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UNIT 2: SPEAKING MATHEMATICALLY

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics;
b. Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly;
c. Evaluate statements and arguments on mathematical concepts; and
d. Acknowledge mathematics as a useful language.

2.1. Introduction

The aim of this unit is to introduce you to a mathematical way of thinking that
can serve you in a wide variety of situations. Often when you start work on a mathe-
matical problem, you may have only a vague sense of how to proceed. You may begin
by looking at examples, drawing pictures, playing around with notation, rereading the
problem to focus on more of its details, and so forth. The closer you get to a solution,
however, the more your thinking has to crystallize. And the more you need to under-
stand, the more you need language that expresses mathematical ideas clearly, precise-
ly, and unambiguously.

This unit will introduce you to some of the special language that is a foundation for
much mathematical thought, the language of variables, sets, relations, and functions.

2.2 Speaking Mathematically

2.2.1 Variables

A variable is a symbol for a number we don’t know yet. Typically, we use a sin-
gle letter to represent a variable. The letters x, y, and z are common generic symbols
used for variables (MATHisFUN, n.d.).
It is sometimes thought as a mathematical “John Doe” because you can use it as
a placeholder when you want to talk about something but either (1) you can imagine
that it has one or more values but you don’t know what they are, or (2) you want what-
ever you say about it to be equally true for all elements in a given set, and so you don’t
want to be restricted to considering only a particular, concrete value for it. (CENGAGE,
2018). To illustrate the first use, consider asking
(1) Is there a number with the following property: doubling it and adding 3
gives the same result as squaring it?
In this sentence you can introduce a variable to replace the potentially ambigu-
ous word “it”:
Is there a number x with property that 2x + 3 = x2 ?
or using a placeholder
Is there a number with property that 2 • +3= 2?
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To illustrate the second use of variables, consider the statement:

(2) No matter what number might be chosen, if it is greater than 2, then its square is
greater than 4.
In this case introducing a variable to give a temporary name to the (arbitrary)
number you might choose enables you to maintain the generality of the statement,
and replacing all instances of the word "it" by the name of the variable ensures that
possible ambiguity is avoided:
No matter what number n might be chosen, if n is greater than 2, then n2 is
greater than 4.
EXAMPLE 1: Use variables to rewrite the following sentences more formally.
a. Are there numbers with the property that the sum of their squares equals the
square of their sum?
b. Given any real number, its square is nonnegative.
SOLUTION:
a. Are there numbers a and b with the property that a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 ?
Or: Are there numbers a and b such that a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 ?
Or: Do there exist any numbers a and b such that a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 ?
b. Given any real number r, r2 is nonnegative.
Or: For any real number r, r2 ≥ 0.
Or: For all real numbers r, r2 ≥ 0.
EXAMPLE 2: Two times the sum of a and two b .
SOLUTION: 2(a + 2b)
EXAMPLE 3: The ratio of 9 more than x to x.
SOLUTION: (x + 9)/2
EXAMPLE 4: Nine less than the total of a number and two.
SOLUTION: (n + 2) - 9
Turning English into Algebra. You should write down what is actually being
asked for, so you know where you are going and when you have arrived. Also look
for key words:
Addition: add, total, sum, increase, more, combined, together, plus, more than
Subtraction: minus, less, less than, difference, fewer, decreased, reduced, subtracted
from
Multiplication: multiplied, times, of, product, factor, twice/doubled
Division: divided, quotient, per, out of, ratio
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2.2.2 Language of Sets

Use of the word set as a formal mathematical term was introduced in 1879 Georg
Cantor (l845-1918). For most mathematical purposes we can think of a set intuitively, as
Cantor did, simply as a collection of elements. For instance, if C is the set of all country that
are currently in the United Nations, then the United States is an element of C, and if I is the
set of all integers from 1 to 100, then the number 57 is an element of I. (CENGAGE, 2018)
A set can be defined by the following (Rosen, 2007):

Definition 1: A set is an ordered collection of objects.

EXAMPLES:
1. The set of students in freshman class in your school.
2. The set of authors of Math 1 book .
3. The set of all points that lie on a given line.
4. The set of distinct letters in the word “Philippines”.

Definition 2. The object in a set are called elements, or members, of the set. A set is
said to contain its elements.

EXAMPLE 1: The set V of all vowels in the English alphabet can be written as
V = {a, e, I, o, u}
EXAMPLE 2: The set O of odd positive integers less than 10 can be expressed by
O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
EXAMPLE 3: Although sets are usually used to group together elements with common
properties, there is nothing that prevents a set from having seemingly unrelated
elements. For instance, {a, 2, Fred, Manila}
EXAMPLE 4a: The set of positive integers less than 100 can be denoted by {1, 2, 3, …., 99}
EXAMPLE 4b: Another way to describe a set is to use a set builder notation. For instance,
the set O of all positive integers less than 10 can be written as
O = {x|x is an odd positive integer less than 10},
OR
O = {x ϵ Z+ "|" x is odd and x<10}

Special Sets of Numbers

N = The set of natural numbers.
= {1, 2, 3, …}.
W = The set of whole numbers.
={0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Z = The set of integers.
= { …, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Q = The set of rational numbers.
={x| x=p/q, where p and q are elements of Z and q ≠ 0 }
H = The set of irrational numbers.
R = The set of real numbers.
C = The set of complex numbers.
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EXAMPLE 5: The set {N, Z, Q, R} is a set containing four elements, each of which
is a set.

Definition 3. Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements.
That is, if A and B are sets then A and B are equal if and only if ∀_x
(x∈A↔x∈B). We write A=B if A and B are equal sets.

EXAMPLE 6: The sets {1, 3, 5} and {3, 5, 1} are equal, because they have the same
elements.

Definition 4. The set A is said to be a subset of B if and only if every

element of A is also an element of B. We use notation A⊆B to indicate
that A is a subset of the set B.

2.2.2.1 Notation
If S is a set, the notation x ∈ S means that x is an element of S. The notation x ∈ S
means that x is not an element of S.

2.2.2.2 Methods of Writing Sets

1. Roster Method or Tabulation

The elements are enumerated, separated by a comma and enclosed with
braces.
EXAMPLES:
a. S = {32, 33, 34, 35}
b. S = {32, 33, 34, 35, …, 100}
c. S = {32, 33, 34, 35, …}
2. Rule Method
Uses a short verbal statement to describe a set enclosed with braces.
EXAMPLES:
a. S = {x ∣x ∈ N, x > 31 and x < 36}
b. S = {x ∣x ∈ N, x > 31 and x < 101}
c. S = {x ∣x ∈ N, x > 31}

2.2.2.3 Cardinal Number of Sets

The cardinal number of a set is the number of elements in the set.
For a set A the symbol for cardinality is n(A), which is read as “n of A”.
EXAMPLES:
a. Set A = {2, 4, 5, 9, 15} has 5 elements.
Therefore, the cardinal number of set A = 5. So, it is denoted as n(A) = 5.
b. Set B = {w, x, y, z} has 4 elements.
Therefore, the cardinal number of set B = 4. So, it is denoted as n(B) = 4.
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c. Set C = {Florida, New York, California} has 3 elements.

Therefore, the cardinal number of set C = 3. So, it is denoted as n(C) = 3.
d. Set D = {3, 3, 5, 6, 7, 7, 9} has 5 element.
Therefore, the cardinal number of set D = 5. So, it is denoted as n(D) = 5.
e. Set E = { } has no element.
Therefore, the cardinal number of set D = 0. So, it is denoted as n(D) = 0.

2.2.2.4 Kinds of Sets

1. Empty Set or Null Set – a set with no element. An empty set is denoted
by { } and ∅.
2. Finite Set – it has a cardinality that is a natural number.
3. Infinite Set – a set with unlimited number of elements.
4. Unit Set – Is a set with only one element.
5. Equal Sets – two sets A and B are equal (A=B) if they have exactly the
same member or elements.
6. Equivalent Sets – two finite sets A and B are equivalent (A ~ B) if they
have the same number of elements.
7. Subsets – If every elements of a set A is also an element of set B, then set
A is a subset of set B (A ⊆ B). A set whose elements are member of a
given set.
*Proper Subset – Let A and B be sets. A is a proper subset of B (A ⊂ B) if
and only if, every element of A is in B but there is at least one element of B
that is not in A.
8. Universal Set – The totality of elements of sets under consideration/
discussion.
9. Disjoint Sets – Sets with do not have common elements.

2.2.2.5 Operations of Sets

1. Union of Sets. Let A and B be sets. The union of two sets A and B, de-
noted by (A ∪ B), is the set that contains those elements that are either set in A or
in B, or in both.
A ∪ B = {x∣x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
EXAMPLE 1: The union of the sets {1, 3, 5} and {1, 2, 3} is the set {1, 2, 3, 5}; that is
{1, 3, 5} ∪ {1, 2, 3} = {1, 2, 3, 5}

EXAMPLE 2: The union of the set of all IT ma-

jors at your school and the set of all mathematics
majors at your school is the set of students at your
school who are majoring either in mathematics or in
IT (or in both).
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2. Intersection of Sets. Let A and B be sets. The intersection of two sets A and, denoted
by A ∩ B, is the set containing those elements in both A and B.
A ∩ B = {x∣x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
EXAMPLE 3: The intersection of the sets {1, 3, 5) and {1, 2, 3} is the set {1, 3}; that is,
{1, 3, 5} ∩ {1, 2, 3} = { 1, 3}.

EXAMPLE 4: The intersection of the set of all IT

majors at your school and the set of all mathematics
majors at your school is the set of all students who are
joint majors in mathematics and in IT.

3. Disjoint. Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.

EXAMPLE 5: Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, A ∩ B = ∅, A and B are disjoint.

4. Difference. Let A and B be sets. The difference by
A – B, is the set containing those elements that are
in A but not in B.

EXAMPLE 6: The difference of {1, 3, 5} and {1, 2, 3}

is the set {5}; that is {1, 3, 5} - {1, 2, 3} = {5}. This
is different from the difference of {1, 2, 3} and
{1, 3, 5}, which is the set {2}.
5. Complement. Let U be the universal set. The complement of the set A, denoted by A’,
is the complement of A with respect to U. In other
words, the complement of the set A is U-A.

EXAMPLE 7: Let A = {a, e, i, o, u} (where the universal

set is the set of the English Alphabet). Then A’ =
{b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z}

2.2.3 Language of Relations and Functions

2.2.3.1 Cartesian Product. Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A
and B, denoted A x B and read “A cross B,” is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where
a is in A and b is in B.
Symbolically:
A x B = {(a, b)|a ϵ A and b ϵ B}
EXAMPLE 1. Let A represents the set of all students at a university, and let B
represent the set of all courses offered at the university. What is the Cartesian
product A x B?
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SOLUTION: The Cartesian product A x B consists of all the ordered pairs of the
form (a, b), where a is a student at the university and b is a course offered at the
university. The set A x B can be used to represent all possible enrollments of stu-
dents in courses at the university.

EXAMPLE 2. What is the Cartesian product A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b, c}?

SOLUTION:
The Cartesian product A x B is A x B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}

A subset R of the Cartesian product A x B is called relation from the set A to the set B.
The elements of R are ordered pairs, where the first element belongs to A and the second to
B.
For example:
R = {(a, 0), (a, 1), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 0), (c, 3)} is a relation from the set {a, b, c} to
the set {0, 1, 2, 3}.
The Cartesian products A x B and B x A are not equal, unless A = ∅ or B = ∅ (so that A x B =
∅ or A = B.
EXAMPLE 3: Show that the Cartesian product B x A is not equal to the Cartesian product A
x B, where A and B are A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b, c}.
SOLUTION: The Cartesian product B x A is B x A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}

The Cartesian products of more than two sets can also be defined.
The Cartesian product of the sets A1, A2, …, An, denoted by A1 x A2 x …x An, is the set of
ordered n-tuples (a1, a2, … an), where ai belongs to Ai for i = 1 , 2, ... , n. In other words,
A1 x A2 x …x An, = {(a1, a2, … an), ai ∈ Ai for i = 1, 2, .., n}
EXAMPLE 4: What is the Cartesian product A x B x C, where A = {0, 1), B = {1, 2}, and C =
{0, 1, 2}?
SOLUTION: The Cartesian product A x B x C consists of all ordered triples (a, b, c), where
a ∈ A, b ∈ B, and c ∈ C. Hence,
A x B x C = {(0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (0, 1, 2), (0, 2, 0), (0, 2, 1), (0, 2, 2), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2),
(1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 0), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2)}
EXAMPLE 6. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}
a. Find A x B.
b. Find B x A.
SOLUTION:
a. A x B = {(1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5)}
b. B x A = {(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3)}

2.2.3.2 Relations
There are many kinds of relationships in the world. For instance, we say that two
people are related by blood if they share a common ancestor. There is also a relationship
between employee and employer, student-teacher, employee-employee.
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Similarly, objects in mathematics may be related in various ways. Set A may be

said to be related to a set B if A is a subset of B, or if A is not a subset of B, or if A and
B have at least one element in common.

Let A and B be sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset of A x B. Given an ordered

pair (x, y) in A x B, x is related to y by R, written x R y, if, and only if, (x, y) is in R.
The set A is called the domain of R and the set B is called its co-domain. (or range)

EXAMPLE 1: Let A = {0,1,2} and B = {1,2,3} and let us say that an element x in A is
related to an element y in B if and only if, x is less than y. Let us use the notation
x R y as a shorthand sentence “x is related to y.”
A x B = {(0,1),(0,2),(0,3),(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3)}
0 R 1 since 0 < 1, 1 R 2 since 1 < 2,
0 R 2 since 0 < 2, 1 R 3 since 1 < 3
0 R 3 since 0 < 3, 2 R 3 since 2 < 3
EXAMPLE 2. Let A = {0,1,2} and B = {1,2,3} and let us say that an element x in A is
related to an element y in B if, and only if, x is less than y.
On the other hand, if the notation x R y represents the sentence “x is not related
to y,” then
1 R 1 since 1 < 1, 2 R 2 since 2 < 2,
2 R 1 since 2 < 1,

2.2.3.2 Functions
A function is a relation between two sets: a first set and a second set. For
each element of the first set, the function assigns precisely one element in the second
set (Rosen, 2007).

Function Properties
A relation F from A to B is a function if and only if:
1. Every element of A is the first element of an ordered pair of F.
2. No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the same first element.

Function Notation
Just like variables, it is useful to name functions with a symbol. Most often
we will use f, but sometimes g, or h, whatever else make sense. If we want to
talk about what f assigns to some input x, we show this with f(x). The first
symbol is the “name” of the function, and the second symbol in parenthesis is
what the function is acting on.
(Note: There could be some confusion that f(x) means f∙x, but we will know from context that f
is a function and not something to multiply)

EXAMPLE 1: Let A={2,4,6} and B={1,3,5}. Which of the relations R, S, and T defined below
are functions from A to B?
SOLUTION:
1. R = {(2,5), (4,1), (4,3), (6,5)}
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2. For all (x,y) ϵ AxB, (x,y) ϵ S means that y = x + 1.

3. T is defined by the arrow diagram.

Metaphors of Functions
Machine: We can visualize a function as a machine that
“eats” elements from A and produces elements from B. What
it produces depends on what it eats, but the machine is relia-
ble: if it eats the same thing, it always produces the same out-
put.

Functions defined by Formulas

When we are given a function, we usually been told what its “rule” is: how
it maps inputs to outputs.

How to use Functions?

If we want to evaluate a function at a specific value, we just apply the
“rule” to whatever our input is. In practice, this formula turns out to be pretty
simple: usually we are given a formula for each function, so we just follow the
method of substitution.

Functions and Tables

A good way to see the behavior of a function is by creating a table of val-
ues (sometimes called a ‘T—table’).
On one side we have input values, while the other side shows us what the
function outputs when given that input:
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Name: _________________________________________________________
Course & Year: _____________________ Date: ______________ _____
Note: Use separate sheet/s (short bond paper) for your solutions and answers. This will be
submitted in the next meeting.

A. Translate the following statement into mathematical expression.

1. A number plus three.
2. Ten more than a number
3. The sum of a number and five
4. A number increased by two
5. A number minus seven
6. Six subtracted from a number
7. Eight times a number
8. A number multiplied by negative six
9. Ten divided by a number
10. The ratio of a number to 10

B. Solve the following problems.

1. Sam and Alex play tennis. On the weekend Sam played 4 more games than Alex
did, and together they played 12 games. How many games did Alex play?
2. A salesman sold twice as much pears in the afternoon than in the morning. If he
sold 360 kilograms of pears that day, how many kilograms did he sell in the
morning and how many in the afternoon?

C. Find the cardinal number of each set.

1. A = { 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30}
2. O = {5, 6, 5, 2, 2, 6, 5, 1, 1, 1}
3. B = {x∣x ∈ N and x < 16}
4. C = {0}
5. D = ∅

D. State whether each pair of sets is equal, equivalent or neither.

1. { p, q, r, s}; {a, b, c, d}
2. {8, 10, 12};{12, 8, 10}
3. {213}; {2, 1, 3}
4. {1, 2, 10, 20}; {2, 1, 20, 10}
5. {even natural numbers less than 10}; {2, 4, 6, 8}