Contents

1 Basics 3

2 Useless ( My own thoughts ) 8

3 Formulas 11

4 FAQs 12

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 Notes
Anonymous
June 2022

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1 Basics
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1. String tension T ≡ 2πα′

2. Since string theory explains the single counting of s and t channel ( that
are also called dual to each other ), early people also used to call this
theory as dual resonance model.
3. A string theory with open strings must include closed strings as well. The
distinction between an open and a closed string is a topological one ( i.e.
not local ) so if we want to preserve locality, closed strings need to be
allowed.
4. The Nambu-Goto action simply uses the area of the worldsheet by using
the induced metric pulled back from the spacetime metric.
γab = ηµν ∂a X µ ∂b X ν
Z p
SN G = −T dt dx −detγab

5. To get the Polyakov action, we introducea worldsheet metric in analogy

with the einbein. Define hab as hab hbc = δ ac . Then
√ √
Z Z
µ ab 1 ab µ T
SP olyakov [x , h ] = − dt dσ −h h ∂a X ∂b Xµ = − dt dσ −h hab γab
4πα′ 2
1 hab γab
=⇒ √ =√
2 −h −γ
Also note that mass term does not exit.
6. The single particle action does not have Weyl invariance. But the string
action is Weyl invariant. That’s why it doesn’t have cosmological term.
7. If we introduce a cosmological constant term in the Polyakov action, the
equation for hab becomes unsolvable ( and LHS and RHS have different
traces ). This forces us to have Λ = 0.
8. To sum over different topologies, we add an Euler term to the Polyakov
action:
√
Z
λ
SEuler = − dt dσ −h R = −λχ
4π Σ
9. On a 2D worldsheet action of Polyakov, we have 3 gauge symmetries:
1) Reparametrization of t [ free to choose t’(t,σ)] ( diff1 )
2) Reparametrization of σ [ free to choose σ’(t,σ)] ( diff2 )
3) Scale of metric [ free to choose ω(t,σ)] ( Weyl ). Note that here we
are changing the actual metric on the worldsheet ( not just a coordinate
tranformation ). The ”Weyl invariance” emerges only in Polyakov action
because we can’t fix the scale of the worldsheet metric.
The metric in two dimensions has 3 free parameters, and thus completely
exhausts our gauge freedom.

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10. World sheet lightcone coordinates ( note that these are wordsheet coor-
dinates, and not the spacetime ones. The latter are used in lightcone
quantization):
σ+ ≡ t + σ
σ− ≡ t − σ
1
∂± = (∂t ± ∂σ )
2
ds2 = −dσ + dσ −
1
n+− = n+− = −
2
n+− = n+− = −2
n++ = n−− = 0

11. In lightcone quantization, we don’t have worry about ghosts. That’s be-
cause it completes fixes the gauge ( including the conformal residue ). The
downside is that it doesn’t manifest the (spacetime) Lorentz symmetry. (
The µ, ν indices won’t be always contracted ).

12. In in ( worldsheet ) lightcone coordinates, the metric becomes:

ds2 = ηab dσ a dσ b = −dσ + dσ −

13. The commutation relations between open string modes are:

i
[αm , αnj ] = mδ ij δm+n,0

14. Another things peculiar to lightcone coordinates is the commutation rela-

tion pairing:
[x− , p+ ] = −i

15.
∞
D−2 X
A= n
2 n=1
where A is the Casimir energy of worldsheet.

16. To see the spectrum of open string, we diagonalize p+ and pi . Since these
are independent coordinates, these can be diagonalized simultaneously (
note that we are not including p− in this list as its values depends on
i
other momenta ). Thus we build the worldsheet Fock space using α−n
operators. In the spacetime, its just one particle.

p+ |0; k⟩ = k + |0; k⟩

pi |0; k⟩ = k i |0; k⟩

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 αni |0; k⟩ = 0 for n > 0
D−2
=⇒ α′ M 2 = A + 0 = −
24
There are no osciallations so far. Raising operator will created oscillations
in Fock space.
17. The EOM for bosonic string in lightcone gauge is:
1) Closed string: X + (t, σ) = x+ + α′ p+ t
2) Open string: X + (t, σ) = x+ = 2α′ p+ t
with constraints:
∂± X µ ∂± Xµ = 0
This corresponds to vanishing of stress energy tensor ( recall that the non
diagonal elements are identically zero ). This follows from more general
condition ( vanishing of stress energy tensor ):
 
1 1
Tab = − ′ ∂a X µ ∂b Xµ − ηab ∂c X µ ∂ c Xµ = 0
α 2

18. Virasoro algebra:

The Virasoro algebra is given by:

[αn , αm ] = nδn+m,0

[x, p] = i
1X
Lm = : αm−n αn :
2
n∈Z

In particular this means that the negative generators ( the creators ) are
to appear on left in the product. However, for all the m ( except m=0),
the operators already commute. So this normal ordering only affects the
L0 operator ( the hamiltonian ) and implies:
∞
X
L0 = α′ p2 + α−n αn
n=1

19. In string theory, there are integer many osciallations modes in each direc-
tion denoted as αnµ . The zeroth mode doesn’t have a positive ( annihilator
) and negative ( creator ) operators associated. Instead, the α0µ operator
just gives the value of linear momentum in µ direction in lightcone gauge.
20. The spectrum in string theory can be found as:

−M 2 = −2p+ p− + pi pi

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21. For open superstring, there are two sectors, based on the boundary con-
ditions: Ramond and Neveu-Shwartz. The Ramond sectors does admit
zero fermion mode because the summation is over integer ( including zero
) modes. The NS sector sums over half-integer modes, and so does not
admit zero fermion mode.

22. In RNS superstring, we have D bosons on worldsheet. These behave has a

vector in target space. We have D majorana fermions on worldsheet and
they behave like a vector in target space.
23. A standard trick in SUSY is to introduce an auxilliary field F to impose
supersymmetry off-shell. F is independent, and does not couple to the
other fields. F is quadratic, so can be integrated out easily.
24. X and ψ enjoy ( bosonic ξ ) conformal symmetries separately. But to-
gether, they enjoy a bigger symmetry called the superconformal symmetry,
which includes a fermionic ( ϵ and ϵ̃) parameter. So the total symmetry
is (1,1) superconformal.

25. Lightcone gauge fixes the residual superconformal symmetry onshell, but
gauge fixing is generally done off-shell.
26. Fundamental string is stable because it carries Kalb-Ramond charge. It
can’t decay to other objects.

27. Every field that appears in the massless spectrum of open/closed string
is useful. Kalb-Ramond field from closed string needs the one-form gauge
field from open string for the consistency of string theory.
28. For closed bosonic string ( with a compactified dimension ), the spectrum
( with constraint ) are:
mn + N − Ñ = 0
2 m2 n2 R 2
M2 = (N + Ñ − 2) + +
α′ R2 (α′ )2
To make the ground state of the spectrum heavy ( and thus decouple it ),
√
you have to chose R = α′ .
29. T-Duality is not a symmetry of just spectrum, it is a symmetry of entire
theory. The theories are indistinguishable at self-dual point. Basically
a compactified small radius is equivalent to a compactified large radius.
This gives a minimum radius of toroidal compactification.

30. For an open string before compactification, we had:

X 24 (σ, t) = x0 + 2α′ pt + ...

The momentum p, at each point on string, is changed in presence of a

Maxwell field ( existing on D-brane ) to p − qA. Overall, for the entire

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 θ
R
string, qA = 2πR with θ = q dxA
We also write p = Rl , i.e. in multiples of 1/R since p is quantized now (
after compactification).
So  
m (ωj − ωi )
X 24 = x + 2α′ + t + ...
R 2πR
Now the mass goes roughly like:
 2
m (ωj − ωi )
αM ∼ 2
−α′ p2transversei.e.inbrane ∼α ′
+
R 2πR

Substitute R = α′ /R̃ and y/R̃ = (ωj − ωi ). This gives:

1  y 2
α′ M 2 = N − 1 + R̃m +
α′ 2π
The m has transitioned from being a momentum mode ( with R in the
denominator ) to a winding mode ( with R̃ in the numerator ).
31. Each Dp-brane ( independentantly ) gives rise to a gauge field ( having
p-1 components ). So N coincident branes will gives rise to N 2 gauge
fields ( each having p-1 components ). Each such gauge field corresponds
to strings streched between i and j branes. Separation of branes leads to
the gauge fields ( two at a time ) acquiring mass.
32. Interaction between strings can be understood as the endpoint of one
string attaching to the starting point to another one such that they lie on
the same D-brane to begin with.
33. It’s difficult to write Lagrangian for 2B string theory in 10D because the
field strength F is self-dual but we don’t know how to write self-duality of
a 5 form.
34. On the worldsheet, the Ramond sector corresponds to the periodic bound-
ary conditions for the ( open ) string. Its solutions can be expanded in
integer modes. The NS sector corresponds to antiperiodic boundary con-
ditions. Its solutions can be expanded in the half-integer modes.
35. For open strings, the left, and right modes are the same if you want to
express them like that. If closed string, the modes separate into left and
right moving parts and we have a separate operator that don’t talk to
each other. [ See equation (2.47) in Peter’s notes titled Ch02-05 ].

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2 Useless ( My own thoughts )
1. The kind of worldsheets that we allow in a theory define a new string
theory. Once we choose the set of allowed worldsheets, we must sum over
all possible worldsheets to calculate path integral.
2. In string theory, there is only one coupling constant that describes the
amplitude of a string splitting into two. However, this coupling constant
depends on the excitation of the string.
3. QFT can be said to be a theory with point particles. String theory doesn’t
have point particles, but it still respects locality.
4. The einbein acts as a (reparametrizable) metric. Hence it transforms as a
one-form under reparametrization. Consider the map:
t → t′ (t)
then, xµ (t) → x′µ (t) : x′µ (t′ (t)) = xµ (t)
and, e(t) → e′ (t) : e′ (t′ (t))dt′ = e(t)dt
5. Under reparametrization ( on worldsheet ), xµ behaves likes a ”scalar”.
6. Nambu-Goto action has two symmetries:
1) Poincare ( global/rigid ) symmetry:
x′µ (t, σ) = Λµν xν (t, σ) + aµ

2) Diffeomorphism of worldsheet ( gauge ):

x′µ (t′ , σ ′ ) = xµ (t, σ)
∂σ ′a ∂σ ′b ′ ′ ′
=⇒ γ (t , σ ) = γcd (t, σ)
∂σ c ∂σ d ab
7. To understand the concept of chosing a gauge, you can consider the ex-
ample of a rotating folded string. In target spacetime, it has (x0 , r, θ)
coordinates. But on the worldsheet of string, it has only (t̃, σ) coordi-
nates. Not that t is fake time, it need not coincide with the target time.
Now we have to choose (t̃, σ) such that these coordinates cover all the
point on the physical string ( but only once ). So we can choose t = x0
and σ = r to cover the fourth of the string. If we had lesser degrees of
freedom in the target space, then our gauge will be overcomplete and we
would need more ( consistent ) constrains to get a ”good” mapping.
8. The classical calculation using a folded string gives:
1 1
J= E2 = ′ E2
4πT α /2
which is very close to Regge trajectory. The factor of 1/2 is there because
we are considering a folded string ( so T → 2T ).

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 9. The varition of Polyakov action wrt the worldsheet metric h is propor-
tional to the stress energy tensor Tab . The EOM of metric h forces the
vanishing of stress energy tensor T. This in turn makes the Polyakov action
equivalent to Nambu-Goto action.
10. The general solution to open string with Neumann boundary conditions
is given as:
√ X αµ
X µ (t, σ) = xµ + 2α′ pµ t + i 2α′ n −int
e cos(nσ)
n
n̸=0

There is no linear term in σ here because it will give nonvanishing deriva-

tive for σ and hence violate the Neumann boundary condition. The Fourier
coefficients of left and right terms are same ( see FAQs for reasoning ).
11. The solution for closed boundary conditions is:
r r
µ µ ′ µ α′ X 1 µ −in(t+σ) α′ X 1 µ −in(t−σ)
X (t, σ) = x + α p t + i αn e +i α̃ e
2 n 2 n n
n̸=0 n̸=0

12. The pµ is the eigen value of

Z
1
Pµ = dσ Ẋ µ
2πα′

13. In case of closed string, the solution X µ (t, σ) doesn’t have a linear term
in σ because X exists in target space.
14. In lightcone ( spacetime ) coordinates, the constraints ( that come from
varying metric in Polyakov action ) become linear in X + and X . That’s
the advantage of using lightcone ( spacetime ) coordinates.
15. The string action has reparametrization invariance ( in σ and t ) to begin
with. In polyakov action, we also gain the freedom to rescale the metric.
Thus we obtain the diffxWeyl symmetry of polyakov action. Then we go to
the conformal gauge. We see that we can remain in this gauge if we rescale
our parameters in such a way that they are cancelled by Weyl rescaling.
This special rescaling of coordinates gives us the conformal symmetry. In
particular ( bbs ):
∂ α ξ β + ∂ β ξ α = Λη αβ

16. X+ is the worldsheet time. So its conjugate variable P − becomes the

worldsheet hamiltonian.
17. In lightcone gauge, there are not αs ( the oscillator modes ) for the X +
direction as it is already fixed to be

X + = x+ + 2α′ p+ t

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18. In the homework problem ( 26th dimension is Dirichlet , rest are Neumann
), the remaining 25 dimensions form a D-brane in which string is free to
move. It has a life of its own.
19. For bosonic QFT, we need only Riemannian ( differential ) structure. For
fermionic one, we also need a spin structure.

20. There is no natural zero for the spin structure. You can’t say that this
spin structure is identity and others are non trivial. So we always choose
the canonical structure for Z2 gauge field in case of bosons ( so no two
options ).IOW, spin stucture is a groupoid.

21. For a torus, there are 4 spin structures. In one direction you have NS/R
choice, and then again in the other direction.
22. Odd number of Majorana fermions on an interval are anomalous because
of a zero mode.
23. Fermionic QFT doesn’t have to be modular invariant. It has to be modular
covariant.
24. For
R U(1) gauge field on a compact circle, gauge equivalent θ(= w =
q loop dx Ax ) give the same holonomy W. Different thetas from 0 to
2π give different physics though.
25. In Nambu Goto action, we solve for the metric and use it directly. In
Polyakov action, we keep it as a variable, but this imposes Virasoro con-
straints that we must obey. The Virasoro constraints say ( in light cone
gauge ) that the stress energy tensor must have vanishing trace.
26. For NSR superstring, we try to find the analog of Virasoro constraints.

27. In 2D, the Einstein-Hilbert action is a total derivative ( topological invari-

ant ) and hence vanishes. The gravitino action in any dimension contains
product of three gamma matrices with antisymmetrized indices. But since
there are only two gamma matrices in 2D, this action also vanishes.
28. χ ( generally denoted as ψ ) is fermionic partner of e so it should be
either in the real representation of Dirac matrices or should be in general
representation with Majorana condition.

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3 Formulas
1. Regge trajectory:
J = α′ M 2 + α0
where α′ is Regge slope, and α0 is Regge intercept.
J is dimensionless ( being spin ). Thus α′ (1Gev)−2 .
2.
∞
X 1
ζ(s) = s
n=1
n

converges only for Re(s) > 1.

3.
W µ Wµ = W i W i − 2W + W −

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4 FAQs
1. How does Weinberg-Witten (1980) theorem motivate string theory?
It says that there are no massless particles ( fundamental or composite )
with spin greater than 1 in a QFT that admits a Lorentz covariant energy
momentum tensor. But in our universe, we already have gravitons ( that
have spin 2 ). So this theorem doesn’t allow us to have a QFT with stress
energy tensor ( that means pretty much every QFT ).
Also note that string theory has many more dimensions ( this somehow
bypasses the WW theorem ).
2. Why don’t we have a mass term in the Polyakov action? Why is the Euler
term allowed? How is it different than cosmological constant term

3. What’s the difference between Weyl symmetry and reparametrization sym-

metry in Polyakov action? They look very similar.
4. Why are the Fourier coefficients for open string same ( for left and right
components ) for Neumann condition?
The reason is that cos(nσ) has special property that its derivative with re-
spect to σ vanishes at endpoints and thus satisfied the Neumann boundary
conditions. Thus the general solution must of this form.
5. Why does hab = ηab not completely fix the gauge? Homework: Check that
the Polyakov action in gauge h = η is invariant under conformal symmetry.
6. Apparently P − is the hamiltonian operator in string theory? But how is
it defined? In particular derive (*) in lecture 7 at 30:07. And then derive
the equation at 5:24 in Lecture 9.
7. Why we don’t have massive representations in Lecture 9 at 17:07 ?
8. We don’t need the auxilliary field F on-shell because the EOM for X is
second order and EOM for ψ is first-order. How does that answer this
question?( Lecture 11, 29:30 )

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