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    Mullins Jh 1959

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    Mullins JH 1959

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    Ivan Felis

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    PART I A Wg BUBBLE CHAMBER PART IT PHYSICS OF BUBBLE CHAMBERS AND APPLICATIONS TO ADVANCED DESIGNS Thesis by Joe Hill Mullins In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy California Institute of Technology Pasadena, Califoraia 1959 ACKTONLEXGMENTS The writer would to recogaize his indebtedness to the direc- tor of his research, Dr. Jol M. Teea, Yor the exceptionally interested und conscientious guidance which he has provided the author during the progress of the work described herein, and for the great willingness he has displayed to help his students notwithstanding the difficulties involved. Particular thanks are extended to Professor Robert F. Bacher for his continued interest and support during all phases of the bubble chauber program, without which the vork could not have been continued. Since the bubble chamber program is 4 group effort, it is not easy to single out the contribution of a single individual, and much of the work reported herein represents the labor of others. Tue writer owes much to the efforts of Messers. E. D. Alyea, Jr., J. T. Chang, and L. R. Gallagher, as well os L. J. Fretwell, Jr., D. 3. Groom, T. W. Speiser, C. W. Peck, and R. L. Oohen. For his excellent engineering design of the bubble chamber, thanks are due to Mr. C. L. Friswold and to his supervisor Mr. Bruce Rule. To all the staff of the Synchrotron Laboratory including Projes- sors R. V. Languuir, V. Z. Peterson, M.L. Sands, A. V. Tollestrup, and R. L, Walker, the writer wishes to express his thanks for many helpful dis- cussions. To the entire crew of the Synchrotron Laboratory thanks are also extended for their work. ‘The author also expresses particular thanks to his wife, Mary Jane, for her continued encouragement, and for the typing of the thesis, and to Mrs. F. P. Dixon for doing the drawings. The writer would also like to acknowledge financial assistance in the form of fellowships from the Educational end Charitable Fund of the General Electric Company, and from the Dow Chemical Company. The partial financial support of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission is gratefully acknowledged. ABSTRACT Part 1 The role of bubble chambers in photoproduction studies is con- sidered in the light of exzperinental problems, and arguments for use of heavy Liguid chambers are presented. Successful operation of a snall WF, chauber in conjunction with the C.I.T. electron synchrotron is described and experimentel results are given. Design, construction and operation of e 12 inch hydrostatically supported bubble chamber for use with hydro- carbons, Freons, or WFg is described. ‘The chamber 1s operated with « unique "resonent” expansion system employing large valves of a special design, resulting in a very fast operating cycle with small energy input. Part It ‘The mechanism of formation and growth of bubbles in a bubble chamber is inves:igated, and the results of calculstions concerning growth and collapse in propane are given. Mechanisms vhich have been proposed dealing with the nucleation of bubbles by charged particles are examined with the intention of determining their probable velidity, and the influ- ence of some additional processes is discussed. A technique is suggested which may allow construction of large bubble chambers, particularly of the heavy liquid variety, with very fast expansions and recompressions, or very rapid cycling rates. Chapter Tel 13 Ay Be Ae c De ze Fy, Be c. D. Be F. G a i J. ARLE OF CONTENTS PART I: A Wig BUBBLE CHAMBER Title Introduction Bubble Chambers - Generel Considerations Specific Considerations - Experiments end Accelerator Exploratory Work with Small Bubble Chambers Introduction Barlier Work ‘The Small WF, Chamber Purification of Tungsten Hexafluoride Chamber Operation with WFg Multiple Scattering Results Design of the 12-Inch Chanber Considerations Leading to Choice of the Design Brief Description of Chief Features The Inner Chenber Support Tank and Fluid Expansion System Expansion Engines Heating and Temperature Monitoring The Optical System Experimental Terget Arrangements Pluubing Arrangements a La wy 1 2h Chapter Tek i-1 Be c. D. Ll. 2. 3. de Le a 3 he Se Te & oe 10. Bitle Operation of the 12-Inch Chamber Initial Teste; Fluorocerbon-Butene Second Trial; Glycerine-Butane Test of the Sleeve Technique Conclusions PART II: PHYSICS OF BUBBLE CHAMBERS AND APPLICATIONS TO ADVANCED DESIGKS Bubble Nucleation and Growth in Bubble Chambers General Growth of Bubbles to Macroscopic Size Equation of Motion Validity of Approximations Munerical Solution of Bubble Grovth Equation Results of Calculations The Bubble Nucleation Process Elenents of the Problem Experimental Data Behavior of Stopping $-rays Proposed Mechanisms and Calculation of Liquid Parameters Charge Cluster Theories Theraal Spike Theory Energy Storage Effect Effect of Heat Loss Other Considerations Functional Dependence of Bubble Density Conclusions Lok ne 11ée 118 1g lo 126 43h io 1g Lig ash 158 175 Appendix I Appendix ID Appendix IIT Acoustical Treatment of Expat nsion Systems Equations of Motion end Solutions Transient Bubble Chambers Steady-State Bubble Chambers APPENDICES Bxpansion System Expansion Engines Properties and Purification of Wig 19h 203 213 2ho PART E A WE, BUBBLE CHAMBER A vepéiness starcia: vob furs dae. oveluetion of tuely roe ag e seok Jor invests, phyeles. Tho evpabilitden oad Linkuetious uf ste deviees vubst to syoeiige design, bus there uro yonoral shuraccorisvies wbice ile chasbor of any ec.mon to uset tysos af chavbors. Tor exumples 2 | tye te 3 viguel Iustrunens, und possesses yonerel veatures af suet Geviows. In che Myst pleee, visunl inetrasrts alley one to agaciae vexy » those with wany resettoa p combiected sinvle events, 65: weet detagi, and thus ae ofter of volue du icesidtyiay processes wlek ation anbiauus te other neaag ay detection. Suck visual juste Benear 2 wig ave yortieularly useful dor sucka) youcral suzveyy ef che arcer POeeD magattude of total eross sections Zor che tyes of veactions or ceeurria) 2a 0 cdven venge of oneryy and tneldent sartiele type. Bt ie also of interest to eouere the arazowiles yoevile, oubbie visubers vith thowe oY other visual vertiele deieciors, suck as nue eloar eailsioxs and cloud chucbors. Iz guucrel, the devadty @: che bubble ehavbor ueddun ie tutoryadfate sebuwen that of cloud chaukoss end of cuales? eraileionse Thove is, fa Zeat, 2 wide Bf qe*4 TF (and the neutral modes to a lesser extaat) hes been undar- taken at the Caligornia Institute of Tecimplogy, Cornell, and Stanford with a atffusioa cloud chasbar, nuclear caulsions, counter telescopes, o¢ counters ani a magnetic epectrouater (19 © 25). Bowever, for these reace tdons end those of higher mltiphicities as well, 1% would soem thet « be ceyecially wefuh. 2 these experimente it desirable vo deter: ne unub{guovely the degres of mltiplic: and kind of particles involved, as woll as o sufficient muber of she = iduenstie parencters to determine the energy of the daeiden photon. The measurement of the angular correlation of all partieles involved alse 4 useful for comparison te the theoretical prediction frou 8 specdfie pro- duction sodel. Because one needs also to otudy the multiple production of TT? nesons (with or without charged pions), 4t 3s desirable te Lave s medium which ean detect Veraye fran the decay T°» 27 with high efficiency ag well os charged pions or nucleons, For this puryoes © chanber Liquid with a short radiation length is preferable. Other otraightfermurd photoproduetion experinente within the energy range of the California Institute of Technology Synchrotron are the neagurocents of the cross sections for the processes of the form TEN 4 5, vierve 2 i a wucleon, ¥ is o hyperon and X is a Keueson. Of these reactions, at the proseut vriting, oaly those involving X* yro- duction fros a proten have becn studded using counters and a mguetie spectrancter, both at the California Institute of Technology and Covoell (2: = 31). Rare is perhags a use for @ bubble ehauber tn the iomere conter of wags angles of the K*, sinco hare the aay of the K* 49 slow and bas a ehors decay length, requiring a device viieh can emuine the region close to the point of origia of the x*. Concerning the noutral production, the place of a bubble chesber becomes moe yrominont still. Study of the process Tf P—> zy 8° te aifflewt vith any technique under the present energy Linitatdons of the synchrotron becouse of the Low cross soction, the short Life of both small Labor: vartieles, and The forward 1S, of course, axe very badly due wiaciyally to cleetroueposttven pairs. Frou the Lifes: n2 tue O,°%, (506 o¢ tic O° particles), une finds that the zoucs for decoy are ab met Limited to wituin a sow contimeters of the po of production. Time, hore ig a possible use for a bubble chester, vhleh with the propar experimental arrangesent ean exatine the region close to the point of production. Tdertifteation of the O° partiele woula be nade by ite decay. A siutler argument eeu be advanced for otter pro processes in vhish the neutral particle da the only one kixematicaily avadl- able for cuamination, for example the reactions T4u+r A° # O°, Tins 5° O° Bere one needs the almost undque ability of e visual instrument to identity the neutre) particles by their decay and to exploy measureneste on the daughter products to determine the energy of the neutral. With che foregoing oxperimantel probless in mind one can exanine 4n some detest) the advantages and disadvantages of various bubble cluster types. The Uinds we have considered are Liquid hydrogen, Hydrocarbon, aud heavy Liquid bubble claubere frou the viewpoint of experiuents with en clectvon agcolerater. Froa the outset, it is clear that a nydrogen chenber ise cortaln 6 over all other types. In particular, the sensitive Liquid is, for ish energy oxporiaents, essentially a frec-proton target, allowing digoct studies of reactions with single melecas, uneomylicated by intor= uch 28 hose using propane, actions in mcleli., In uydrocarvon ehanbere, 299 hae freceproton targets, dut the situation ds complicated by the necessity of separating the earbon events fren the nydroyen ons. expense of losing visibility of the polat of interaction, one may “To alternatively employ separate gaseous (or possibly Maquid) hydrogen tar- gate built into or adjacent to the chazber. When one considers the use of any bubble chasber with a photon ‘beam, however, a very important consideration erises. This is the very high background, especisily in the forward direction, of electrons and positvans from pais production and Compton recoils, The situation ie so ‘vad, in fact, that only rudimentary calculatdons are necessary to indicate thet chesber Liquids other than hytregsn ere probably impossible for any ‘but electrodynamie experiments when used es targets for s bromsstrablung ‘beams To study experimentally the extent of this background problem in Liquid hydrogen, J. H, Teom and 2. D. Alyea, dx. (32) used the 4 inch Berkwley hydrogen chamber in the bremsstrahlung beam of the 300 Mov UC.R.L. electron synchrotron, For those processes vhose end results are heavily ionizing yerticles (¢.g-, threshold pion production), 1t was shown feasible to operate the chauber at lover temperature and sensitivity ond thus "piss out" a large amount of the electron contamination. Kowever, 2t would ap- pear that 0 hydrogen chamber hes fairly severe limitation for the study of photoproduction processes for those cases in vbich one must detect udnimm or near miniuum ionizing particles. Teem and Alyea observed that in such cases, even using Lill us a filter to resove low onergy photons from the bean, the practical necessity of obtaining a reasonable counting rate re- quires a beas intensity so high that the central portion of the chuuber (the dean Line} is obliterated by background. If the origin of events is obscured, and separate tracks are visible only in the region avay frou the beat, 8 hydrogen chamber loses some of its attraction. Under such coadi- ‘tions, there ie no particular edvautage in using hydrogen as @ sensitive 8 Uiquid in the surrounding region (at lesst for production experinenta). One ig therefore compelled to consider separately the characteristics of @ chauber Liquid for use as 6 detector ae distinguished from s target. A possibility vorth considering ts that of a heavy Liquid chanver surromding @ high pressure gie target (H,, D, er possibly even Z). tue feavures posseseed by heavy Liquids that are of particular interest as a devector are both thelr high stopping power for charged particles snd their short radiation length, that is, their ability to “msterdalize” photons. ‘The higher stopping power gives one an opportunity to identity charged particles and masure their eneray by ellowing them to stop in the chonber and decay. The higher devaity, of course, elmost inevitably rules out easily obtedined macroscopic uagnetde fields (10 + 15 Kg) as @ womentun weasuring technique because of the large multiple Couloub scattering. The letter, however, soucwnet compensates for the loss by giving the experi- nenter an opportunity to use the nuclear emulsion technique of measuring momentua tines velocity by observing the scattering. Such heavy Liquide thus possess the ability to detect and measure the euergy of both charged particles and Y-rays. ‘These ure soe of the considerations that led to our choices of a heavy liguid as a bubble chesbor medium. The idea was first proposed by Glaser (33), who suggested severe) possible Liquids, exong viich were SxGl,, Wg and xenon, Subvequent to this, Glaser ead bis co-workers com structed a small xsnon chamber (34) aud now have an operating 12 dach cue. Because of the high cost and scarcity of xmnon, the bubble chauber grow at the Caligornie Institute of Technology uader the direction of J. Ms Too constructed a email chamber te test other heavy liquids (35). Although two euch Liquids were found radiation sensitive (SnCl, ead Wg), tungsten “92 heys?luoriae has several more appealing features. Among these a¥e higher density, shorter radistie: length, and lover operating tempovature. Tuere- fore, fatxly extensive exposures vere carried out with the WF, chatber the C.I.%. synchrotron bean to explore the possibilities of the Liguid {eee Ghapter 3-9. On the basis of these teste, Wi, vas chosen an the oven~ tual Leavy Lguid to f11L our 12 inch chamber vhen completed. However, since 7, bag certain handling problems, vo invend to use © comprouise Liq~ uid in the initial experiuents., Some of the Freon type compounds such as Coif, have been studded os bubble chsubor fluids (36), and the heavier ones of thi fastly (noteoly GEyyi) are suffielently dense and have ehors enough radiation lengths to wake then useful heavy Liquids. Tue reelly unique feature of heavy Liquida tes in theiy vory high offieteucy for photons. For example, the radiation length fa Wr, at the operating point is shout 3.5 as, Thus, the probability of seeing voth photons frome TT decay (or any photon) within the chanher is nigh. Here, hovever, oue mst note that a shorter radiation Leagth ulso invites ad- Aitional tyouble fren vaskground photons. Whether this digfleulty offecte

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