IGAD SHEIKH TICNICAIL UNIVERSITY

SURVEY OF IXODID TICKS INFESTING CATTLE KEPT

UNDER SEMI-INTENSIVE FARMING SYSTEM IN
GEBILEY DISTRICT, SOMALILAND.

BY ABDIHAKIIM MOHAMOUD JAMA

REG.NO: 1320

A SPECIAL PROJECT RESEARCH SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF UPGARDING DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE OF ADNA ADEN UNIVERSITY,
SOMALILAND.

JULY 2017

Declaration

As Abdihakiim Mohamoud Jama declare here that this is my original work, and has not allowed
appearing anywhere else in any other form except for the reference and literature review.

Supervisor

Dr. Abdul Kareem Osman Essa

Signature: ------------------------------------

Date: -----------------------------------------

Student Name

Abdihakiim Mohamoud Jama.

R/L: 1320

Signature: -------------------------------------

Dedication

This project proposal to my loved parents, my mother Saado Ahmed Herzi and my father
Mohamoud Jama Warsame. And also my sisters Hibo Mohamoud Jama and Nimao
Mohamoud Jama for his higher contribution my enjoyable education and respected life prayers,
support, encouragement and motivation throughout the period of my studies, without them I
would not have made it and I say ALLAH blesses you all.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my deepest respect and most sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Abdul
Kareem Osman for his dedication, guidance and encouragement at all stages of this work and for
reading and giving the necessary corrections of this project. His constructive criticism and
comments from the beginning to the end of this project is highly appreciated.
I would also like to thank Adna Aden University for making sure I got everything I needed
during my studies.
I am indebted to Dr Hamse Sacad, Dr Khaddar Ahmed and Mr. Sharmarke Ahmed for
facilitating me in collecting ticks from the field and in morphological identification of the ticks.

Last but not the least, I ‘acknowledge’ my parents, my brothers and sisters awaiting my return
home, for their attitude and encouragement to send me across the seas and watch me with a
unique care, emotional support and Also their financial support in order to achieve my goals.
And lastly am grateful to cattle farmers in Gebiley district for accepting to participate in this
study.

LIST OF ACRONYMS
C0 − Degrees Celsius
CO2 − Carbon dioxide
ECF − East Coast Fever
FAO − Food and agriculture organization
 G −
Gram
Kg − Kilogram
Km − Kilometer
MAAIF − Ministry of agriculture, animal industry and fisheries
NDA − National drug authority
SNNPR - Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region
Spp − Species
SSPS − Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
TBD − Tick borne diseases.

%− Percentages

ABSTRACT
Ixodid tick infestation is one of the biggest problems faced by cattle keepers in Somaliland.
Besides direct effects on the hides, ixodid ticks transmit diseases to cattle such as ECF,
Babesiosis and Anaplasmosis. It is necessary to know the predominant tick species in an area in
order to predict the most likely TBD’s in that area. This study aimed at determining the
abundance of ixodid ticks on cattle kept in range farms in Gebiley district of Somaliland. A total
of 385 heads of cattle of all age and sex were sampled using half body sampling technique and
the number of ticks collected from each animal was doubled to make it the number of ticks of the
animal’s body. Collected ticks were then preserved using 70% ethanol and identified using
morphometric characteristics under a stereomicroscope. A total of 1,662 ticks were collected of
which, 1,084 were males while 578 were females. The Ixodid tick species recorded in decreasing
order of abundance were Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (95%), Amblyomma variegatum (4%)
and Boophilus decoloratus (1%). Basing on the predominant tick species in this study, ECF may
be the major livestock disease facing livestock farmers in Gebiley district. Since study was cross
sectional study, further studies should be carried out for both rainy and dry seasons about
controlling the most likely TBD’s.

ndemic tick species that are known to infest domestic animals in Africa (Walker et al., 2003).
However, the highest impact on livestock health is caused by species belonging to only three
genera, namely, Amblyomma, Hyalomma, and Rhipicephalus (Rajput et al., 2006). Although,
onlCHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

• Background
Ticks are obligate blood-feeding ectoparasites of animals; they belong to class Arachnida and
Order Acarina. The other acarines of veterinary importance are mites. The Ixodid are important
vectors of protozoan, bacterial, viral and rickettsial diseases. Once ticks attach to their hosts for a
blood meal, they can cause diverse effects including blood loss, tick worry, damage to skins, and
introduction of toxins (Morel, 1989). As a disease transmitting agents, ticks cause considerable
economic losses by affecting animal health and productivity, especially in tropical and
subtropical regions (Vesco et al., 2011). Ticks and the diseases they transmit are widely
distributed throughout the world, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. It has been
estimated that 80 percent of the world's cattle population is exposed to tick infestation (FAO,
1984). Although species of ticks and tick borne diseases (TBDs) differ among ecological regions,
their impact on animal production is important wherever they occur. Losses attributable to ticks
are caused either directly, through tick worry, blood loss, damage to hides and udders and the
injection of toxins, or indirectly through mortality or debility caused by the diseases transmitted
by or associated with the ticks. These losses have been expressed either in terms of grams of live
weight gain or milk production lost per tick engorging (for example 0.7g/tick) or in terms of total
average financial loss (production losses plus cost of control) per animal per year (e.g. 7.3
USD/head/year). Losses due to ticks and TBDs tend to be lowest in areas where indigenous
animals, the tick vector and the TBDs have co-existed, resulting in endemic stability. Losses due
to ticks and TBDs tend to be highest when exotic animals susceptible to ticks and TBDs, are
introduced into tick infested areas or when ticks and their TBDs are introduced to areas where
cattle have not previously been exposed (FAO, 1984). 1 In Africa, ten genera of ticks commonly
infest domestic animals: three are Argasids and seven are Ixodids (A.R. Walker et al 2003). The
tick fauna is remarkably diverse, with about 50 ey relatively few of more than 889 species of tick
in the world are important to man and his domestic animals, these few species must be controlled
if livestock production is to meet world needs for animal protein (Drummond, 2007). Over 79
different species are found in eastern Africa but many of these appear to be of little or no
economic importance (Cumming, 1999). Tick-borne diseases are a constraint to livestock
production in many developing countries as they cause high morbidity and mortality, which
results in decreased production of meat, milk and other livestock by-products. The most
important tick-borne diseases of livestock in sub-Saharan Africa are East Coast Fever caused by
Theileria parva, Babesiosis caused by Babesia bigemina and B. bovis, Anaplasmosis caused by
Anaplasma marginale and Heartwater caused by Ehrlichia ruminantium (Biryomumaisho et al.,
2012). In most east and central African countries, ECF is the main TBD and responsible for high
morbidity and mortality of cattle particularly exotic breeds and their crosses. Although farmers
for decades have employed application of acaricides as the main control strategy, ticks and the
diseases they transmit continue to be the major causes of morbidity and mortality in cattle
particularly calves. Coupled with changing climatic conditions, dynamics of individual tick
species could change (Bazaruzanga, 2008). In addition, susceptibility to different acaricides may
vary with area where particular acaricides are used. Basing on these reasons, the dynamics of
ticks and tick borne diseases may change necessitating constant investigations.
1.1 Problem Statement
Range farming system is the main farming system adopted in Sheikh district; however Ixodid
ticks remain a problem to range farming system. Although there are many acaricides and tick
control programmes, ticks remain important vectors in many protozoan diseases in cattle in
Sheikh district specially East Coast Fever and Babesiosis. The prevalence of the different tick
species is not clearly documented yet this may influence of TBD’s in this area. Therefore this
study aims at investigating the presence of Ixodid tick species on cattle and the control strategies
of ticks in Sheikh District of Somaliland. There are approximately 10 million cattle in
Somaliland of which 6 million (21.7%) are reared in the southern region (MAIIF, 2008) all of
which are at risk of tick infestation and TBDs. Ticks have differing life cycles and the tick
control methods currently in use are not necessarily targeted to breaking the life cycle of the
predominant tick species.
1.2 Objectives
1. To assess the relative prevalence of ixodid tick species on range cattle in Sheikh district.
2. To evaluate tick control practices in Sheikh district.
1.3 Research questions
1. What are the most abundant Ixodid tick species infesting cattle in Sheikh district?
2. What are the tick control methods used by farmers in Sheikh district?
1.4 Justification and significance of the study
Control of tick-borne diseases in East Africa has proved difficult largely because of lack of
epidemiological information (Norval et al., 1992) and because control strategies commonly
applied are not integrated in the production systems (Perry, 1994). In most parts of Africa, earlier
investigations were not location/production system-specific and did not target biological,
management and socioeconomic parameters of the production system to establish the presence
and magnitude of the problems due to tick-borne diseases (Pegram and Chizyka, 1987) As a
result, in most cases control efforts have not been commensurate to the magnitude of the disease
problem. In many parts of Somaliland including Sheikh district, the influence of the different
management systems, the disease control practices and the changing patterns of land use on the
epidemiological 3 status of the tick-borne diseases are not well understood. This study will
therefore provide information about the prevalence of the different ixodid ticks in Sheikh range
cattle farming systems. Information generated will facilitate control of TBD’s in the area.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Ticks
Ticks are arthropods that are sometimes mistakenly called insects. Insects have three body
regions, six legs, and typically possess wings. Ticks lack wings, have two body regions, and
depending upon their developmental stage, may have either six (larva) or eight (adults and
nymphs) legs. Ticks possess tremendous potential for transmitting organisms that may cause
disease in humans and other animals (Renee, 2013). There are three active stages in the life cycle
of a hard tick: larvae, nymphs and adult ticks. Each instar takes a blood meal only once and long
periods are spent on vegetation between blood meals. Three host ticks require three different
hosts to complete one full cycle (Jongejan and Uilenberg, 1994).
2.2 Classification of ticks
Table 1: Classification of hard ticks (Ixodidae). Source: Walker et al., (2003)
Kingdom Animalia Animals
Phylum Arthropoda Ticks, Mites, Spiders, Insects, Crustaceans and others
Class Arachnida Ticks, Mites, Spiders, Scorpions and others
Order Acari Ticks and Mites
Sub-order Ixodida Ticks
Family Ixodidae Hard ticks
Genus Amblyomma, Hyalomma, Ripicephalus, Boophilus, Ixodes,
Dermatocenter.
Species Amblyomma variegatum, Ambyomma Gemma, Boophilus decoloratus,
Boophilus microblus, Rhipicephalus apendiculatus, Rhipicephalus evertsi
evertsi, Hyalomma dromadarii.

Table 2: Classification of soft ticks (Argasids). Source: Walker et al., (2003)

Kingdom Animalia Animals
Phylum Arthropoda Ticks, Mites, Spiders, Insects, Crustaceans and others
Class Arachnida Ticks, Mites, Spiders, Scorpions and others
Order Acari Ticks and Mites
Sub-order Ixodida Ticks
Family Ixodidae Soft ticks
Genus Argas, Otobius, Ornithodorus
Species Argas reflexus, Argus vespertilionis, Ornithodorus hermsi, Ornithodorus
coriaceus, Ornithodorus moubata, Otobius megnini

2.3 Life cycle of hard ticks (Ixodidae)

Ticks have four different developmental stages: egg, larva, nymph and adult. All life stages of
Ixodid ticks except eggs require a blood meal for development. Depending upon the tick species,
ticks may have one-host life cycle (all stages staying and feeding on only one animal host before
the female drops off), or multi-host lifecycles (ticks have a different host animal at each stage of
their life). One-host ticks may have more than one generation per year, while the life cycle of
multi-host ticks may be completed in one, two or three years (Walker et al., 2003).
2.3.1 Lifecycle of one host ticks (Boophilus spp)
The larvae that emerge from the eggs three to four weeks after deposition at the earliest attach
themselves to a host animal where they complete their entire development. On the host they
develop to nymph then to adult and then copulate. Afterwards, they drop off and deposit their
eggs on the ground. The entire development cycle takes mostly 19-21 days as a rule, with
minimum of fifteen and maximum of 40 days, each stage taking one week (Seifert, 1996). In
these ticks a stricter adaptation eliminates the need to drop to the ground for metamorphosis. All
the instars occur on a single vertebrate, attacked by the larva. The larval and nymphal
metamorphoses take place on the host, at the point of attachment of the larva and nymph. There
is only one parasitic phase (Douglas, 1969).

Figure 1: Lifecycle of one host tick

Source: (Walker et al., 2003)
2.3.2 Lifecycle of two host ticks (H. anatolicum anatolicum)
A two-host tick attaches itself as a larva to a host, feeds on blood and develop into the nymph
stage. After a maximum of 14 days, it drops off on to the ground where it reaches the imago
stage in 20-30 days. Male as well as female ticks then look for another host, feed on blood and
copulate. After 6-11 additional days, the female drops to the ground and deposits its eggs. The
entire cycle from the time the larva emerges until the engorged female deposits the eggs mainly
depends on the time the adult spent on the ground to find a new host. According to the species
the nymph may survive on the ground for several weeks (Seifert, 1996). In these ticks the three
stages develop on two different individuals that may or may not belong to the same species. In
the first phase, the engorged larva moults on the host and the nymph reattaches close by. At the
end of the blood meal, the nymph detaches and metamorphoses on the ground. Engorgement of
adults occurs during the second parasitic phase. There are only two searches for a host, which
eliminates the risks linked with the need for nymphal attachment (Hopla et al., 1994).

Figure 2: Lifecycle of two host tick

Source: (Walker et al., 2003)
2.3.3 Life cycle of three host ticks (A. variegatum. R. apendiculatus)
The three-host ticks looks for a new host during each stage of development in order to feed. The
larva emerges from the egg on the ground, looks for a host, feeds on it for three to seven days,
drops off and molts after three to four weeks on the ground. The nymph attacks a second host for
three to seven days feed on it and drops and develops into an adult on the ground after two to
eight weeks. After that, the adult tick looks for a third host to feed on and for copulation that
takes one to three weeks. Finally it drops off and completes the cycle with oviposition on the
soil. Because of the different time spent in each stage on the ground, the entire development
cycle may last up to one year (Seifert, 1996). These ticks require three hosts for development,
irrespective of the host species.
There are three parasitic phases, separated by two phases on the ground, when metamorphosis
occurs (Hopla et al., 1994).

Source: (Walker et al., 2003)

2.4 Effect of Ticks on Health and Production Animal
The impact of ticks on livestock health and production can be divided into two. These are effects
of tick burden as ectoparasites and the effect of diseases transmitted by ticks serving as vectors.
As ectoparasites, ticks are responsible for blood loss, irritations that result in ‘tick worry’ and
interrupt the grazing habits of cattle. Damage and loss of udders and damage to hides are also
caused by the attachment and feeding activities of ticks, which provide portals of entry for
secondary bacterial infections and for larvae that induce myiasis and tick paralysis due to the
toxins they secrete into the blood. The secreted toxins may even disseminate to the respiratory
organs and cause death of the animal (Sere, 1979; Soulsby, 1982) In determining the direct
effects of ticks on livestock, early studies indicated a large difference in mean annual weight gain
(48 kg) between heavily tick-infested and tick-free animals (Springell, 1974). It was also
reported that in heavily tick infested European cattle, 65% of the body weight reduction was due
to loss of appetite while the remaining 35% was due to interference with the growth process
(Seebeck et al., 1971). The latter is supported by the observation that tick infested animals had
relatively more fat and less muscle than tick-free controls, suggesting interference in protein
synthesis caused by tick bites (Norval et al., 1988). High tick numbers cause proportionally
greater live weight losses in tick susceptible Boran cattle than in tick resistant animals of the
same breed (Sere, 1979). These factors also contribute to losses in milk production, calving
interval and weaning performance.

2.4.1 Tick worry

Tick worry is a generalized state of unease and irritability of cattle severely infested with ticks,
often leading to serious loss of energy and weight. This negative effect on the growth of animals
and their production is thought to be due to the effects of a toxin in the saliva of ticks (Hunter,
2004). Moderate to heavy tick infestations can impact negatively on the growth and production
of cattle. Infestations with Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decolaratus and Rhipicephalus
apendiculatus were reported to cause weight losses of 1.5 g and 4.4 g, respectively (Norval et al.,
1988) while Amblyomma spp. resulted in losses of about 63 g (Stachurski et al., 1993).
Similarly, milk production was reduced by 9 g per each engorging Rhipicephalus apendiculatus
female in indigenous Sanga cattle (Norval et al., 1997).
2.4.2 Anemia
Anemia is an inevitable consequence of heavy infestation by any blood-feeding parasite, and
cattle deaths attributable to anemia as a result of tick infestation are common (Jonson, 2006).
Engorging ixodid females will increase their weight by 100–200 times but the actual amount of
blood ingested is much greater than this, as blood meal is concentrated and fluid excreted in
saliva (Kemp et al., 1982). The anemia caused by heavy tick infestation results in loss of
condition in cattle causing a reduction in meat production and milk yield (Gates and Wescott,
2000).
2.4.3 Wounds and myiasis
The mouthparts of ticks puncture the skins during feeding, causing damage to the hide, the
damage taking the form of small rounded areas of necrosis, which is often followed by secondary
fly attack resulting in serious skin infection (Gracey et al., 1999). Ticks with longer mouthparts
such as Amblyomma and Hyalomma cause more extensive damage than those with shorter
mouthparts such as Boophilus and Rhipicephalus. The involvement of host reactions leading to
tissue damage may be dependent upon recruitment of inflammatory responses characterized by
dermal cell infiltrates which form the lesions (Mattioli et al., 2000). Tick wounds may become
infested by screwworms or other agents of myiasis, and are also associated with the spread of
bovine dermatophilosis caused by Dermatophilus congolensis (Kahn, 2006).
2.4.4 Toxicoses
Tick saliva contains toxins which have a specific pathogenic effect. The toxins affect not only the
attachment site but also the entire organs of the host. Some ticks produce neurotropic toxins
which induce tick paralysis that is characterized by an acute ascending flaccid motor paralysis
(Kahn, 2006). Examples are paralysis caused by the feeding of Dermacentor andersoni,
Australian tick paralysis caused by Ixodes holocylus, and tick toxicosis caused by Rhipicephalus
species (Drummond, 1983). Females of the species Hyalomma truncatum produce a dermotropic
(epitheliotropic) toxin which causes sweating sickness in calves and some adult cattle (Kahn,
2006).
2.5 Tick hosts
Certain tick species that parasitize livestock can survive several months and occasionally a few
years, without food if environmental conditions permit. Tick host preferences are usually limited
to a certain genus, family, or order of vertebrates; however, certain ticks are exceptionally
adaptable to 11 a variety of hosts, so each species must be evaluated separately. The larvae and
nymphs of most Ixodids that parasitize livestock feed on small wildlife such as birds, rodents,
small carnivores, or even lizards (Cynthia, 2011).
2.6 Tick feeding sites
Each species has one or more predilection feeding sites on the host, although in dense
infestations, other areas of the host may be used. Some feed chiefly on the head, neck, shoulders,
and escutcheon; others in the ears; others around the anus and under the tail; and some in the
nasal passages. Other common feeding sites are the axillae, udder, male genitalia, and tail brush.
Immature and adults often have different preferred feeding sites. Attachment of the large,
irritating Amblyomma spp is regulated by a male-produced aggregation-attachment pheromone,
which ensures that the ticks attach at sites least vulnerable to grooming (Cynthia, 2011).
Table 3: Summary of known tick-borne pathogens and diseases affecting cattle.
Source (Andrew et al., 1992)
Pathogen Vector Disease Distribution
Theileria Hyalomma spp. Mediterranean coast Northern Africa and the Sudan
annulata infection (tropical
theileriosis)
T. lawerenci R. apendiculatus Corridor disease East, Central and Southern
Africa
T. mutans R. apendiculatus Benign bovine South and East Africa,
theileriosis Australia, Asia
T. parva R. apendiculatus East Coast Fever East, central and parts of
Southern Africa
Babesia bovis I.ricinus, I. cerebral Babesiosis S. Europe, Africa, Asia,
presulcatus, B. Central and South America
microplus, B.
calcaratus
B. divergens B. annulatus, B. Babesiosis North and South Europe
calcaratus, B.
decoloratus, B.
microplus, R. e.
evertsi, R. bursa,
R. apendiculatus
B. bigemina B. calcaratus Cattle tick fever, red N & S Africa, Panama,
water fever, Europe, Eurasia, N America
piropasmosis
B. major B. calcaratus Babesiosis N &W Africa, S.
America,Russia, Europe
Anaplasma Boophilusspp. Anaplasmosis(Gall East central and southern parts
marginale sickness) of Africa, Europe, Asia and N
&central America
A. centrale Boophilusspp. Anaplasmosis Africa, S.E.Asia, N, S
 &central America
Cowdria Amblyomma spp Heart water, brainwater East, central and southern
ruminantim parts of Africa Caribbean
islands

2.7 Tick control strategies

The different tick control strategies can basically be divided into two groups. These are: off host
control and on host control.
2.7.1 Off host control:
It includes pasture spelling and the use of anti-tick plants. Pasture spelling involves keeping
stock off the area for as long as possible to allow starvation and death of all the ticks. This
method works best where the ticks are short-lived as in warm arid conditions. It is best
performed by treating pastures in rotation. The effectiveness of pasture spelling depends on
whether alternative hosts, either domestic or wild, are available to the ticks. Traditional burning
of pastures and transhumance are also related with such control measures. However, under
conditions of extensive production such as those in most of tropical Africa these approaches are
of little practical relevance. The use of tick-repellent grasses is another possible means of control
of tick population in the field. Plants that have been investigated and reported so far to have anti-
tick properties include Melinis minutiflora (Beauv.) or molasses grass, Stylosanthes spp. and
Gynandropsis gynandra (L.) (Thompson et al., 1978)
2.7.2 On host control:
This involves the application of chemicals (acaricides) and herbal preparations on the host.
Acaricides are usually applied by spraying, hand dressing or dipping. Spraying involves the use
of spray-races or hand spraying. Spray-races require expensive initial installation and qualified
maintenance service and hence have very limited applicability to large parts of Africa. Hand
spraying and dressing involve a large physical labor input. Nevertheless, they are frequently the
only feasible methods available for smallholders where a scattered settlement structure inhibits
the use of communal facilities. Dipping is the most frequently selected method of application for
communal tick-control facilities. The frequency of acaricide application varies widely ranging
from three days to several months according to the type of tick to be controlled, seasonal
dynamics of the tick population, efficacy of the acaricide used and the type of control strategy
pursued (de Castro and Newson, 1993).
2.8 Update on previous studies in Somaliland.
A study carried out in Wajaale district showed the commonest tick species recorded in decreasing
order of abundance as Rhipicephalus apendiculatus, Amblyomma variegatum, Boophilus
decoloratus and R. evertsi evertsi. Of these ticks, R. apendiculatus showed the highest challenge
in the free range grazing system. The challenge was extremely low in the zero-grazing system.
The other tick species occurred in very low numbers. Considering all the tick species, the highest
challenge was recorded in the lowland zone, followed by the midland zone. The highest number
of standard ticks (ticks that had fed and would engorge and detach in the following 24 hours) was
recorded in the upland zone, particularly, in the free range and tethering grazing systems
(Rubaire et al., 2004). A study by Kieser et al., (1982) explains the relationship between zebu
cattle and ticks. Tick populations were observed on Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle over a period of 2
years at Entebbe, Uganda where the climate was thought to be highly favorable for the free-
living stages of ticks. Collections of all instars of ticks were made from the body surfaces of the
cattle at intervals of between 1 and 5 weeks. The species recorded in order of decreasing
abundance were Rhipicephalus apendiculatus, R. evertsi, Amblyomma Variegatum, Boophilus
decoloratus, and Hyalomma marginatum rufipes. The rankings of the cattle based on burdens of
any particular species of tick were always correlated with their rankings for other species;
animals that carried more adult stages of a species also carried more of its immature stages.
There were more adult males than females of R.appendiculatus, A. variegatum and R. evertsi
even when the cattle had had all ticks removed 1 week previously; several possible mechanisms
are suggested to explain the biased sex ratio. It is concluded that there is promise for
improvement in control of 3-host ticks by increasing the resistance of herds of zebu cattle by
culling or selective breeding. A study carried out pastoral communities of Gebiley district by
Otim et al., (2004) explains relative abundance of ticks in Gebiley district. As the study shows,
relatively high tick infestation was demonstrated. Rhipicephalus apendiculatus was found to be
the most abundant species with a mean tick count per head of cattle of 3.7 ± 0.28, followed by R.
evertsi and Amblyomma variegatum with mean tick counts per head of cattle of 0.51 ± 0.3 and
0.24 ± 0.012, respectively. In a preceding questionnaire survey the cattle owners in 15 Gebiley
district had pointed to trypanosomosis as their most important disease problem. This laboratory-
based diagnostic survey, however, revealed that ticks, tick-borne diseases and brucellosis were
the real major constraints to cattle production in that district, while tsetse and trypanosomosis
appeared to be of little or no importance.
2.9 Authorized Classes of acaricides in Somaliland and their trade names
Table 4: Classes of acaricides and their trade names. Source (NDA, 2013)
GENERIC NAME BRAND NAMES OTHER BRAND NAMES
REGISTERED IN
SOMALILAND
Amidines Amitraz Taktic, Amitix, Milbitraz, Norotraz,
Bovitraz, Paratraz
Pyrethroids Flumethrin Biotick pouron, Alfatix, Bayticol
2%
Alfacypermethrin Sypertix, Alfapor, Renegade 50
spray, Paracide
Cypermethrin Cypermethrin- 10. Ec, Tsetse tick
dip and spray, Blitz dip, Paratryn
Deltamethrin Decatix stock spray, Vectocid,
Cooper pour-on
Organophosphates Chlorfenvinphos Supona Extra
Chorpyriphos
Coumaphos
Organophosphates + Alfacypermethrin + Protaid, Cooper-thion, Duo Dip
Pyrethroid chlorfenvinphos
Cypermethrin + piperonyl Secta insecticidal shampoo
Macrocyclic lactones Ivermectin (injectables for other Noromectin, Bimectin, Ivermectin
parasites other than ticks) 10 plus, Kelamectin 1%,
Closamectin
 CHAPTER THREE
METHODS AND MATERIALS
3.1 Study area
3.1.1 Location
Gebiley district is located in the western part of Somaliland, about 52 km due west of Hargeisa.
It borders Maroodi-jeh region in the East, Awdal region in the West, Ethiopian the South and
parts of Awdal in the North. Most of the inhabitants in the region are agro pastoralists.
3.1.2 Topography
Gebiley town is located around 1,428 meters above sea level. Landform is generally plain and
undulates in some areas. Topography is typically extended from the coastal range called Ogo,
which is highland and receives comparatively the highest rainfall in Somaliland (Lemma et al,
2011).
3.1.3 Climate
Gebiley is a semi-arid area and it is generally characterized by four alternative wet and dry
seasons during the year with an average rainfall of between 500 and 650 millimeters annually..
March-May Spring (Gu’) and September-November Fall (Dayr) are the wet seasons. June-July
Summer (Xagaa) and December-February winter (Jilaal) are dry seasons alternatively occurring
between the wet seasons. Gulf of Aden coastal area gets ‘Xays’ rains in winter season and
occasionally Western inland and Golis mountain ranges get ‘Karan’ rains in Summer. Rain fall is
erratic and highly variable in space and time. Its occurrence, intensity and distribution are highly
unpredictable at any given season. Periodic drought occurs when the expected amount of rain
fails or becomes below normal in one or both wet seasons.
3.1.4 Population and income
In the absence of an official census it is difficult to guess the population in Gebiley district,
Gebiley district is mainly populated by agro-pastoralists focused on agriculture production and
the most important source of livelihoods is agriculture production and livestock rearing. The
district is also the most important agricultural area in western Somaliland it has a fertile soil with
different types of vegetations. Agriculture including beekeeping and livestock farming systems
are the biggest sources of income (Ministry of interior, 2012).
3.2 Study design
A cross sectional epidemiological study was carried out from 8st January 2017 up to 17st April
2017. The study on ticks was done on range farms; additional information on tick control was
collected with a structured questionnaire.
3.3 Sample size

According to Thrusfield, (1995), the sample size was determined by using a 95% CI, 5%
precision and with an expected prevalence of 50% (No previous prevalence).
n= t² x pexp(1-pexp)d²
Where
n = required sample sizes
 t = confidence level at 95% (standard value of 1.96)
pexp = estimated prevalence of cattle with ticks (50%)
d = margin of error at 5% (standard value of 0.05)
Therefore, (1.96)2*0.5(1-0.5)/ (0.05)2
= 384.16 which was approximated to 385 cows.
3.4 Farm selection criteria
Ten range cattle farms were selected based on easy accessibility, the number of heads of cattle
and the judgment of the researcher to assess the presence and burden of Ixodid tick species in
cattle. Cattle were selected using systematic random sampling.
3.5 Data collection
Structured questionnaires were administered to the range cattle care takers. The questions were
designed to identify the main acaricides used, acaricide dilution procedure, information about
tick burden, economic impacts of ticks and control strategies of the farmer. Systematic random
sampling was used to select cows for sampling. Adult ticks were collected using a pair of forceps
from half of the animal’s body. The total ticks were doubled to make the total number of ticks of
the animal. Ticks were preserved with universal bottles contained 70% ethanol. Tick
identification was done in parasitology and microbiology laboratory in College of Veterinary
Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity of ISTVS using stereomicroscopes from 1st March
2014 to 10th March 2014. Ticks were identified using: tick identification guide software
developed by Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerpen-Belgium and University of Pretoria and
from a guide by Walter et al., (2003).
3.6 Data Analysis
Raw data was entered in excel and the results were put in a form of graphs, tables and pie charts.
Correlation coefficients were calculated to test the relationship between tick burden and age of
the sampled cattle using SPSS statistical package (v 16).

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
4.1 Knowledge of the tick and tick control

A cross sectional epidemiological study was carried out from 8st ocgas 2022 up to 20st 2017 in
Gebiley district of Somaliland. The study aimed at establishing the presence of ixodid ticks and
their relative abundance in Gebiley ranch farms.

Of the 10 cattle care takers interviewed, only two individuals had formal education up to
secondary level, and the rest did not have any formal education and they only speak with the
local language (Somali) and all the farmers interviewed used range farming systems.
All the range farms visited had sheep, goats and poultry other than cattle at home.

Farmers grazed their animals within their fenced farms however there were scenarios were
animals went out and mixed with other animals hence risk of getting ticks from outside.

Ticks are locally called Shilin however the different names of tick species should be found out.
The farmers unanimously reported that ixodid ticks mostly infested cattle from ears, anus,
udder/prenial and the neck.

All the range farms visited used acaricides to control ticks from their animals, animals were
sprayed weekly and the sole method of acaricide application was spraying.

The main acaricides routinely used were Vectocid (Deltamethrin), Sypertix (Alfacypermethrin),
Supona extra (Clorvonphinvos) and Amitix (Amitraz) which were bought from local agro
veterinary shops in Gebiley district. Both acaricide dilution and praying of the animals were
done by cattle caretakers where animals are put on a crash and sprayed. Acaricide dilution and
spraying was improper and cattle were not completely sprayed.

According to the questionnaire, the economic impacts of the ticks ranged from causing poor
body condition to death by either causing tick paralysis or transmitting diseases which will later
cause the death of the animals.
4.2 Ixodid tick distribution

385 cattle were selected from 10 range farms in Gebiley district. A total number of 1,662 ticks
were collected: - 1,084 were males while 578 were females.
The study shows that each of the animals sampled had at least two ticks on its body.
Table 5: Number of animals sampled per farm
Farm Herd size Number sampled
A 77 38
B 105 52
C 155 77
D 71 35
E 45 27
F 60 30
G 48 24
H 72 36
I 64 32
J 69 34
 Total 766 385

The table above shows the herd size of each farm and the number of animals sampled from every
herd using systematic random sampling.

Table 6: Distribution of Ixodid tick species in different range farms

Farm identity A. variegatum R. appendiculatus B. decoloratus
A 6 198 4
B 0 174 4
C 0 96 0
D 6 132 0
E 12 118 0
F 24 96 0
G 24 136 0
H 2 172 4
I 0 178 2
H 0 274 0
Total 74 1,574 14

The table above shows the distribution of Ixodid tick species with different cattle range farms
visited.
R. appendiculatus were the most abundant Ixodid tick collected in all the range farms

The above Pie chart shows the relative percentages of the collected ixodid ticks of cattle in range
farms of Gebiley district.

The bar chart above compares the relative abundance of male and female ticks collected from
range cattle farms in Gebiley district.

The study shows that all the Ixodid ticks collected, males were more than the females for all the
farms visited in Gebiley district.
The bar graph above shows the number of ixodid ticks collected from cattle range farms in
Gebiley district.
According to the study, farm J had the biggest number of ticks collected followed by Farm A.

Table 7: Correlation between age of cattle and tick burden

Tick burden Age

Tick burden Pearson Correlation

1 .401

.080
Sig. (2-tailed)
N 20 20
Age Pearson Correlation
.401 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .080

N 20 20
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The table above is comparing tick burden and the age group of cattle.

There is a moderate positive significance of association (0.4) between the age of cattle and tick
burden. From this result it can be concluded that there is correlation between age of cattle and the
number of ticks collected, which means that the older the cattle, the more ticks will be collected
and the younger the cattle, less ticks will be collected.

CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION

The study shows the presence of ixodid ticks in Gebiley district of Somaliland.
The ixodid tick species recorded in decreasing order of abundance were Rhipicephalus
appendiculatus (95%), Amblyomma variegatum (4%) and Boophilus decoloratus (1%).
Rhipicephalus appendiculatus was the most abundant tick collected during the study, followed
by Amblyoma variegatum and lastly Boophilus decelerates. The findings of this study were in
unison with the results found by Rubaire et al., (2004) in Gebiley district, who reported the three
species of ticks that Repicephalus appendiculatus was the most abundant, followed by
Amblyoma variegatum and lastly Boophilus decolaratus.
The most abundant tick collected was R. appendiculatus, a well-known vector for Theileria
parva parva which causes East Cost Fever in cattle. R. appendiculatus inhabits a wide range of
East African environments (Randolph, 1994). The favorable climatic conditions for survival and
multiplication are cool moist places, but it can tolerate relatively arid conditions. Branagan.
(1978) reported that, presence of favorable temperature, humidity, rainfall and appropriate hosts
as important factors for the endemicity of R. appendiculatus in a locality. Almost all the above
listed factors are favorable in Gebiley district and this may account for R. appendiculatus
predominance. Predominance of R. appendiculatus may also be due to the fact that cattle are
widely believed to be the primary host for this tick (Norval, 1992), it is may also be attributed for
the fact that R. appendiculatus produce faster than A. variegatum and B. decoloratus and R.
appendiculatus are thought to develop acaricide resistance faster than the other ticks. The other
species, A. variegatum (vector for Cowdria ruminantium) and B. decoloratus occurred at a
relatively low numbers. Presence of these ticks explains why tick borne diseases still exist even
though acaricides used, this may be because of the improper use of acaricides or reduced
susceptibility of the ticks to the acaricides. In addition, range farming system also can facilitate
tick infestation for cattle, since cattle mix with other animals in search of pasture and water.
According to Morel (1981), Rhipicephalus appendiculatus lives almost everywhere between the
altitudes of 1000m to 2500m, but the optimal conditions are found between 1200-2500m which
is true in Gebiley district.
The study showed that the ticks collected, males (65%) were more than females (35%). This
finding is similar with the findings of Pawlos et al., (2003), who reported that males were more
than female ticks. This might be attributed for the fact that males normally remain on the host
longer than females. Fully engorged female ticks’ drops off to the ground to lay eggs while male
tends to remain on the host up to several months to continue feeding and mating with other
females on the host before dropping off, host grooming easily remove semi-engorged or
engorged females as compared to males, Solomon et al., (1998).
In this study, however, each identified tick species was collected from both young and adult
cattle. The number of ticks was higher in adults than in young cattle, this might be due to bigger
body surface of adult cattle and production of higher amounts of CO 2 which are detected by the
pheromones of ticks compared to young cattle which produce less CO 2. This study is in
agreement with a study done in Ethiopia by Ayana, (2013). However this result disagree with the
results found by Joseph et al., (2014) in Nigeria who reported that Ixodid ticks were higher in
young cattle compared to adult cows.
Range farmers in Gebiley district controlled ticks of cattle by putting them in a crash for
spraying. Although this was done regularly, it was noted that there was an incomplete acaricide
application especially the ears and lower parts of the body of cattle. This can be a reason why
ticks continue to exist and infest cattle even though acaricide used.

CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

• Conclusions

1. The present study shows that all the 385 cattle were infested (100%) with three species of
ixodid ticks. The ticks were R. appendiculatus (95%), A. variegatum (4%) and B. decoloratus
(1%). In light of these findings, it can be concluded that cattle from Gebiley district are infested
with different species of ticks despite the varying degrees of abundance which may be the result
of vegetation coverage, climatic and host factors.
2. Despite the constant utilization of acaricides in control of TBDs, these diseases still occur.
This may be due to improper use of acaricides or development of acaricide resistance in ticks.
6.2 Recommendations
It is necessary to educate pastoral, society on appropriate animal husbandry especially regarding
to tick control and creating awareness on ticks.

Because there is no single method that would guarantee complete control of ticks and tick borne
diseases, combination of available methods of tick control is necessary. This encompasses the
selection of tick resistant cattle, acaricide treatment, appropriate livestock management,
evaluation and incorporation of traditional practices or remedies that appear to be of value.

Further studies in the distribution pattern of tick species and factors responsible for their
distribution are necessary for the continuous understanding of the problem and to use improved
control strategies.

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1
SAMPLE CONSENT FORM
ADNA ADEN UNIVERSITY, HARGEISA
SURVEY OF IXODID TICKS ON CATTLE RANGE FARMS IN GEBILEY DISTRICT,
SOMALILAND.

Invitation to participate in the study

Dear sir /madam,

I’m Abdihakiim Mohamoud Jama, a student of Adna Aden University Hargeisa pursuing
Bachelor’s degree in Veterinary Medicine, doing a study on survey on Ixodid ticks in range cattle
farms in Gebiley District, Somaliland and from this project control measures can be executed for
the benefit of the animal industry in the area. You are kindly requested to answer the following
questions by ticking the right option and filling in right information in the blank spaces. The
information you provide is purposely for academic purposes and will be kept confidential.
Therefore feel free to answer all questions if you can.

I ……………………………………………………………………………… agree to participate

in this study and the information provided to you is the truth.
Date …………………………………………………………………………………….

Thank you
 APPENDIX 2
Tick sampling form
Location: Date:
Farm identity Age of the cattle (Adult or young) Number of ticks

Table 8: Tick sampling form

 APPENDIX 3
QUESTIONNAIRE
Section A
Farmers name ……………………………………………. Gender ………………
Area of residence……………………………………
Level of education
• Primary level
• Secondary level; O level A level
• College/University
• Non formal
• Illiterate
Section B

1. Which farming system do you practice in keeping your animals?

(A) Zero grazing

• Free range
• Tethering method
• Pad docking
• Other, please specify……………………………………………………………
2. How many species of animals do you have in your farm?
• Cattle
• Goats and Sheep
• Donkeys
• Poultry
• Other, please mention……………………………………………………………
3. Do your animals have contact with your neighbor’s animals or from other farms?
• Yes
• No
4. Do you think that your animals mix with wild animals?
• Yes
• No
5. Do you always see ticks on your animals?
• Yes
• No
6. If yes, which part of the body does it appear most?
(A) Ears (B) Udder/Prenial (C) Tail
(D) Neck (E) Interdigital Space (F) Nostrils
• Anus
• Other, please specify……………………………………………………………
7. Which sex of cattle does ticks appear most?
• Males
• Females
• Both
8. Which age group does ticks appear most?
(A) < 1year (B) 1-2 years
(C) 2-4 years (D) >4 years
9. Which tick species do you always see on the animal’s body? (Use the local names)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. Of the above species, which one appears most on your animal’s body?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………….

Section C
1. Do you control ticks in your farm?
• Yes
• No
2. If yes, how do you control?
(A) Using herbs (B) using Acaricides
(C) Removing with hands (D) Bush clearing
(E) Other, please specify…………………………………………………………

3. If you use acaricide to control ticks, how often do use for your animals?
Twice a week
Once a week
Once in 2 weeks
Once a month
Other, please specify………………………………………………………
• Which method of acaricide application do you practice?
(A) Dipping (B) Spray (C) Pour on
(D) Injection (E) Hand dressing
Other, please specify…………………………………………………………
5. Do you always change the type of acaricide you use?
• Yes
• No
6. If yes how often?
(A) After a week
• After three weeks
• After a month
• Other, Specify…………………………………………………………………
7. How long does ticks reappear after acaricide application in your farm?
(A) <2 days (B) 2-4 days (C) 7 days
(D) 7-14 days (E) > 14 days
(F) Other, please specify……………………………………………………………

8. Do you think ticks of your surrounding farms are controlled?

(A) Yes (B) No
9. Which season of the year do you always notice a high tick infestation on your animals?
• Dry season
• Rainy season
• Both dry and rainy seasons
10. Why do you think tick control is not accomplished? Due to
(A) Poor Acaricide quality (B) Poor acaricide application
• Ticks are resistant to acaricides
• Other, please specify…………………………………………………….
11. Suggest ways how we can effectively control ticks in your grazing areas.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………....................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
Thank you

APPENDIX 4
Some photographs of Identified Ixodid ticks

Figure 7: Adult male A.variegatum Figure 8: Adult female A.variegatum

Figure 9: Adult male R.appendiculatus Figure 10: Adult female R.appendiculatus