cheap. The steam turbine needs a boiler, condenser
and a continuous supply of water.
Advantages of I.C.E. over E.C.E.

1. More mechanical simplicity and lower weight/power ratio.
2. They do not need auxiliary equipment, such as boiler & condenser.
3. They could be started and stopped in a short time.
4. Their thermal efficiency is higher than other heat engines.
5. Their initial cost is low.
These advantages make I.C.E. more suitable in the transport sector; motor cars,
small ships, submarines, and small aircrafts.
Internal combustion engines can be classified in a number of different ways

1. Types of ignition
(a) Spark Ignition (SI)
An SI engine starts the combustion process in each cycle by use of a spark
plug. The spark plug gives a high voltage electrical discharge between two
electrodes, which ignites the air fuel mixture in the combustion chamber
surrounding the plug. In early engine development, before the inventor of electric
spark plug, many forms of torch holes were used to initiate combustion from an
external flame.
(b) Compression Ignition (CI)
The combustion process in a CI engine starts when the air-fuel mixture self-
ignites due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high
compression.
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2. Engine cycle
(a) Four-stroke cycle
The cycle of operation is completed in four strokes of the piston or two revolution
of the crank shaft. Each stroke consists of 180 of crank shaft rotation. The series of
operations are shown in figure (1.6).
Figure (1-6): Cylinder events of four- stroke cycle
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(b) Two-stroke cycle

In two-stroke engine the cycle is completed in two strokes, i.e. one revolution of
the crank shaft. The difference between two-stroke and four stroke engines is in the
method of filling the cylinder with the fresh charge and removing the products of
combustion. The series of operations are shown in figure (1.7).
Figure (1-7): Cylinder events of two- stroke cycle

3. Valve location
a. Valves in head (Overhead valve), also called I Head engine.
b. Valves in block (flat head), also called L Head engine. Some historic engines
with valves in block had the intake valve on one side of the cylinder and the
exhaust valve on the other side. These were called T Head engines.
c. One valve in head (usually intake) and one in block, also called F Head Engine;
this is much less common.
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Figure (1-8): Classification of engines by valve location

4. Basic Design
a. Reciprocating: Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate
back and forth. The combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each
cylinder. Power is delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by mechanical linkage
with the pistons.
b. Rotary: Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric
rotor and crankshaft. The combustion chambers are built into the non-rotating
block. A number of experimental engines have been tested using this concept, but
the only design that has ever become common in an automobile is the Wankel
engine in several Mazda models. Mazda builds rotary automobile engines with
one, two, and three rotors.
5. Position and number of cylinders of reciprocating engines
a. Single Cylinder: Engine has one cylinder and piston connected to the
crankshaft.
b. In-Line: Cylinders are positioned in a straight line, one behind the other along
the length of the crankshaft. They can consist of 2 to 11 cylinders or possibly more.
In-line four-cylinder engines are very common for automobile and other
applications. See Fig.1.9 (a)
c. V Engine: Two banks of cylinders at an angle with each other along a single
crankshaft, allowing for a shorter engine block. The angle between the banks of
cylinders can be anywhere from 15° to 120° with 60°-90°. V engines usually have
even numbers of cylinders from 2 to 20 or more. V6s and V8s are common
automobile engines. Honda makes a true V5 motorcycle engine. See Fig.1.9 (b).
d. Radial engine: Engines with pistons positioned in a circular plane around a
circular crankshaft. The connecting rods of the piston are connected to a master
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rod, which in turn, is connected to the crankshaft. A bank of cylinders on a radial

engine almost always has an odd number of cylinders ranging from 3 to 13 or
more. Operating on a four-stroke cycle every other cylinder fires and has a power
stroke as the crankshaft rotates, giving a smooth operation. Many medium and
large size propeller driven aircraft use radial engines. For large aircraft two or
more banks of cylinders are mounted together, one behind the other on a single
crankshaft, making one powerful smooth engine. See Fig.1.9 (c)
e. Opposed Cylinder Engine: Two banks of cylinders opposite to each other on a
single crankshaft (a V engine with 180 deg V). These are common on small aircraft
and some automobiles with an even number of cylinders from two to eight or
more. These engines are often called flat engines (e.g., flat four). See Fig.1.9 (d)
f. Opposed piston engine: Two pistons in each cylinder with the combustion
chamber in the center between the pistons. A single combustion process causes two
power strokes at the same time, with each piston being pushed away from the
center and delivering power to a separate crankshaft at each end of the cylinder.
Engine output is either on two rotating crankshafts or on one crankshaft
incorporating a complex mechanical linkage. These engines are generally of large
displacement, used for power plants, ships, or submarines. See Fig.1.9 (e)
Figure (1-9): Classification of engines by cylinder arrangement

6. Air Intake Process
(a) Naturally Aspirated: Admission of charge at near atmospheric pressure. No
intake air pressure boosts system.
(b) Super charged: Admission of charge at a pressure above atmospheric. Intake
air pressure increased with the compressor driven off of the engine crankshaft.
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(c) Turbo charged: Intake air pressure increased with the turbine compressor
driven by the engine exhaust gases.
(d) Crankcase compressed: Two-stroke cycle engine which uses the crankcase as
the intake air compressor. Limited development work has also been done on design
and construction of four-stroke cycle engines with crank case compression.
7. Method of fuel input for spark ignition engines
(a) Carbureted: A device for mixing air and fuel to facilitate the combustion
process
(b) Multipoint port fuel injection: One or more injectors at each cylinder intake.
(c) Throttle body fuel injection: Injectors upstream in intake manifold.
(d) Gasoline direct injection: Injectors mounted in combustion chambers with
injection directly into cylinders.
8. Method of fuel input for compression ignition engines

(a) Direct injection: Fuel injected into main combustion chamber.
(b) Indirect injection: Fuel injected into secondary combustion chamber.
(c) Homogeneous charge compression ignition: Some fuel added during intake
stroke.
9. Fuel used
1. Liquid Fuels
(a) Volatile liquid fuels: petrol, Alcohol, benzene. Fuel /Air mixture is usually
ignited by a spark; Spark ignition.
(b) Viscous liquid fuels: heavy and light diesel oil, gas-oil, bio-fuels. Usually
combustion of fuel takes place due to its contact with high temperature compressed
air (self-ignition); Compression ignition.
2. Gaseous fuels: Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), Natural gas (NG), Town gas,
ignition usually by a spark.
3. Dual and Multi-Fuels:
Dual fuel engines are operated with two types of fuels, either separately or mixed
together. Multi-fuel engines could be operated by a mixture of more than two fuels,
gaseous; such as: Hydrogen, methane, L.P.G. etc., combined with one or more of
liquid fuels, such as alcohol, ethers, esters, gasoline, diesel etc...
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10. Use of the Engine:

1. Marine engine: for propulsion of ships at sea.
2. Industrial engine: for power generation on land.
3. Automotive engine: for transport.
11. Type of cooling
(a) Air cooled
(b) Liquid cooled, Water-cooled.
Several or all of these classifications can be used at the same time to identify a
given engine. Thus, a modern engine might be called a turbocharged,
reciprocating, spark ignition, four-stroke cycle overhead valve, water-cooled,
gasoline, multipoint fuel injected, v8 automobile engine.
Internal Combustion Engines Terminology:
Figure (1-10) Internal Combustion Engines Terminology
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1. Cylinder bore (D): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder.
2. Piston area (A): the area of a circle diameter equal to the cylinder bore.
3. Top Dead Center (T.D.C.): the extreme position of the piston at the top of the
cylinder.
4. Bottom Dead Center (B.D.C.): the extreme position of the piston at the bottom
of the cylinder.
5. Stroke (Lst): the distance between TDC and BDC is called the stroke length and
is equal to double the crank radius (l).
6. Swept volume: the volume swept through by the piston in moving between TDC
and is denoted by Vs:
Vst = (л/4) D2 (Lst)
7. Clearance volume: the space above the piston head at the TDC, and is denoted
by Vc:
Volume of the cylinder: Vcyl = Vc + Vst
8. Compression ratio: it is the ratio of the total volume of the cylinder to the
clearance volume, and is denoted by (r) or (CR)
r = Vcyl/Vc = (Vc +Vst)/ Vc
9. Mean piston speed: the distance traveled by the piston per unit of time:
Vp = 2 Lst (N) / 60
Where Lst is the stroke in (m) and N the number of crankshaft revolution per
minute (rpm).
I.C. Engine Parts and Details:
The main components of the reciprocating internal combustion engine are

shown in Figure (1-11). Engine parts are made of various materials and perform
certain functions, some of which will be explained: cylinder block (g) it is integral
with crank case (m), both are made of cast iron.
The piston (e) reciprocates inside the cylinder, which include the combustion
chamber. The piston is connected to the connecting rod (h) by piston pin (f). This
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end of the connecting rod is known as small end. The other end of the connecting
rod called the big end is connected to the crank arm by crank pin (l).
Camshaft (u) makes the cam (t) to rotate and move up and down the valve
rod through the tappet (r). Mainly each cylinder has two valves; one is admission
or suction valve and the other is exhaust valve.
The ignition system consists of a battery, an ignition coil, a distributor with

cam and breaker points, and spark plug for each cylinder. In diesel engines there is
an injection system instead of ignition system.
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Figure (1-11): S.I. engine parts and details (over-head valve)
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Four stroke Spark Ignition engine cycle:
First stroke: Intake stroke or Induction

The piston travels from TDC to BDC with the intake valve open and exhaust valve
closed. This creates an increasing volume in the combustion chamber which in turn
creates a vacuum. The resulting pressure differential through the intake system
from atmospheric pressure on the outside to the vacuum on the inside causes air to
be pushed into the cylinder. As the air passes through the intake system, fuel is
added to it in the desired amount by means of fuel injectors or carburetor.
Second stroke: Compression stroke:

When the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve cases and the piston travels back to
TDC with all the valves closed. This compresses the air-fuel mixture raising both
the pressure and the temperature in the cylinder. The finite time required to close
the intake valve means that actual compression doesn‟t start until sometime a
BDC. Near the end of the compression stroke the spark plug is fired and
combustion is initiated.
Combustion: Combustion of an air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite

length of time with the piston near TDC, (i.e. nearly constant volume combustion)
It starts near the end of the compression stroke slightly bad and lasts into the power
stroke slightly a TDC. Combustion changes the composition of the gas mixture to
that of exhaust products and increases the temperature in the cylinder to a very
high peak value. This, in turn raises the pressure in the cylinder to a very high peak
value.
Third stroke Expansion stroke or Power stroke: With all valves closed the high
pressure created by the combustion process pushes the piston away from TDC.
This is the stroke which produces the work output of the engine cycle. As the
piston travels from TDC to BDC, cylinder volume is increased causing pressure
and temperature drop.
Exhaust Blow down: Late in the power strike, the exhaust valve is opened and
exhaust blow down occurs. The pressure and temperature in the cylinder are still
high relative to the surroundings at this point and a pressure differential is created
through the exhaust system when the piston is near BDC. This exhaust gas carries
away a high amount of enthalpy, which lowers the cycle thermal efficiency.
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Opening the exhaust valve before bdc reduces the work obtained during the power
stroke but is required because of the finite time needed for exhaust blow down.
Fourth stroke: Exhaust stroke: By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust blow
down is complete, but the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately
atmospheric pressure. With the exhaust valve remaining open, the piston now
travels the gases out of the cylinder into the exhaust system at about atmospheric
pressure, leaving only that trapped in the clearance volume when the piston reaches
TDC. Near the end of exhaust stroke bad, the intake valve starts to open, so that it
is fully open by TDC when the new intake stroke starts in the next cycle. Near
TDC exhaust valve starts to close and finally is fully closed sometime a TDC. This
period when both intake valve and exhaust valve are open is called valve overlap.
Four stroke Compression Ignition engine cycle:
First stroke: Intake stroke: The same as the intake stroke in the SI engine with one
major difference: no fuel is added to the incoming air.
Second stroke: Compression stroke: The same as in an SI engine except that only
air is compressed and compression is to higher pressures and temperature. Late in
the compression strike fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber when
it mixes with very hot air. This causes the fuel to evaporate and self ignite, causing
combustion to start.
Combustion: Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about

constant pressure until the fuel injection is complete and the piston has started
towards BDC.
Third stroke: Power stroke: The power stroke continues as combustion ends and
the piston travels towards BDC.
Exhaust Blow down; same as with an SI engine.

Fourth stroke: Exhaust strike: same as with an SI engine.
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Chapter (2)
Air- Standard Cycles
During every engine cycle, the medium changes sometimes it is a mixture of

fuel and air or products of combustion, the specific heats and other properties of
the medium change with temperature and composition.
The accurate study and analysis of I.C.E. processes is very complicated. To

simplify the theoretical study "Standard Air Cycles" are introduced, these cycles
are similar to the open cycles, but some simplifying assumptions are made:
1. Cylinder contains constant amount of air and it is treated as ideal gas.

2. The specific heats and other physical and chemical properties remain unchanged
during the cycle.
3. Instead of heat generation by combustion, heat is transformed from external heat
source.
4. The process of heat removal in the exhaust gases is represented by heat transfer
from the cycle to external heat sink.
5. There is neither friction nor turbulence; all processes are assumed to be
reversible.
6. No heat loss from the working fluid to the surroundings.
7. Cycles can be presented on any diagram of properties.
1. The Otto Cycle (constant Volume):
These cycles is applied in petrol (or gasoline) engine, gas engine, and high
speed diesel (oil) engine. The cycle consists of the following processes:
1. Process 1 to 2 is isentropic compression;

γ
Q1-2 = 0 & PV = Constant
2. Process 2 to 3 is reversible heat addition at constant volume
Q2-3 = Qadd = Cv (T3 – T2) kJ/kg &V2= V3
3. Process 3 to 4 is isentropic expression;
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γ
4. Process 4 to 1 is reversible constant volume cooling
Q4-1 = Qrej = Cv (T4 – T1) kj/ kg & V4 = V1
Otto Air Standard Cycle
Air/Fuel Cycle
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This cycle is applied in 4- stroke and 2- stroke engines.
Work of Otto cycle =W = Qadd – Qrej
The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle:
ɳotto= =1
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– –
ɳotto=1 –
=1 –
Let:
P = gas pressure in the cylinder (Pa) or (bar)
V = volume in cylinder (m3)
v = specific volume of gas (m3/ Kg)
R= gas constant (Kj/Kg. K)
T = temperature of gas (K)
M= mass of gas in cylinder (Kg)
ρ = density of gas (Kg/m3)
Cp= specific heat at constant pressure (Kj/Kg.K)
Cv= specific heat at constant volume (Kj/Kg.K)
γ = Cp / Cv
CR= r= compression ratio = V1/V2
rp = pressure ratio = P3/P2
For ideal gas: Pv = RT

PV= mRT
P= ρ R T
γ
For isentropic process PV = Constant
Therefore;
P4 = P3 (V3/V4) γ & T4 = T3 (V3/V4) γ-1

P2 = P1 (V1/V2) γ & T2 = T1 (V1/V2) γ-1
But, V1= V4 & V2= V3

So, T2/T1 = (V1/V2) γ-1 = (V4/V3) γ-1 = T3/T4 = r γ-1
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T3 = T4 (r γ-1) & T2 = T1 (r γ-1)

So, ɳotto = 1 1/(r-1) γ-1
ɳotto increased by increasing r

ɳotto increased by increasing γ
ɳotto independent on the heat added or load.
In modern petrol engines (r) reaches a value of 12.
For Air; Cp = 1.005 Kj/Kg.K
Cv= 0.718 Kj/Kg.K
γ = 1.4
R = Cp- Cv = 0.287 Kj/Kg.K
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2. The Diesel (or Constant Pressure) Cycle:
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This cycle is the theoretical cycle for compression-ignition or diesel engine. For
this cycle:
γ
Q1-2 = 0. & PV = Constant
2. Process 2 to 3 is reversible heat addition at constant pressure
Q2-3 = Qadd = Cp (T3 – T2) kJ/kg & P2 = P3
γ
Q4-1 = Qrej = Cv (T4 – T1) kj/ kg & V4 = V1
Work of Diesel cycle =W = Qadd – Qrej
ɳDiesel = =1
Cutoff ratio (rc): is defined as the change in volume that occurs during combustion
rc= V3/V2
& CR= r= compression ratio = V1/V2
rp = pressure ratio = P3/P2 = 1
It can be proved that;
ɳDiesel = 1 – ((rc) γ -1) / (rc -1) *γ*(r-1)
This equation shows that thermal efficiency depends not only on compression ratio
(r) but also on the cut-off ratio (rc ) and the working medium properties γ. As rc
increase the work done per cycle increase but ɳDiesel decreases. When r increase
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more than 22, the increase in ɳDiesel is small, on the other hand, maximum pressure
increases much and mass of the engine increases.
ɳDiesel increased by increasing r

ɳotto decreased by increasing rc
3. The Dual Cycle:
The cycle is applied in medium speed and high speed diesel engines. The
engine may be 4 or 2 strokes
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γ
Q1-2 = 0. & PV = Constant
2. Process 2 to 3 is reversible heat addition at constant volume
Q2-3 = Qadd)1 = Cv (T3 – T2) kJ/kg & V2 = V3
3. Process 3 to 4 is reversible heat addition at constant pressure
Q3-4 = Qadd)2 = Cp (T4 – T3) kJ/kg & P3 = P4
γ
Q4-1 = Qrej = Cv (T5– T1) kj/ kg & V5 = V1
Qadd)total = Cv (T3 – T2) + Cp (T4 – T3) kJ/kg
Work of Diesel cycle =W = Qadd)total – Qrej
ɳDiesel = =1
& Compression ratio = CR= r= V1/V2
Cutoff ratio (rc): rc= V4/V3
Pressure ratio = rp = P3/P2
Expansion ratio re= V5/V4
When rp = 1, then p2 = p3, we obtain diesel cycle. When rc = 1, then V3 = V4,

we obtain Otto cycle. The indicated thermal efficiency of this cycle lies between
that of the Otto and diesel.
 Indicated mean effective pressure = W/Vst = W/ (v1-v2) kpa
 Relative efficiency= ɳrel = ɳthermal / ɳstandard
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 Specific fuel consumption (S.F.C) = m.f / Power

= 3600/ ɳthermal * C.V.F (Kg/Kw.hr)
Where C.V.F is the calorific value of the fuel (Kj/Kg)
Comparison of Otto, diesel and Dual Cycles:
The important parameters in cycle analysis are compression ratio, maximum

pressure, maximum temperature, head input, work output, etc.
1. Equal Compression Ratio and Equal Heat added:
The three cycles start from the same point (1); compression process is the
same (1-2) for all cycles, equal heat added means:
Area (a23ba) = Area (a23\ da) = Area (a22/ 3// ca)
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Areas representing heat rejected are:
area (a14ba) < area( a14// ca) < area (a14/da)
And so, Qrej)Otto < Qrej)dual < Qrej)diesel

ɳotto ˃ ɳDual ˃ ɳDiesel
2. Equal Compression Ratio and Heat rejected:
Processes (1-2) and (4-1) are the same in all cycles.
Areas representing heat added are:
area 6235 > area 622/3//5 > area 623/5
Heat rejected area is the same for the three cycles
And so, Qadd)Otto > Qadd)dual > Qadd)diesel for the same Qrej
ɳotto < ɳDual < ɳDiesel
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3. Equal Maximum Pressure and Equal Heat added:
Point (1) is common in the three cycles.
Maximum pressure is the same, therefore, compression ratio are different as

indicated in the diagram above.
WOtto < Wdual < Wdiesel and Qrej)Otto ˃ Qrej)dual ˃ Qrej)diesel

i.e.
ɳotto < ɳDual < ɳDiesel
4. Equal Maximum Pressure and Maximum Temperature:
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Points 1, 3, 4 are common in the three cycles.
Heat rejected is the same in the three cycles
Heat added is highest in diesel cycle:
Qadd)Otto < Qadd)dual < Qadd)diesel

i.e
ɳotto ˃ ɳDual ˃ɳDiesel
5. Solve with the same compression ratio and work

6. Solve with the same maximum pressure and work
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Real Air-Fuel Engine Cycles
The actual cycle experienced by an internal combustion engine is not a

thermodynamic cycle. An ideal air-standard thermodynamic cycle Occurs on a
closed system of constant composition. This is not what actually happens in an IC
engine, and for this reason air-standard analysis gives, at best, only approximations
to actual conditions and outputs. Major differences include:
1. Real engines operate on an open cycle with changing composition. Not only
does the inlet gas composition differ from what exits, but often the mass
flow rate is not the same. Those engines which add fuel into the cylinders
after air induction is complete (CI engines and some SI engines) change the
amount of mass in the gas composition part way through the cycle.
2. Air-standard analysis treats the fluid flow through the entire engine as air
and approximates air as an ideal gas. In a real engine inlet flow may be all
air, or it may be air mixed with fuel, either gaseous or as liquid droplets, or
both.
3. There are heat losses during the cycle of a real engine which are neglected in
air-standard analysis. Heat loss during combustion lowers actual peak
temperature and pressure from what is predicted. The actual power stroke,
therefore, starts at a lower pressure, and work output during expansion is
decreased. Heat transfer continues during expansion, and this lowers the
temperature and pressure below the ideal isentropic process towards the end
of the power stroke. The result of heat transfer is a lower indicated thermal
efficiency than predicted by air-standard analysis.
4. Combustion requires a short but finite time to occur, and heat addition is not
instantaneous at TDC, as approximated in an Otto cycle.
5. The blow-down process requires a finite real time and a finite cycle time,
and does not occur at constant volume as in air-standard analysis
6. In an actual engine, the intake valve is not closed until after bottom-dead
center at the end of the intake stroke. Because of the flow restriction of the
valve, air is still entering the cylinder at BDC, and volumetric efficiency
would be lower if the valve closed here.
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The Actual Cycle Losses

The actual cycle efficiency is much lower than the air standard efficiency due to
various losses occurring in the actual engine. These losses are as follows:
1- Losses due to variation of specific heats with temperature.

2- Losses due to dissociation.
3- Time losses: In theoretical cycles the burning is assumed to be

instantaneous. Whereas, in actual cycle, burning is completed in a definite
interval of time. The effect of this time is that the maximum pressure will
not be produced when the volume is minimum; but sometime after T.D.C.,
causes a reduction in the work produced.
4- Incomplete combustion loss: Fuel vapour, air, and residual gas are present
in the cylinder; this makes it impossible to obtain perfect homogeneous
mixture. Therefore some fuel does not burn to CO2 or partially burns to CO,
and O2 will appear in the exhaust. Energy release in actual engine is about 90
to 93% of fuel energy input.
5- Direct heat loss: During combustion process and subsequent expansion

stroke, the heat flows from cylinder gases through cylinder walls and
cylinder head into the water jacket or cooling fins. Some heat enters the
piston head and flows through piston rings into the walls of the cylinder or
carried away by the engine oil. The heat loss during combustion and
expansion does not represent a complete heat loss; a part of the heat loss
would be rejected in the exhaust at the end of the expansion stroke.
6- Exhaust blow down loss: The opening of the exhaust value before B.D.C.
reducing cylinder pressure, causing the roundness of the end of the P-V
diagram, this means a reduction in the work done per cycle.
7- Pumping losses: Pumping loss is due to expelling the exhaust gases and the
induction of the fresh charge. In naturally aspirated engine this would be a
negative work.
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8- Friction losses: These losses are due to the friction between the piston and
cylinder walls, the various bearings, and the friction in the auxiliary
equipment, such as pumps, fans, etc…
Actual spark ignition engine cycle.
Deviations of actual cycle (indicating variable losses)
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Sheet 1
Air Standard Cycles
1. Cylinder conditions at the start of compression in a SI engine operating at

WOT on an air-standard Otto cycle are 20°C and 98 kPa. The engine has a
compression ratio of 9.5:1 and the maximum temperature is 2000°C.
Calculate:
a. The heat added per Kg. c. The cycle work done

b. The heat rejected per Kg. d. The thermal efficiency.
2. In a diesel cycle, the initial conditions are 27°C and 1 bar. The compression
ratio is 20 and the cutoff ratio is 2, calculate:
a. The temperature, pressure and volume at the cycle key points.

b. The heat added, the heat rejected and the cycle thermal efficiency.
3. Cylinder conditions at the start of compression in a CI engine operating at

WOT on an air-standard diesel cycle are 20°C and 98 kPa. The engine has a
compression ratio of 12.5:1 and the maximum temperature is 3300°C.
Calculate:
c. The heat added per Kg. c. The cycle work done

d. The heat rejected per Kg. d. The thermal efficiency.
4. Consider an air standard diesel cycle in which the working fluid has the
following properties at the beginning of compression; temperature = 298 K,
pressure = 1 atm, and specific volume of 0.856 m3/Kg. if the compression
ratio = 15 and the heat added is 200 Kcal/Kg. Calculate:
a. The pressure and temperature and volume at the cycle key points.
b. The thermal efficiency.
c. The output power if the engine consumes 0.2 Kg/sec of air.
33
5. In a dual cycle, the heat added at constant volume is equal to the heat added
at constant pressure. The compression ratio is 13.5. The maximum cycle
pressure is 50 Kg/cm2 and the initial conditions are 1 Kg/cm2 and 20°C.
Calculate:
a. The heat added, the heat rejected and work done.
b. The thermal efficiency.
6. An Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 6 and starting conditions of 35°C
and 1 bar. Heat is added until the pressure becomes 35 bar. Calculate:
a. The pressure, temperature and volume at each corner.

b. The heat added.
c. The mean effective pressure.
d. If the engine has a relative efficiency of 50%, determine the fuel
consumption per Kw.hr. Assume that the calorific value of the fuel is
42000Kj/Kg.
7. A high speed diesel engine working on ideal dual cycle. Takes in air at 50
°C and 1 Kg/cm2 and compresses it to 1/14 of its original volume. At the end
of compression the heat is added so that the maximum pressure attains twice
the value at the end of compression. The rest of heat addition takes place at
constant pressure so that the volume at the end of heat addition is twice the
clearance volume. Calculate:
a. The temperature, pressure and volume at the key points.

b. The cycle thermal efficiency, the cutoff ratio (rc) and the expansion ratio
(re).
8. A compression ignition engine working on dual cycle has a cylinder bore of
20 cm and stroke of 30 cm. It operates with a compression ratio of 8. At start
of compression, the cylinder is full of air at 1Kg/cm2 and 25°C. The heat
added at constant volume is timed for maximum pressure of 60 Kg/cm2. The
heat addition at constant pressure continues for 4% of the stroke. Calculate:
a. Amount of heat added.
b. Amount of heat rejected.
c. Thermal efficiency.
d. The mean effective pressure.
e. The cutoff ratio and the pressure ratio.
34
Chapter 3
Combustion and Fuel
3.1 Definition of Combustion
Combustion is a rapid oxidation generating heat, or both light and heat,

slow oxidation accompanied by relatively little heat and no light (such as some
exothermic chemical reactions). In our study we will restrict the definition to
include only rapid oxidation portion, since most practical combustion devices
belong in this portion. This definition emphasizes the importance of chemical
reactions to combustion, as combustion transforms energy stored in chemical
bonds to heat that can be utilized in a variety of ways.
3.2 Combustion Modes and Flame Types
Combustion can occur in either a flame or non-flame mode. Flames are

categorized as being either premixed flames or non-premixed (diffusion) flames.
The difference between flame and non-flame modes of combustion can be

illustrated by the processes occurring in a knocking spark-ignition engine. In Fig.
3.1(a), we see a thin zone of intense chemical reaction propagating through the
unburned fuel-air mixture. This thin reaction zone is what we commonly refer to as
a flame. Behind the flame are the hot products of combustion. As the flame moves
across the combustion space, the temperature and pressure rise in the unburned
gas. Under certain conditions (Fig. 3.1(b)), rapid oxidation reactions occur at many
locations within the unburned gas leading to very rapid combustion throughout the
volume. This essentially volumetric heat release in an engine is called auto-
ignition, and the very rapid pressure rise leads to characteristic sound of engine
knock.
Knock is undesirable, and a recent challenge to engine designers has been

how to minimize the occurrence of knock while operating with lead-free gasoline.
In compression-ignition or diesel engines, however, auto-ignition initiates the
combustion process by design.
35
Fig. 3.1 illustration of the combustion modes
The two classes of flames, premixed and non-premixed (diffusion) are

related to the state of mixedness of reactants, as suggested by their names. In a
premixed flame, the fuel and the oxidizer are mixed prior to the occurrence of any
significant chemical reaction. The spark-ignition engine is an example where
premixed flames occur. While, in a diffusion flame, the reactants are initially
separated, and reaction occurs only at the interface between the fuel and oxidizer,
where mixing and reaction both take place. An example of the diffusion flame is a
simple candle. In practical devices, both types of flames may be present in various
degrees. Diesel engine combustion is generally considered to have significant
amounts of both premixed and diffusion burning. The term “diffusion” applies
strictly to the molecular diffusion of chemical species, i.e., fuel molecules diffuse
toward the flame from one direction while oxidizer molecules diffuse toward the
flame from the opposite direction.
The Bunsen burner shown in fig. 3.2 has both a premixed flame and
diffusion flame. The air entrained at the base of the burner is not sufficient for
complete combustion with a single premixed flame. Consequently, a second flame
front is established at the interface where the air is diffusing into the unburnt fuel.
36
Fig 3.2 Bunsen burner with premixed and diffusion flames.
Considering character of flow, there are two principal types of flames:

laminar and turbulent flame. Considering change of flame properties with time,
there are two types of flames: steady and unsteady flame
3.3 Fuel and Fuel Characteristics

Fuel is a substance which, when burnt, i.e. on coming in contact and reacting
with oxygen or air, produces heat. Thus, the substances classified as fuel must
necessarily contain one or several of the combustible elements: carbon, hydrogen,
sulphur, etc. In the process of combustion, the chemical energy of fuel is converted
into heat energy. To utilize the energy of fuel in most usable form, it is required to
transform the fuel from its one state to another, i.e. from solid to liquid or gaseous
state, liquid to gaseous state, or from its chemical energy to some other form of
energy via single or many stages. In this way, the energy of fuels can be utilized
more effectively and efficiently for various purposes.
Principles of classification of fuels:

Fuels may broadly be classified, see table 1.2, in two ways, i.e.,
(a) According to the physical state in which they exist in nature – solid, liquid and
gaseous.
(b) According to the mode of their procurement – natural and manufactured.
37
Natural Fuels Manufactured Fuels

Solid Fuels
Wood Tanbark, Bagasse, Straw
Coal Charcoal
Oil shale Coke
Briquettes
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum Oils from distillation of petroleum
Coal tar
Shale-oil
Alcohols, etc.
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas Coal gas
Producer gas
Water gas
Hydrogen
Acetylene
Blast furnace gas
Oil gas
Table 2.1: Natural and Manufactured Fuels
3.3.1 Characteristics of Fuel Oils
Characteristics of fuel oil that determine grade classification and suitability

for given applications are:
 viscosity
 flash point
 pour point
 water and sediment content
 carbon residue
 ash
 distillation qualities or distillation temperature ranges
 specific gravity
 sulfur content
 heating value
 carbon-hydrogen content
38
Viscosity is oil‟s resistance to flow. It is significant because it indicates the ease at

which oil flows or can be pumped and the ease of atomization. Differences in fuel
oil viscosities are caused by variations in the concentrations of fuel oil constituents
and different refining methods.
Flash point is the lowest temperature to which oil must be heated for its vapors to
ignite in a flame.
Pour point is the lowest temperature at which a fuel can be stored and handled.
Fuels with higher pour points can be used when heated storage and piping facilities
are provided.
Water and sediment content should be low to prevent fouling the facilities.
Sediment accumulates on filter screens and burner parts. Water in distillate fuels
can cause tanks to corrode and emulsions to form in residual oil.
Carbon residue is obtained by a test in which the oil sample is destructively

distilled in the absence of air. When commercial fuels are used in proper burners,
this residue has almost no relationship to soot deposits, except indirectly when
deposits are formed by vaporizing burners.
Ash is the noncombustible material in oil. An excessive amount indicates the

presence of materials that cause high wear on burner pumps.
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a fuel oil to the density of water at a
specific temperature. Specific gravities cover a range in each grade, with some
overlap between distillate and residual grades. API gravity (developed by the
American Petroleum Institute) is a parameter widely used in place of specific
gravity.
Sulfur content: Air pollution considerations are important in determining the

allowable sulfur content of fuel oils. Sulfur content is frequently limited by
legislation aimed at reducing sulfur oxide emissions from combustion equipment.
These laws require sulfur content to be below a certain level, usually 1.0, 0.5, or
0.3%.
Sulfur in fuel oils is also undesirable because of the corrosiveness of sulfur

compounds in the flue gas. Although low-temperature corrosion can be minimized
by maintaining the stack at temperatures above the dew point of the flue gas, this
39
limits the overall thermal efficiency of combustion equipment. For certain

industrial applications, the sulfur content of a fuel must be limited because of
adverse effects on product quality. The applications include direct-fired metallurgy
where work is performed in the combustion zone.
Heating value (Calorific value) is an important property, and is defines as the

amount of heat produced by combustion of a unit quantity of a fuel. We
differentiate between gross and net heating values
Gross (or high, upper) Heating Value
The gross or high heating value is the amount of heat produced by the complete
combustion of a unit quantity of fuel.
The gross heating value is obtained when
 all products of the combustion are cooled down to the temperature before the
combustion
 the water vapor formed during combustion is condensed
Net (or lower) Heating Value
The net or lower heating value is obtained by
 Subtracting the latent heat of vaporization of the water vapor formed by the
combustion from the gross or higher heating value.
Common units used for heating value are:
 1 J/kg = 0.00043 Btu/lb = 2.39x10-4 kcal/kg
3.4 Combustion chemistry
Combustion is the conversion of a substance called a fuel into chemical

compounds known as products of combustion by combination with an oxidizer.
The combustion process is an exothermic chemical reaction, i.e., a reaction that
releases energy as it occurs. Thus combustion may be represented symbolically by:
Fuel + Oxidizer Products of combustion + Energy
40
Here the fuel and the oxidizer are reactants, i.e., the substances present
before the reaction takes place. This relation indicates that the reactants produce
combustion products and energy. Either the chemical energy released is transferred
to the surroundings as it is produced, or it remains in the combustion products in
the form of elevated internal energy (temperature), or some combination thereof.
Fuels are evaluated based on the amount of energy or heat that they release
per unit mass or per mole during combustion of the fuel. Such a quantity is known
as the fuel‟s heating value.
In combustion processes the oxidizer is usually air but could be pure oxygen,
an oxygen mixture, or a substance involving some other oxidizing element such as
fluorine. Here we will limit our attention to combustion of a fuel with air or pure
oxygen.
Chemical fuels exist in gaseous, liquid, or solid form. Natural gas, gasoline,
and coal, perhaps the most widely used examples of these three forms, are each a
complex mixture of reacting and inert compounds.
3.4.1 Characterizing Air for Combustion Calculations
Air is a mixture of about 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1% other

constituents by volume. For combustion calculations it is usually satisfactory to
represent air as 21% oxygen, 79% nitrogen mixture, by volume. Thus for every 21
moles of oxygen that react when air oxidizes a fuel, there are also 79 moles of
nitrogen involved. Therefore, 79/21 = 3.76 moles of nitrogen are present for every
mole of oxygen in the air.
At room temperature both oxygen and nitrogen exist as diatomic molecules,

O2 and N2, respectively. It is usually assumed that the nitrogen in the air is non-
reacting at combustion temperatures; that is, there are as many moles of pure
nitrogen in the products as there were in the reactants. At very high temperatures
small amounts of nitrogen react with oxygen to form oxides of nitrogen, usually
termed NOx. These small quantities are important in pollution analysis because of
the major role of even small traces of NOx in the formation of smog. However,
since these NOx levels are insignificant in energy analysis applications, nitrogen is
treated as inert here.
41
The molecular weight of a compound or mixture is the mass of 1 mole of the

substance. The average molecular weight, M, of a mixture, as seen earlier, is the
linear combination of the products of the mole fractions of the components and
their respective molecular weights. Thus the molecular weight for air, Mair, is given
by the sum of the products of the molecular weights of oxygen and nitrogen and
their respective mole fractions in air. Expressed in words:
Mair = 0.79 Mnitrogen + 0.21 Moxygen = 0.79(28) + 0.21(32) = 28.84 Kg/Kmole
The mass fractions of oxygen and nitrogen in air are then:

mf oxygen = (0.21)(32)/28.84 = 0.233, or 23.3%
and mf nitrogen = (0.79)(28)/28.84 = 0.767, or 76.7%
2.4.2 Combustion Chemistry of a Simple Fuel
Methane, CH4, is a common fuel that is a major constituent of most natural

gases.
Consider the complete combustion of methane in pure oxygen. The chemical
reaction equation for the complete combustion of methane in oxygen may be
written as:
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O (3.1)
Because atoms are neither created nor destroyed, Equation (3.1) states that
methane (consisting of one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen) reacts with
four atoms of oxygen to yield carbon dioxide and water products with the same
number of atoms of each element as in the reactants. This is the basic principle
involved in balancing all chemical reaction equations.
Carbon dioxide is the product formed by complete combustion of carbon through

the reaction C + O2 CO2. Carbon dioxide has only one carbon atom per
molecule.
Since in Equation (3.1) there is only one carbon atom on the left side of the
equation, there can be only one carbon atom and therefore one CO2 molecule on
the right. Similarly, water is the product of the complete combustion of hydrogen.
It has two atoms of hydrogen per molecule. Because there are four hydrogen atoms
42
in the reactants of Equation (3.1), there must be four in the products, implying that
two molecules of water formed. These observations require four atoms of oxygen
on the right, which implies the presence of two molecules (four atoms) of oxygen
on the left.
3.4.3 Combustion in Air
Let us now consider the complete combustion of methane in air. The same
combustion products are expected as with combustion in oxygen; the only
additional reactant present is nitrogen, and it is considered inert. Moreover,
because we know that in air every mole of oxygen is accompanied by 3.76 moles
of nitrogen, the reaction equation can be written as
CH4 + 2O2 + 2(3.76)N2 CO2 + 2H2O + 2(3.76)N2 (3.2)
It is seen that the reaction equation for combustion in air may be obtained
from the combustion equation for the reaction in oxygen by adding the appropriate
number of moles of nitrogen to both sides of the equation.
Note that both Equations (3.1) and (3.2) describe reactions of one mole of
methane fuel. Because the same amount of fuel is present in both cases, both
reactions release the same amount of energy. We can therefore compare
combustion reactions in air and in oxygen. It will be seen that the presence of
nitrogen acts to dilute the reaction, both chemically and thermally.
The diluting energetic effect of nitrogen when combustion is in air may be

reasoned as follows: The same amount of energy is released in both reactions,
because the same amount of fuel is completely consumed. However, the non-
reacting nitrogen molecules in the air have heat capacity. This added heat capacity
of the additional nitrogen molecules absorbs much of the energy released, resulting
in a lower internal energy per unit mass of products and hence a lower temperature
of the products. Thus the energy released by the reaction is shared by a greater
mass of combustion products when the combustion is in air.
Often, products of combustion are released to the atmosphere through a

chimney, stack, or flue. These are therefore sometimes referred to as flue gases.
The flue gas composition may be stated in terms of wet flue gas (wfg) or dry flue
gas (dfg), because under some circumstances the water vapor in the gas condenses
43
and then escapes as a liquid rather than remaining as a gaseous component of the
flue gas. When liquid water is present in combustion products, the combustion
product gaseous mass fractions may be taken with respect to the mass of flue gas
products, with the product water present or omitted.
3.5 Reactant and Product Mixtures

3.5.1 Stoichiometry
The stoichiometry quantity of oxidizer is just that amount needed to

completely burn a quantity of fuel. If more than a stoichiometric quantity of
oxidizer is supplied, the mixture is said to be fuel- lean, or just lean mixture; while
supplying less than the stoichiometric oxidizer results in a fuel- rich, or rich
mixture.
The stoichiometric oxidizer- (or air) fuel ratio (mass basis) is determined by
writing simple atom balances, assuming that the fuel reacts to form an ideal set of
products (CO2, H2O and N2). For a hydrocarbon fuel given by CxHy, the
stoichiometric relation can be expressed as:
CxHy + a (O2 +3.76N2) xCO2 + (y/2) H2O +3.76a N2
From a simple balance, we get:
a = x+ y/4.
For simplicity, we assume that the simplified composition for air is 21 percent O2
and 79 percent N2 (by volume), i.e., that for each mole of O2 in air, there are 3.76
moles of N2.
The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio can be found as
(A/F)stoic = = *
Where, MWair and MWfuel are the molecular weights of the air and fuel,
respectively.
44
The equivalence ratio, Φ, is commonly used to indicate quantitatively whether a

fuel- oxidizer mixture is rich, lean, or stoichiometric. And affects directly on
combustion products (pollutants), see Fig. 3.3.The equivalence ratio is defined as:
Φ= =
From this definition, we see that for fuel-rich mixture, Φ >1, and for fuel-lean
mixture, Φ < 1. For a stoichiometric mixture, Φ equals unity. In many combustion
applications, the equivalence ratio is the single most important factor in
determining a system‘s performance. Other parameters frequently used to define
relative stoichiometry are percent stoichiometric air (excess air) (λ), which
related to the equivalence ratio as:
λ = % syoichiometric air =
% excess air = * 100%
Example 3.1 A small, low-emission, stationary gas-turbine operates at full load

(3950 kW) at an equivalence ratio of 0.286 with an air flow rate of
15.9 Kg/s. The equivalent composition of fuel is C1.16H4.32 .
Determine the fuel mass flow rate and the operating air-fuel ratio
for the engine.
Solution:
.
Given Φ = 0.286, m air = 15.9 Kg/s, fuel is C1.16H4.32
Known MWair = 28.85 Kg/Kmole , MWfuel = 1.16(12.01) + 4.32(1.008)

= 18.286 Kg/Kmole
From stoichiometric balance
(A/F)stoic = 4.76a *
45
Where a = x +y/4 = 1.16 +4.32/4 = 2.24. Thus,
(A/F)stoic = 4.76* 2.24 * (28.85/18.286) = 16.82. Kgair/Kgfuel
(A/F)act = 16.82/ 0.286 = 58.8. Kgair/Kgfuel

.
And so, m fuel = 15.9/58.8 = 0.27 Kg/s.
Comment
Note that even at full power, a large quantity of excess air is supplied the engine
(low-emission gas turbine).
Example 3.2 A natural gas-fired industrial boiler operates with an oxygen

concentration of 3 mole percent in the flue gases. Determine the
operating air-fuel ratio and the equivalence ratio. Treat the natural
gas as methane.
Solution:
Given % O2 = 3 , fuel is methane CH4
Known MWair = 28.85 Kg/Kmole , MWfuel = (12.01) + 4(1.008) = 16.04

Kg/Kmole
Actual combustion equation:
CH4 + a (O2 +3.76N2) CO2 + 2 H2O + b O2 + 3.76a N2
Where a and b are related from conservation of O atoms,
2 a = 2 + 2 +2b
Or b=a-2
From the definition of mole fraction,
% O2 = 0.03 = ( NO2 ) / (Nmixture) = =
46
Where, N is the number of moles.
And so, a = 2.368
The mass air-fuel ratio is expressed as
(A/F)actual = = = = 20.23
To find Φ, we need to determine (A/F)stoic from stoiciometric combustion

equation;
CH4 + a (O2 +3.76N2) CO2 + 2 H2O + 3.76a N2
From balance we will find that a = 2 and hence
(A/F)stoic = 4.76(2)(28.85) / 16.04 = 17.1
From the definition of equivalence ratio

Φ = 17.1 / 20.3 = 0.84
Comment
In the solution, we assumed that the O2 mole fraction was on a “wet basis”, i.e.,
moles of O2 per mole of moisture-containing flue gases. Frequently, in the
measurement of exhaust species, moisture is removed to prevent condensation in
the gas analyzer; thus %O2 can also be reported on a “dry basis”.
Example 3.3 The measured dry volumetric products of combustion of a

hydrocarbon fuel of unknown composition are found to be:
CO2 = 9%, CO = 1%, O2 = 8% and N2 = 82%.
Calculate: (a) The mass air-fuel ratio,
(b) The composition of the fuel on a mass basis, and
(c) The percent of stoiciometric (theoretical) air on a

mass basis.
47
Solution:
The combustion of unknown hydrocarbon composition fuel with air (assume 1

Kmole of fuel) can be written as:
CxHy + a (O2 +3.76N2) 9CO2 + 1 CO + 8O2 + c H2O + 82 N2
By balancing N2 a= 82/3.76 = 21.81
By balancing O2 a = 21.81 = 9 + ½ + 8 + c/2 , then c= 8.62.
By balancing C x = 9 + 1 = 10
By balancing H y= 2c = 17.24
(a)The fuel-air ratio (by mass) = (A/F) = 21.81(32 + 3.76x28) / (10x12 +17.24x1)
= 21.9 Kgair/Kgfuel
(b) Therefore, the hydrocarbon fuel composition is C10H17.24
The compositions of fuel on a mass basis are:
Carbon = 10x12 / (10x12 + 17.24x1) = 87.44%.
Hydrogen = 17.24x1 / (10x12 + 17.24x1) = 12.56%.
(c) to calculate the % of theoretical air, then it is necessary to calculate the

theoretical air required for complete combustion of fuel and this can be calculated
by:
C10H17.24 + a (O2 +3.76N2) 10CO2 + 8.62 H2O + a 3.76 N2
By balancing O2 a = 10 + 4.31 = 14.31
The theoretical air-fuel ratio = (A/F)stoic = 14.31(32 + 3.76x28) / (10x12 +17.24x1)

= 14.31 Kgair/Kgfuel
Then, the percent of theoretical air = 21.94/ 14.31 = 153.32%.
48
Engine Emissions:
The term ' engine emissions' refers primarily to pollutants in the engine exhaust.
Examples of pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO), various oxides of nitrogen
(NOx) and unburnt hydrocarbons (UHC).
These emissions are worse from the spark ignition engine than from the
compression ignition engine.
Emissions of CO, 𝑁𝑂x and HC vary between different engines and are dependent
on such variables as ignition timing, load, speed and, in particular, fuel/air ratio.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is most concentrated with fuel-rich mixtures, as there will
be incomplete combustion. With lean mixtures, CO is always present owing to
dissociation, but the concentration reduces with reducing combustion temperatures.
Chemical kinetics show that the formation of NO and other oxides of nitrogen
increase very strongly with increasing flame temperature.
This would imply that highest concentration of NOx should be for slightly rich
mixtures, those that have the highest flame temperature.
However, NOx formation will also be influenced by the flame speed.
Lower flame speeds with lean mixture provide a longer time for 𝑁𝑂x emissions
increase with reduced engine speed.
The ways of reducing 𝑁𝑂x emissions are more varied. If either the flame
temperature or burn duration is reduced, the 𝑁𝑂x emissions will also be reduced.
49
Variation of NO, CO and UHC emissions with equivalence ratio.
Fig. 3.3 Variation of NO, CO and UHC emissions with equivalence ratio.
50
Sheet 2
Combustion and Fuel
1. For an equivalence ratio of 0.6, determine the associated air-fuel ratios

(mass) for methane, propane (C3H8) and decane (C10H22).
2. A spark ignition engine uses a liquid fuel whose composition by weight is

84% C and 16% H2 and the engine is running at an air-fuel ratio of 14.
Determine the analysis of the exhaust gases by weight.
3. A natural gas-fired industrial boiler operates with excess air such that the O2
concentration in the flue gases is 2 percent (volume), measured after
removal of the moisture in the combustion products. Determine the
equivalence ratio for the system assuming the properties of natural gas are
the same as methane.
4. Assuming complete combustion, write out a stoichiometric balance equation

for 1 mole of an arbitrary alcohol CxHyOz , Determine the number of moles
of air required to burn 1 mole of fuel.
5. Determine the air-fuel ratio and make a complete exhaust analysis for a
gaseous fuel having a volumetric analysis of 6.7% CO2, 1.3% O2, 22.5%
CO, 2.2% H2, 0.4% CH4 and 66.9% N2. If the percentage of O2 in the dry
exhaust is 8%.
6. In a spark ignition engine, the dry exhaust analysis is 9.8% CO 2, 0.2% O2,
7.6% CO and 82.4% N2. Determine the air-fuel ratio if:
a. The fuel composition by weight is 86.4%C and 13.6% H2.
b. The fuel is Octane C8H18.
51
Chapter 4
Combustion in SI Engines
Combustion in spark ignition engines normally begins at the spark pluck

where the molecules in and around the spark discharge are activated to a level
where reaction is self- sustaining. Combustion is SI engines may be one or more of
the following types of combustion:
1- Normal combustion.
2- Abnormal combustion.
3- Uncontrolled combustion.
4.1 Normal combustion:
Once ignition has started the flame front expands across the chamber. Two
stages may be distinguished during the normal combustion. The first stage, (AB)
corresponds to the time for the formation of the self-propagation nucleus of the
flame. This is mainly a chemical process and depends on the nature of mixture
composition, temperature and turbulence.
The second stage (BC) corresponds to the propagation of the flame
throughout the combustion chamber. The second stage begins at the point where
first measurable rise of pressure can be seen on the indicator diagram. The rate of
pressure rise is proportional to the rate of heat release because during this stage the
combustion volume is nearly constant. The spark occurs at the point A, there is a
"delay period" between the occurrence of the spark and the noticeable pressure
rise from that of motoring compression. This is a time delay which is independent
of engine speed so that as the engine speed is increased the point A must occur
earlier in the cycle to obtain the best position of the peak pressure.
Although the point C marks the completion of the flame travel, it does not
follow that at this point the whole of the heat of the fuel has been liberated, some
further chemical adjustments due to re-association, etc., and what is generally
referred to as after – burning, will to a greater or less degree continue throughout
the expansion stroke.
52
Fig 4.1 Pressure-Crank angle diagram of spark-ignition engine.
4.1.1 Effect of engine variables on first stage:
Electrode gap: If the gap is too small, quenching of the flame nucleus may occur
and the range of fuel / air ratio for the development of a flame nucleus is reduced.
53
Turbulence: Turbulence is directly proportional to engine speed. Therefore

increase in engine speed does not affect much ignition lag measured in
millisecond.
4.1.2 Effect of engine variable on second stage:
There are several factors which affect the second stage (flame speed) such as:
1- Fuel / air ratio:
54
2- Compression Ratio:
Actual indicator diagram at different compression ratios.
55
Fig. 9-5 shows the increased speed of combustion with increase of compression
ratio. These diagrams are for Ricardo variable compression ratio engine at CR=4,
5, 6with the same mixture strength and the same ignition timing.
3-Intake pressure and temperature: increase in intake pressure and temperature

increases the flame speed.
4-Engine load: with increase in engine load the cycle pressure increases hence the
flame speed increase.
5-Turbulence: Turbulence plays a very vital role in combustion phenomenon. The
flame speed is very low in non-turbulent miniatures. A turbulent motion of the
mixture intensifies the process of heat transfer and mixing of the burned and
unburned portion in the flame front. These two factors cause the velocity of
turbulent flame to increase.
4.2 Abnormal Combustion:
Normal combustion rarely occurs in a real engine without some trace of auto
ignition appearing. After ignition, the flame front travels across the combustion
chamber. The gas a heat of the flame front called the "end gas ". The end gas
receives heat due to compression by expanding gases and by radiation from the
advancing flame front, therefore, its temperature and density increases. If the
temperature exceeds the self – ignition temperature and the un-burnt gas remains at
or above this temperature for a period of time equal to/or greater the delay period,
spontaneous ignition (or auto ignition) will occurs at various locations. Shortly
after words an audible sound called knock appears. If the end gas does not reach
its self-ignition temperature, the combustion will be normal.
56
4.2.1 Effect of Knock:
Knock has the following effects on engine operation:

1. Noise and Roughness.
2. Mechanical damage: increase in engine wear, cylinder head and valves may be
pitted.
3. Carbon deposits.
4. Increase in heat transfer.
5. Decrease in power output and efficiency.
6. Pre-ignition: combustion Occurs before the spark.
4.2.2 Effect of engine variables on Knock:
To prevent Knock in the S.I. engine the end gas should have:
A- Low temperature.
B- Low density.
C- Long ignition delay.
D- Non- reactive combustion.
57
When the engine conditions are changed, the effect of the change may be reflected
by more than one of the above variables.
A- Temperature factors:
The temperature of the unburned mixture is increased by the following factors:

1. Raising the compression ratio.
2. Supercharging.
3. Raising the inlet temperature.
4. Raising the coolant temp.
5. Increasing load.
6. Advancing the spark.
7. Raising the temperature of the cylinder and combustion chamber walls.
B- Density factors:
Increasing density by any of the following methods, will increase the possibility of
Knock:
1. Increasing load.
2. Increasing compression ratio.
3. Supercharging.
4. Advancing the spark.
C- Time factors:
Increasing the time of exposure of the unburned mixture to auto-ignitions by any of
the following factors will increase tendency to knock:
1. Increasing the distance of the flame travel.

2. Decreasing the turbulence of mixture.
3. Decreasing the speed of the engine.
D- Composition:
The probability of Knock in S.I. engines is decreased by:
1. Increasing the octane rating of the fuel.
2. Either rich or lean mixtures.
3. Stratifying the mixture.
4. Increasing the humidity of the entering air.
4.3 Knock rating of S.I. Fuels:
58
The Knock rating of a gasoline is found by comparing the Knock of the fuel under
test with that of a blend of primary reference fuels (PRF). These fuels are n-
heptanes (C7H16), which have a very low auto ignition reaction time and treated as
fuel with octane number (ON) of O and 2,2,4- trimethyl pentane (iso- octane),
which has inactive auto ignition reaction and is treated as ON equal to 100. The
fuel is rated by the percent of iso - octane in the n- heptane and iso- octane
mixture.
There are several methods of Knock rating to suit the various matching conditions
for different engines and operating variables, and in each of these methods, a
standard engine built to exacting specifications must be run under prescribed
operating conditions.
The standard engine used for either the research or motor method is the CFR (Co -
operative Fuel research) engine. Motor and research methods: the engine must first
be calibrated under specified conditions, such as those indicated below:
The sensitivity of a fuel to knock is measured by the difference in the two

knock ratings; the greater the difference the greater the fuel sensitivity. The Octane
rating of fuel is lower in the motor method than in the research method.
4.4 Influence of fuel additive on knock:
It is the possible to raise the Octane number of fuel by refining methods

alone, but these methods are in general expensive. These additives are used to rise
ON of the fuel, control surface ignition, reduce spark plug fouling, resist gum
formation, prevent rust, reduce carburetor icing, remove carburetor or injector
deposits, minimize deposits in intake system, and prevent valve sticking. The most
effective antiknock agents are lead alkyls. Tetraethyl lead (TEL), (C2H5)4 Pb, was
first introduced in 1923.
59
Tetramethyl lead (TML), (CH3)4 Pb, was introduced in 1960. In 1959 manganese
antiknock compound (methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl), MMT, was
introduced. The interest in unleaded gasoline was started in 1970 because of the
issue of legislation in many developing countries which control harmful pollutants.
Lead has toxicological effect in the urban environment and the use of catalytic
devices for emission control was introduced. The expanding use of unleaded fuels
has increased interest in other methods of increasing the ON of gasoline, one of
these methods is; the oxygenates (alcohols and ethers) as fuel additives to increase
Octane rating.
4.5 Uncontrolled Combustion:
Under certain conditions the fuel- air mixture is ignited by hot spot in the cylinder.
The hot spot might be the spark plug insulator or electrode, or combustion deposits
etc…. When ignition occurs before the spark the phenomenon is called pre-
ignition. When the phenomenon occurs after ignition is switched off it is called
running- on. Combustion deposit ignition is called rumbling.
60
Chapter 5
Compression Ignition Engine
Definition:
A diesel engine, which is also known as a compression-ignition engine, is an

internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression for the fuel to self-
ignite, the fuel is directly injected into the combustion chamber. In a compression
ignition engine there is no spark to create the flame but rather high temperatures
and pressures in the combustion chamber cause a flame to initiate at different sites
of the combustion chamber.
Pressure to crank angle diagram:
61
Ignition Delay Period:
As shown in the previous figure there is an obvious delay between the point where
the injection has started and the point the combustion started before the piston
reached the TDC and before the expansion stroke. The ignition delay is generally
caused as a result of the fuels‟ physical and chemical delays.
1. Physical delay: it is the time taken from the moment of injection until the
chemical reactions starts when meets the self-ignition conditions.
2. Chemical delay: the chemical reactions usually start slowly and then
accelerate as the ignition conditions are met. It usually depends on the
temperature and pressure applied on the fuel mixture.
Diesel knocking:
Diesel knocking primarily occurs because of the high rate of pressure rise which is
mainly caused by a prolonged Ignition Delay Period in the combustion process.
The knocking is usually caused by:
1- Design defects that permit low pressure ratios, which decreases the
temperature peak in the combustion chamber.
2- Low combustion pressure due to the failure of the pistons and valves.
3- Poor fuel ignition.
4- Low air intake.
5- Defected fuel injectors.
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Combustion chamber shapes designs:

1- Direct injection
 Shallow depth chamber:
the depth of the cavity provided in the piston is quite small.This chamber is usually
adopted for large engines running at low speeds.Since the cavity diameter is very
large, the squish is negligible.
 Hemispherical chamber:
This chamber also gives small squish. However, the depth to diameter ratio for a
cylindrical chamber can be varied to give any desired squish to give better
performance.
 Cylindrical chamber:
This design was attempted in recent diesel engines.This is a modification of the

cylindrical chamber in the form or a truncated cone with base angle of 30.
The swirl was produced by masking the valve for nearly 180 of circumference.
 Toroidal chamber:
The idea behind this shape is to provide a powerful squish along the air movement,
similar to that of the familiar smoke ring within the toroidal chamber.
63
2- Indirect injection
Swirl chamber:
It consists of a spherical chamber located in the cylinder head and separated from
the engine cylinder by a tangential throat. About 50% of the air enters the swirl
chamber during the compression stroke of the engine, producing a swirl.
After combustion, the products return through the same throat to the main cylinder
at much higher velocity. So more heat loss to walls of the passage takes place. This
type of chamber finds application in engines in which fuel control and engine
stability are more important than fuel economy. These are Ricardo chambers.
64
 Pre-combustion chamber:
This chamber is located at the cylinder head and is connected to the engine
cylinder by small holes. It occupies 40% of the total cylinder volume. During the
compression stroke, air from the main cylinder enters the precombustion chamber.
At this moment, fuel is injected into the precombustion chamber and combustion
begins. Pressure increases and the fuel droplets are forced through the small holes
into the main cylinder, resulting in a very good mix of the fuel and air. The bulk of
the combustion actually takes place in the main cylinder. This type of combustion
chamber has multi-fuel capability because the temperature of the prechamber
vaporizes the fuel before the main combustion event occurs
65
 Air cell chamber:

The air cell is a small cylindrical chamber with a hole in one end. It is mounted
more or less coaxially with the injector, said axis being parallel to the piston
crown, with the injector firing across a small cavity which is open to the
cylinder into the hole in the end of the air cell. The air cell is mounted so as to
minimize thermal contact with the mass of the head. A pintle injector with a
narrow spray pattern is used. At TDC the majority of the charge mass is
contained in the cavity and air cell.
When the injector fires the jet of fuel enters the air cell and ignites. This results
in a jet of flame shooting back out of the air cell directly into the jet of fuel still
issuing from the injector. The heat and turbulence give excellent fuel
vaporization and mixing properties. Also since the majority of the combustion
takes place outside the air cell in the cavity, which communicates directly with
the cylinder, there is less heat loss involved in transferring the burning charge
into the cylinder.
Air cell injection can be considered as a sort of half way stage between fully
indirect and fully direct injection, gaining some of the efficiency advantages of
66
direct injection while retaining the simplicity and ease of development of

indirect injection.
Air cell chambers are commonly named Lanova air chambers.
Applications of Compression Ignition Engine:
The characteristics of diesel have different advantages for different applications.

1. Passenger cars
2. Railroad rolling stock
3. Transport uses as aircraft, marine and motorcycles
4. Military fuel standardization
5. Power permanent, portable, and backup generators.
Advantages of indirect injection combustion chambers
 Smaller diesels can be produced.

 The injection pressure required is low, so the injector is cheaper to produce.
 The injection direction is of less importance.
67
 Indirect injection is much simpler to design and manufacture; less injector

development is required and the injection pressures are low (1500 psi versus
5000 psi and higher for direct injection)
 The lower stresses that indirect injection imposes on internal components mean
that it is possible to produce petrol and indirect injection diesel versions of the
same basic engine. At best such types differ only in the cylinder head and the
need to fit a distributor and spark plugs in the petrol version whilst fitting
an injection pump and injectors to the diesel. Examples include the BMC A-
Series and B-Series engines and the Land Rover 2.25/2.5-litre 4-cylinder types.
Such designs allow petrol and diesel versions of the same vehicle to be built
with minimal design changes between them.
 Higher engine speeds can be reached, since burning continues in the pre
chamber. The Mercedes-Benz type pre chamber is able to achieve over
6000rpm in a turbocharged engine.
 Indirect injection is superior for running on thicker vegetable oil fuel, due to
lower pressure injection, a longer burn time and increased swirl ensuring more
complete combustion.
Disadvantages
 Specific fuel consumption is high because of heat loss due to large exposed
areas and pressure loss due to air motion through the throats.
 Glow plugs are needed for a cold engine start.
 Because the heat and pressure of combustion is applied to one specific point on
the piston as it exits the pre combustion chamber or swirl chamber, such
engines are less suited to high specific power outputs (such as turbocharging or
tuning) than direct injection diesels. The increased temperature and pressure on
one part of the piston crown causes uneven expansion which can lead to
cracking, distortion or other damage.
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Chapter 6
Engine Performance
Engine performance is an indication about the degree of success in conversion of

the chemical energy contained in the fuel into useful mechanical work. The degree
of success is compared on the basis of the following:
 Specific fuel consumption

 Brake mean effective pressure
 Specific power output
 Specific weight
 Exhaust smoke and other emissions
The particular applications of the engine decide the relative importance of these
performance parameters. For example, for an industrial engine specific fuel
consumption is more important.
6.1 Brake Torque and Power

Engine torque is normally measured with a dynamometer. The engine is
damped on a test bed and the shaft is connected to the dynamometer rotor. Figure
(6.1) illustrates the operating principle of a dynamometer. The rotor is coupled
electromagnetically, hydraulically, or by mechanical friction to a stator, which is
supported in low friction bearings.
The stator is balanced with the rotor stationary. The torque exerted on the stator
with the rotor turning is measured by balancing the stator with weights, springs or
pneumatic means
Using the notation in Fig. (6.1), if the torque exerted by the engine is :
The power (𝑃) delivered by the engine and absorbed by dynamometer is the
product of torque and angular speed:
69
Where the angular velocity, and 𝑁 is the crank shaft is the rotational speed
( ).
Notice that torque is a measure of an engine‟s ability to do work and power is the
rate at which work is done.
The value of engine power measured as described above is called break power
( 𝑃). This power is the usable power delivered by the engine to the load – in this
case, “brake.”
Fig. (6.1) Schematic of principle of operation of dynamometer
6. 2 Indicated Work per Cycle

Pressure data for the gas in this cycle over the operating cycle of the engine can be
used to calculate the work transfer from the gas to the piston. The cylinder pressure
and corresponding cylinder volume throughout the engine cycle can be plotted on a
(p-v) diagram as shown in Fig. (2.8)
The indicated work per cycle (per cylinder) is obtained by integrating around the
curve to obtain the area enclosed on the diagram:
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The indicate power is given by:

𝑁
𝑃
This power is the indicated power; i.e., the rate of work transfer from the gas
within the cylinder to the piston. It differs from the brake power by the power
absorped in the overcoming engine friction, driving engine accessories.
The sum of brake power and friction power provides an alternative way of
estimating indicated power. Fig. (6.2) shows the relation between the engine speed
( ) and sum performance parameters such as 𝑃, 𝑃, 𝑃, and .
The terms brake and indicated are used to describe other parameters such as mean
effective pressure, specific fuel consumptions and specific emissions.
6.3 Mechanical Efficiency

We have seen that part of the indicated power is used to expel exhaust gases and
indicate fresh charge. An additional portion is used to overcome the friction of the
bearings, pistons, and other mechanical components of the engine, and to drive the
engine accessories. All if these power requirements are grouped together and
called friction power ( 𝑃) thus:
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
Friction power is difficult to determine accurately. One common approach for

high-speed engines is to drive or motor the engine with a dynamometer (i.e.,
operate the engine without firing it) and measure the power which has to be
supplied by the dynamometer to overcome all these frictional losses.
The major sources of inaccuracy with this method are that gas pressure forces on
the piston and rings are lower in the motored test than when the engine is firing
and that the temperatures on the cylinder wall are also lower under motoring
conditions
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The ratio of the brake (or useful) power delivered by the engine to the indicated
power is called the mechanical efficiency ( )
𝑃 𝑃
𝑃 𝑃
Where:
imep= indicated mean effective pressure
Vst= stroke volume per cylinder
N= engine rotational speed (rpm)
n= number of crank revolutions per each power stroke
n=2 for four stroke engines and, =1 for two stoke engines
z= the number of engine cylinders
Fig. (6.2) the relation between engine speed and some performance parameters for 6 cylinder SIE
72
6.4 Specific Fuel Consumption and Efficiency:

In engine tests, the fuel consumption is measured as a flow rate-mass flow per unit
time ( ). A more useful parameter is the specific fuel consumption ( ) i.e., the
fuel flow rate per unit power output.
It measures how efficiently an engine is using the fuel supplied to produce work:
⁄
𝑃
𝑂
𝑃
Low values of are obviously desirable. For SI engines (Figure 6.3) typical best
values of brake specific fuel consumption ( ) are about ⁄
⁄ . For CI engines, best values are lower and in large engines can go
below ⁄ ⁄ .
The specific fuel consumption has units. A dimensionless parameter that relates the
desired engine output (power) to the necessary input (fuel flow) would have more
fundamental value.
The ratio of the work produced per cycle to the amount of fuel energy supplied per
cycle that can be released in the combustion process is commonly used for this
purpose. It is a measure of the engine‟s efficiency.
The fuel energy supplied, which can be released by combustion, is given by the
mass of fuel supplied to the engine per cycle times the heating value of the fuel.
The heating value (calorific value) of a fuel (CV) defines its energy content. It is
determined in a standardized test procedure in which a known mass of fuel is fully
burned with air, and the thermal energy released by the combustion is absorbed by
a calorimeter as the combustion products cool down to their original temperature.
73
This measure of an engine‟s “efficiency,” which sometimes called the fuel

conversation efficiency, is given by
𝑃
Where is the fuel mass flow rat (Kg/s).
Since there are two types of power, also there are two types of efficiency:
𝑃
Or
Typical heating values for the commercial hydrocarbon fuels used in engines are in
the range 42 to 44 . Thus, specific fuel consumption is inversely
proportional to fuel conversion efficiency for normal hydrocarbon fuels.
Note that the fuel energy supplied to the engine per cycle is not fully released as
thermal energy in the combustion process because the actual combustion process is
incomplete.
When enough air is present in the cylinder to oxidize the fuel completely, almost
all (more than about 96 percent) of this fuel energy supplied is transferred as
thermal energy to the working fluid. When insufficient air is present to oxidize the
fuel completely, lack of oxygen prevents this fuel energy supplied from being fully
released.
74
Fig. (6.3) The relation between engine speed and ηm, bsfc and isfc for 6 cylinder
SIE
6.5 Volumetric Efficiency
The intake system – the air filter, carburetor, and throttle plate (in a spark ignition
engine), intake manifold, intake port, intake value-restricts the amount of air which
an engine of given displacement can induct. The parameter used to measure the
effectiveness of an engine‟s induction process is the volumetric efficiency.
Volumetric efficiency is only used with four-stroke cycle engines, which have a
distinct induction process. It is defined as the volume flow rate of air into the
intake system divided by the rate at which volume is displaced by piston:
Or
Where
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is the mass of air inducted into the engine

is the inlet change density
is the number of firing cycles = N/n
can be approximated as:
𝑁
Where
is the actual density of the charge trapped in the cylinder.
On this basis the volumetric efficiency becomes:
The inlet density may either be taken as atmosphere air density (in which case ,
measure performance of the entire inlet system) or may be taken as the air density
in the inlet manifold (in which case , measures the pumping performance of the
inlet port and value only).
The volumetric efficiency is affected by the fuel type, engine design (figure 6.4)
and the engine operating conditions:
1- Fuel type, fuel/air ratio, fraction if the fuel vaporized in the intake system,
and fuel heat of vaporization.
2- Mixture temperature as influenced by heat transfer.
3- Ratio of exhaust to inlet manifold pressures.
4- Compression speed.
5- Engine speed.
6- Intake and exhaust manifold and port design.
7- Intake and exhaust value geometry, size, lift and timings.
Typical maximum values of for naturally aspirated engines are in the range 80
to 90 percent. The volumetric efficiency for diesels is somewhat higher than for SI
engines.
76
Fig. (6.4) Intake system and its effect on inlet pressure
Factors affecting on the volumetric efficiency:
The volumetric efficiency is affected by the fuel type, engine design and engine
operating conditions:
• Fuel type, fuel/air ratio, fraction of fuel vaporized in the intake system,
and fuel heat of vaporization
• Mixture temperature as influenced by heat transfer
• Ratio of exhaust to inlet manifold pressures
• Compression ratio
77
• Engine speed
• Intake and exhaust manifold and port design
• Intake and exhaust valve geometry, size, lift, and timings
Typical maximum valves of for naturally aspirated engines are in the range 80
to 90 percent. The volumetric efficiency for diesel is somewhat higher than for SI
engines.
6.6 Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume

Engine weight and bulk volume for a given rated power are important in many
applications. Two parameters useful for comparing these attributes from one
engine to another are:
For these parameters to be useful in engine comparisons, a consistent definition of

what components and auxiliaries are included in the term “engine” must be
adhered to. These parameters indicate the effectiveness with which the engine
designer has used the engine materials and packaged the engine components.
Specific power is thus proportional to the product of mean effective pressure and
mean piston speed.
These relationships illustrate the direct important to engine performance of:
1. High fuel conversion efficiency.

2. High volumetric efficiency.
3. Increasing the output of a given displacement engine by increasing the inlet
air density.
78
4. Maximum fuel/air ratio that can be usefully burned in the engine.

5. High mean piston speed.
6.7 Engine Design and Performance Data

Engine ratings usually indicate the highest power at which manufacturers expect
their products to give satisfactory economy, reliability, and durability under service
conditions. Maximum torque, and the speed at which it is achieved, is usually
given also.
Since both of these quantities depend on displaced volume, for comparative

analysis between engines of different displacements in a given engine category
normalized performance parameters are more useful. The following measures, at
the operating points indicated, have most significance:
1- At maximum or normal rated point:

Mean piston speed. Measures comparative success in handling loads due to
inertia of the parts and/or engine friction.
Brake mean effective pressure. In naturally aspirated engines bmep is not
stress limited. It then reflects the product of volumetric efficiency (ability to
induct air), fuel/air ratio (effectiveness of air utilization in combustion), and
fuel conversion efficiency. In supercharged engines bmep indicates the
degree of success in handling higher gas pressures and thermal loading.
Power per unit piston area. Measures the effectiveness with which the
piston area is used, regardless of cylinder size.
Specific weight, indicates relative economy with which materials are used.
Specific volume, indicates relative effectiveness with which engine space has
been utilized.
2- At all speeds at which the engine will be used with full throttle or with
maximum fuel-pump setting:
Brake mean effective pressure. Measures ability to obtain/provide high air
flow and use it effectively over the full range.
3- At all useful regimes of operation and particularly in those regimes
where the engine is run for long periods of time:
Brake specific fuel consumption or fuel conversion efficiency.
Brake specific emissions.
79
Typical performance data for spark-ignition and diesel engines over the normal
production size range are summarized in table (6.1) the four-stroke cycle
dominates except in the smallest and largest engine sizes.
The larger engines are turbocharged or supercharged. The maximum rated engine
speed decreases as engine size increases, maintaining the maximum mean piston
speed in the range of about 8 to 15 m/s. the maximum brake mean effective
pressure for turbo-charged and supercharged engines is higher than for naturally
aspirated engines.
Because the maximum fuel/air ratio for spark-ignition engines is higher than for
diesels, their naturally aspirated maximum bmep levels are higher. As engine size
increases, brake specific fuel consumption decreases and fuel conversion
efficiency increases, due to reduced importance of heat losses and friction. For the
largest diesel engines, brake fuel conversion efficiencies of about 50 % and
indicated fuel conversion efficiencies of over 55 % can be obtained.
6.8 Valve Timing

The valve timing is dictated by the camshaft and follower system dynamic that
depends on their design, engine design and engine operating conditions.
Fig. (6.5) shows the valve timing for two types of the engines, the first one (Fig.
6.5a) is typical of compression ignition engine or conventional spark ignition
engine. While the other one (Fig. 6.5b) is typical of a high performance spark
ignition engine.
The valve timing is as follows:
- Inlet valve opening (IVO) 10-30o before TDC

- Inlet valve closing (IVC) 50-70o after BDC
- Exhaust valve opening (EVO) 40-70o before BDC
- Exhaust valve closing (EVC) 10-30o after TDC
Valve overlap is the time at which the two valves are opening at the same time.
Valve overlap has an inverse proportionality with the engine speed; so as the
engine speed increases the valve overlap decreases.
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Fig. (6.5) Valve timing diagrams (a) small valve

overlap
6.9 Energy Distribution

About 35% percent of the total chemical energy that enters an engine in the fuel is
converted to useful crankshaft work, and about 30% of the fuel energy is carried
away from the engine in the exhaust flow in the form of enthalpy and chemical
energy. This leaves about one-third of the total energy that must be dissipated to
the surroundings by some mode of heat transfer. Temperatures within the
combustion chamber of an engine reach values on the order of 2700 K and up.
Materials in the engine cannot tolerate this kind of temperature and would quickly
fail if proper heat transfer did not occur. Removing heat is highly critical in
keeping an engine and engine lubricant from thermal failure. On the other hand, it
is desirable to operate an engine as hot as possible to maximize thermal efficiency.
Two general methods are used to cool combustion chambers of engines. The
engine block of a water-cooled engine is surrounded with a water jacket that
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contains a coolant fluid which is circulated through the engine. An air-cooled

engine has a finned outer surface on the block over which a flow of air is directed.
Engine Energy Balance
The energy input to the engine goes out in various forms a part is in the form of
brake output, a part into exhaust, and the rest is taken by cooling water and the
lubricating oil.
• The break-up of the total energy input into these different parts is called the heat
balance.
• The main components in a heat balance are brake output, coolant losses, heat
going to exhaust, radiation and other losses.
• Preparation of heat balance sheet gives us an idea about the amount of energy
wasted in various parts and allows us to think of methods to reduce the losses so
incurred.
Qf= BP + FP + Qc + Qexh
• Qf= BP + FP + Qc + Qexh + Qo.L

• Qf = ̇
• BP = 25-40%, depending on the size and geometry of engine as well as how
it is being operated
• Qc = ̇ ( ) = 10-30%
• Qexh = ̇ = 20-45%
• ̇ = ̇ + ̇ = ̇ (1 +A/F)
• Qo.L= 10-30%
The performance of an engine is usually studied by heat balance-sheet. The main

components of the heat balance are:
 Heat equivalent to the effective (brake) work of the engine,

 Heat rejected to the cooling medium,
 Heat carried away from the engine with the exhaust gases, and Un-
accounted losses.
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 The unaccounted losses include the radiation losses from the various
parts of the engine and heat lost due to incomplete combustion.
The friction loss is not shown as a separate item to the heat balance-sheet as the
friction loss ultimately reappears as heat in cooling water, exhaust and radiation.
The Following table gives the approximate values of various losses in SI and CI
engines
Distribution of Energy in SI engine as a function of engine speed
83
Friction Power
Is the power absorbed in overcoming engine friction, driving engine accessories

(FP)? The frictional losses are ultimately dissipated to the cooling system (and
exhaust). Almost invariably, the difference between a good engine and a bad
engine is due to difference between their frictional losses.
The frictional losses are ultimately dissipated to the cooling system (and exhaust)
as they appear in the form of frictional heat and this influences the cooling capacity
required. Moreover, lower friction means availability of more brake power; hence
brake specific fuel consumption is lower. The level of friction decides the
maximum output of the engine which can be obtained economically.
In the design and testing of an engine; measurement of friction power is important

for getting an insight into the methods by which the output of an engine can be
increased.
In the evaluation of IP and mechanical efficiency measured friction power is also

used. The friction force power of an engine is determined by the following
methods:
(a) Willan‟s line method.
(b) Morse test.
(c) Motoring test.
(d) Difference between IP and BP.
Willan's Line Method or Fuel Rate Extrapolation
The test is applicable only to compression ignition engines. In this method, gross
fuel consumption vs. BP at a constant speed is plotted and the graph is extrapolated
back to zero fuel consumption. The point where this graph cuts the BP axis in an
indication of the friction power of the engine at that speed.
This negative work represents the combined loss due to mechanical friction,
pumping and blow-by. The main drawback of this method is the long distance to
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be extrapolated from data measured between 5 and 40% load towards the zero line
of fuel input. The accuracy obtained in this method is good and compares
favorably with other methods if extrapolation is carefully done.
Morse Test
The Morse test is applicable only to multi-cylinder engines. In this test, the engine
is first run at the required speed and the output is measured. Then, one cylinder is
cut out by short circuiting the spark plug or by disconnecting the injector as the
case may be. Under this condition all other cylinders „motor‟ this cut-out cylinder.
The output is measured by keeping the speed constant at its original value. The
difference in the outputs is a measure of the indicated horse power of the cut-out
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cylinder. Thus, for each cylinder the IP is obtained and is added together to find the
total IP of the engine.
• The IP of n cylinder is given by
• IPn = BPn + FP .
• IP for (n − 1) cylinders is given by
• IP(n – 1) = BP(n – 1) + FP
• Since, the engine is running at the same speed it is quite reasonable to

assume that FP remains constant.
• The IP of the nth cylinder is given by
• (IP) nth = BPn − BP(n – 1) . . . (7.19)
and the total IP of the engine is,
• IP=IP1 +IP2 + Ip3 + …….. IPnth
By subtracting BPn from this, FP of the engine can be obtained
Motoring Test
In the motoring test, the engine is first run up to the desired speed by its own
power and allowed to remain at the given speed and load conditions for some time
so that oil, water, and engine component temperatures reach stable conditions.
The power of the engine during this period is absorbed by a swinging field type
electric dynamometer, which is most suitable for this test. The fuel supply is then
cut-off and by suitable electric-switching devices the dynamometer is converted to
run as a motor to drive for „motor‟ the engine at the same speed at which it was
previously running.
The power supply to the motor is measured which is a measure of the fhp of the
engine. During the motoring test the water supply is also cut-off so that the actual
operating temperatures are maintained. Motoring method, however, gives
86
reasonably good results and is very suitable for finding the losses due to various
engine components.
Difference between IP and BP
• The method of finding the fp by computing the difference between ip, as

obtained from an indicator diagram, and bp, as obtained by a dynamometer,
is the ideal method.
• However, due to difficulties. In obtaining accurate indicator diagrams,

especially at high engine speeds, this method is usually only used in research
laboratories. Its use at commercial level is very limited.
Comments on Methods of Measuring FP
The Willan‟ line method and Morse tests are very cheap and easy to conduct.
However, both these tests give only an overall idea of the losses whereas motoring
test gives a very good insight into the various causes of losses and is a much more
powerful tool.
As far as accuracy is concerned the (IP – BP) method is the most accurate if
carefully done. Motoring method usually gives a higher value for FP as compared
to that given by the Willian‟s line method.
Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume
Engine weight and bulk volume for a given rated power are important in many
applications. Two parameters useful for comparing these attributes from one
engine to another are:
• Kg/Kw
• Specific power is thus proportional to the product of mean effective pressure

and mean piston speed.
87
• Sp.W α bmep * Vp & imep α ̇
• Vp = 2Lst *N /60 & α
The direct importance to engine performance:
 High fuel conversion efficiency

 High volumetric efficiency
 Increasing the output of a given displacement engine by increasing the inlet
air density
 Maximum fuel/air ratio that can be usefully burned in the engine
 High mean piston speed
88
Sheet (3)
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
[1] A nine cylinder petrol engine of bore 145 mm and 190 mm stroke has a
compression ratio of 5.9 to 1 and develops 460 B.H.P at 2000 r.p.m., when running
on a mixture 20 % lean. The fuel used has a calorific value of 46816 kj per kg and
contains 85.3 % carbon and 14.7 % hydrogen. Assuming a volumetric efficiency of
70 % at 15 0 C and a mechanical efficiency of 90 %, find the indicated thermal
efficiency of the engine.
[2] An eight cylinder automobile engine of 85.7 mm bore and 82.5 mm stroke with
a compression ratio of 7 is tested 4000 r.p.m. on a dynamometer which has a 53.35
cm arm. During a 10 minute test at a dynamometer scale beam reading of 40.8 kg,
4.55 kg of gasoline for which the calorific value is 46200 kj/kg are burned, and air
at 21 0C and 1.027 kg/cm2 is supplied to the carburetor at the rate of 5.44 kg per
min. Find the B.H.P. delivered, the b.m.e.p., the b.s.f.c., the brake specific air
consumption, the brake thermal efficiency, the volumetric efficiency, and the air-
fuel ratio.
[3] A six-cylinder petrol engine develops 62 H.P at 3000 r.p.m. The volumetric
efficiency at N.T.P. is 85%. The bore is equal to the stroke and thermal efficiency
of 25 % may be assumed. Calorific value of petrol is 44100 kj/kg. Air-fuel ratio is
to be 15:1. Calculate the cylinder bore and stroke.
[4] A four-stroke gas engine has a cylinder diameter 27 cm and piston stroke 45
cm. The effective diameter of the brake is 1.62 meters. The observations made in a
test of the engine were as follows:
Duration of test 38 min 30 sec
Total no. of revolutions 8080
Total number of explosions 3230
Net load on the brake 92 kg
I.m.e.p 5.75 bar
89
Gas used 7.7 m3
Pressure of gas at meter 135 mm of water above atmospheric

pressure
Atmospheric temperature 15 0C
Height of barometer 750mm Hg
Calorific value of gas 4400 kcal/M3 at N.T.P.
Mass of jacket cooling water 183 kg
Rise in temperature of cooling water 47 0C
Draw up a heat balance sheet and estimate indicated and brake thermal efficiency.
To draw heat balance sheet you have to calculate heat supplied and heat loss due to
cooling water the heat lost due to radiation.
[5] In a trial of an oil engine, the following data were obtained: engine speed =
1750 rpm, brake torque = 350 N.m, fuel consumption = 9.35 kg, fuel calorific
value = 42300 kj/kg, duration of trial = 30 min. Air consumption = 182 kg,
atmospheric temperature = 17 oC, exhaust temperature. = 486 oC, cooling water =
483 kg with and inlet and outlet temperatures of 17 and 77 oC. Calculate the brake
power and the brake specific fuel consumption in kg/kW.hr and the indicated
thermal efficiency if the mechanical efficiency is 83%. Assuming the mean
specific heat of the exhaust gases to be 1.25 kj/kg.K, draw up the engine energy
balance expressing the various items in kj/min
[6] A twin-cylinder two-stroke engine has a swept volume of 150 cm3. The
maximum power output is 19 kW at 11000 rpm. At this condition the bsfc is 0.11
kg/ MJ, and the gravimetric air/fuel ratio is 12:1. If ambient test conditions were
l0°C and 1.03 bar, and the fuel has a calorific value of 44 MJ/kg, calculate the
bmep, the brake thermal efficiency and the volumetric efficiency.
90
[7] A six-cylinder, gasoline engine operates on the four-stroke cycle. The bore of
each cylinder is 80 mm and the stroke is 100 mm. The clearance volume per
cylinder is 70 cc. At the speed of 4100 rpm, the fuel consumption is 5.5 gm/sec. [or
19.8 kg/hr.) and the torque developed is 160 Nm. Calculate: (i) Brake power, (ii)
The brake mean effective pressure, (iii) Brake thermal efficiency if the calorific
value of the fuel is 44000 kJ/kg and (iv) The relative efficiency on a brake power
basis assuming the engine works on the constant volume cycle γ = 1.4 for air.
[8] A gasoline engine is specified to be 4-stroke and four-cylinder. It has a bore of

80 mm and a stroke of 100 mm. On test it develops a torque of 75 Nm when
running at 3000 rpm. If the clearance volume in each cylinder is 60 cc the relative
efficiency with respect to brake thermal efficiency is 0.5 and the calorific value of
the fuel is 42 MJ/kg; determine the fuel consumption in kg/hr. and the brake mean
effective pressure.
[9] A six-cylinder, four-stroke engine gasoline engine having a bore of 90 mm and

stroke of 100 mm has a compression ratio 8. The relative efficiency is 60%, when
the indicated specific fuel consumption is 3009 g/kWh. Estimate:
(i) The calorific value of the fuel and
(ii) fuel consumption given that imep is 8.5 bar and engine speed is 2500 rpm.
[10] A 4-cylinder, 4-stroke cycle engine having cylinder diameter 100 mm and
stroke 120 mm was tested at 1600 rpm and the following readings were obtained.
Fuel consumption = 0.27 litres/minute, Specific gravity fuel = 0.74, B.P. = 31.4
kW, Mechanical efficiency = 80%, Calorific value of fuel= 44000 kJ/kg.
Determine:
(i) bsfc, (ii) imep, and (iii) Brake thermal efficiency.
[11] In a trial a four stroke, petrol engine of 62.5 mm bore and 11.5 mm, the
following data were obtained at a constant speed of 1500 rpm:
Torque N.m 84.86 85.35 85.54 85.54 83.97 79.95 73.67

m.f Kg/hr 5.48 5.25 5.15 4.98 4.56 4.25 4.03
91
Plot the values of the brake specific fuel consumption in (g/kW.hr) on a base of
brake power and comment on the results.
[12] In a diesel engine runs on gas oil whose calorific value is 40,000 KJ/kg at a
constant speed of 25 rps , the following data were obtained:
BP HP 5.19 4.34 3.66 2.56 1.57 1.1 0.5

m.f Kg/hr 1.14 0.935 0.829 0.641 0.53 0.41 0.35
Draw curves showing the variations of the brake specific fuel consumption in
(g/kW.hr) and the brake thermal efficiency with load and comment on the results.
[13] The following results were obtained from a set of trials at full throttle of a
single cylinder four stroke S.I. engine.
CR 3.8 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.4 5.8

.
mf Kg/min 0.11 0.11 0.1097 0.1088 0.1088 0.1088
Torque N.m 107.9 115.4 122 127.1 130.9 135.4
Friction N.m 16.3 16.7 17.7 17.7 18.2 18.6
The engine speed was kept constant at 25 rps. Calorific value of the fuel is 40
MJ/kg. Plot curves of brake, indicate and mechanical efficiencies on compression
ratio base.
92

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Mechanical Engineering Department

Faculty of Engineering, Mataria, Helwan University

1.1 Heat Engines Classifications

Figure (1-1): Engine Classification

Figure (1-2): Diagrammatic representation of reciprocating piston engine.

2. Open Cycle Gas Turbine:

Figure (1-3): Diagrammatic representation of gas turbine

3. The Wankel Engine

Figure (1-4): Wankel four- process cycle

4. Steam Power Plant

Figure (1-5): Diagrammatic representation of steam power plant

Advantages of I.C.E. over E.C.E.

Internal combustion engines can be classified in a number of different ways

Figure (1-6): Cylinder events of four- stroke cycle

(b) Two-stroke cycle

Figure (1-7): Cylinder events of two- stroke cycle

Figure (1-8): Classification of engines by valve location

rod, which in turn, is connected to the crankshaft. A bank of cylinders on a radial

Figure (1-9): Classification of engines by cylinder arrangement

8. Method of fuel input for compression ignition engines

10. Use of the Engine:

Internal Combustion Engines Terminology:

Figure (1-10) Internal Combustion Engines Terminology

Volume of the cylinder: Vcyl = Vc + Vst

I.C. Engine Parts and Details:

The main components of the reciprocating internal combustion engine are

The ignition system consists of a battery, an ignition coil, a distributor with

Figure (1-11): S.I. engine parts and details (over-head valve)

Four stroke Spark Ignition engine cycle:

First stroke: Intake stroke or Induction

Second stroke: Compression stroke:

Combustion: Combustion of an air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite

Four stroke Compression Ignition engine cycle:

Combustion: Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about

Exhaust Blow down; same as with an SI engine.

During every engine cycle, the medium changes sometimes it is a mixture of

The accurate study and analysis of I.C.E. processes is very complicated. To

1. Cylinder contains constant amount of air and it is treated as ideal gas.

1. The Otto Cycle (constant Volume):

1. Process 1 to 2 is isentropic compression;

Otto Air Standard Cycle

This cycle is applied in 4- stroke and 2- stroke engines.

Work of Otto cycle =W = Qadd – Qrej

The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle:

For ideal gas: Pv = RT

P4 = P3 (V3/V4) γ & T4 = T3 (V3/V4) γ-1

But, V1= V4 & V2= V3

T3 = T4 (r γ-1) & T2 = T1 (r γ-1)

ɳotto increased by increasing r

For Air; Cp = 1.005 Kj/Kg.K

Cv= 0.718 Kj/Kg.K

R = Cp- Cv = 0.287 Kj/Kg.K

2. The Diesel (or Constant Pressure) Cycle:

Work of Diesel cycle =W = Qadd – Qrej

ɳDiesel increased by increasing r

1. Process 1 to 2 is isentropic compression;

Qadd)total = Cv (T3 – T2) + Cp (T4 – T3) kJ/kg

Work of Diesel cycle =W = Qadd)total – Qrej

When rp = 1, then p2 = p3, we obtain diesel cycle. When rc = 1, then V3 = V4,

 Specific fuel consumption (S.F.C) = m.f / Power

Comparison of Otto, diesel and Dual Cycles:

The important parameters in cycle analysis are compression ratio, maximum

1. Equal Compression Ratio and Equal Heat added: