RESEARCH II NOTES
Books
 CHAPTER VII
Data - Datum
 Collection of numbers, quantities, facts, or
records used as bases for drawing
conclusion or making interferences.
 What research is searching
 Subjected to analysis, statistical procedures
and interpretation. (Inferences, principles,
generalizations are drawn)
INFERENCE: noun. conclusion reached on the
basis of evidence and reasoning.
TWO CLASSIFICATIONS:
1. Primary Data
2. Secondary Data
PRIMARY DATA - data from primary resources.
7 PRIMARY RESOURCES
1. Individual Persons
2. Original Documents such as diaries, contracts,
fraternity, school and law making body.
3. Living Organisms like dog
6. Man-made Material, TV, Radio
7. Natural Objects Wind, Rain and Typhoon.
SECONDARY DATA - gathered secondary
resources.
SECONDARY RESOURCES
1.
2. Articles
3. Unpublished thesis and dissertation
4. Monographs, Manuscripts
5. Verbal / Written Data
ADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA
1. It gives DETAILED DEFINITION of terms and
statistical units.
2. SECONDARY - LITTLE INFORMATION vs.
original primary source.
3. Includes COPY OF SCHEDULE AND
DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURE USED. User -
Idea of accuracy, applicability, and limitation.
4. Broken down into FINER CLASSIFICATION.
ADVANTAGE OF SECONDARY DATA.
1. More convenient - Condensed and Organized.
2. Analysis and Interpretation are done EASILY.
3. Accessible (Libraries)
CATEGORIES OF DATA GATHERED FROM
RESPONDENTS.
Respondents - individuals asked or requested by
Researcher to supply data or information about
the research problem.
1. FACTS - Recollection, observation, and
perception of respondents.
Personal Circumstances
Ex. AGE, SEX, HEIGHT, WEIGHT, COLOR OF
SKIN, HABITS, LIFESTYLE, RELIGION,
ECONOMIC STATUS.
2. ATTITUDES AND FEELINGS - Ideas,
thoughts, personal feelings about research topic.
(Agree, Disagree) Example Legalizing the
pornography movies in philippines.
3. JUDGEMENTS - Ideas, Opinion, actual
behavior.
Example: The roses is ugly.
4. PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS - Manipulative skills
involving the FIVE SENSES
- sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch.
Comparison with average individual.
5. RESULTS OF TESTS AND EXPERIMENTS -
due to extensive testing they develop cures in
different illness as well as engine, airplane,
machine, telephone.
SELECTING THE METHOD COF COLLECTING
DATA
A. Clerical Tools
1. Questionnaire
2. Interview
3. Empirical Observation
4. Registration
5. Testing
6. Experimental
7. Library
= QIERTEL
B. Mechanical Devices - Microscope,
thermometers, Camera.
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS AND TOOLS.
1. Mechanical Devices - tools used in physical
sciences. Like microscope, thermometer,
cameras
2. Clerical Tools - studies people and gather data
on the feelings, emotions, attitudes, and
judgements of the subjects.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH
INSTRUMENT
1. Valid and Reliable.
2. Based upon conceptual framework
3. Suitable for and relevant to the research topic.
4. Gather data that would test hypothesis
5. Free from bias
6. Contain questions or items that are
unequivocal (leaving no doubt)
7. Clear and definite directions to accomplish it.
8. If instrument - Mechanical device - Best and
Latest model
9. Good Cover Letter
10. Letter of recommendation from sponsor
 CHAPTER VIII
QUESTIONNAIRE - is a set of planned questions
which, when answered properly would supply the
needed data for a research problem or topic.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Easy to Construct - Rules and Principles of 7. Pre-testing the Questionnaire - Dry run.
Construction Measuring the effectiveness, Validity, and
2. Distribution is easy and inexpensive - Reliability
Respondents can be reached by copies by 8. Writing Questionnaire on its final form
personal or small staff distribution
3. Responses are easy to tabulate - objectified
and standardized
4. Respondent's replies are free - own free will,
no one can influence him which avoid bias. TYPES
5. Confidential Information may be given freely - According To Form
anonymous
6. Can fill out the questionnaire at will - 1. Free-answer type - open form, his own
accomplish at his own convenience. words, his own way
7. Accurate Replies - has enough time to think 2. Guided Response type - closed
reflectively = more accurate form/restricted type
 Recall Type
 Recognition Type
DISADVANTAGE o Dichotomous two options
o Multiple Choice only one answer
1. Cannot read, write or totally illiterate. o Multiple Response two or more
2. May not return filled up copies - purposely or
option can be selected
forgetfully
3. Respondents can give erroneous
Information.
According to the kind of data asked for
4. Unanswered questions - due to no one urge,
may not understand relevant information 1. Descriptive Verbal Data
5. Vague Questions 2. Quantified Numerical Data
6. Limited choices - none of his actual choice 3. Intensity of Feeling, Emotion, Attitude
are available 4. Degree of Judgement
5. Understanding
6. Reasoning
CONSTRUCTION
1. Doing Library Search - Reference
GUIDELINES
2. Talking to Knowledgeable People - Get some
ideas 1. All directions clear or unequivocal - clear,
3. Mastering the Guidelines - Learn from Books, definite
Interviews 2. Use corrects of grammar - to avoid
4. Writing the Questionnaire misinterpretation
5. Editing the questionnaire - Improvement 3. All Questions unequivocal - brief, précised
6. Rewriting the Questionnaire - according to 4. Avoid Biased Questions
corrections and suggestions 5. Objectify the responses
6. Relate all questions to the topic under study
7. Create categories for approximate answers
8. Group the questions in logical sequence
9. Create sufficient number of response
categories
1. 10.avoid Confidential and Embarrassing
information
10. Explain and illustrate difficult questions -
technical terms
11. State all questions affirmatively - avoid
negative statements
12. Create many questions to give adequate
information to study
13. Add a catch all word
14. Place all spaces for replies at the left side -
for easy tabulation
15. Make respondents anonymous
SOME PROBLEMS WITH RESPONSES
1. Information is either opinion,
misinterpretation, a guess, bias or error.
2. The answer he gives may be a guess or
accidentally choose the right answer.
3. Open ended or Free-way responses are hard
to tabulate - may introduce bias
4. Respondent is forced to choose between
none of which he feels correct.
5. Respondents fail to include some items in
their answer - How many members are there
in your family?
6. Biased questions influence responses
7. Some respondents give answer to make
them appear good.
8. Free-way question, space allotted affects the
respondents reply
9. Choice of words affects responses
10. If Question is not explicit
11. Definiteness is sacrificed but broader replies
in gained.
12. A question may force an uncomplimentary or
undesirable choice on the part of respondent
13. Order in a list of items influences
respondents
14. Respondent does not give the true answer if
the response is embarrassing
EVIDENCE OF MISLEADING QUESTIONS
1. All-or-None responses
2. Consider difference in responses when the
order is changed.
3. High proportion of omission or “no response”
4. High proportion of “don’t know” or “don’t
recall”
5. High proportion of “other” answers
6. Considerable number of added comments
COVER LETTER
a. The purpose of the questionnaire or study;
b. Who is sanctioning, endorsing, or sponsoring
the study;
c. c. What will be done with the information
gathered by the questionnaire;
d. The reason why the respondent should
answer the questionnaire. and giving
importance to the respondent
e. The deadline date for the return of the
questionnaire;
f. f. Guarantee of the anonymity of the
respondents and the confidentiality of the
information given by him
g. An expression of gratitude for the
respondent's participation in the study; and
h. An offer to inform the respondent of the
results of the study if he is interested.
 CHAPTER IX
SAMPLING - Defined as measuring a small
portion of something and then making a general
statement about the whole thing.

ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
1. Makes Possible the Study of a Large,
Heterogenous Population - It is impossible to
reach every person, sampling only needs a
SMALL PORTION of population to be involved in
the study.
2. It Is for Economy - sampling REDUCES THE
STUDY POPULATION to a reasonable size that
expenses are greatly reduced.
3. Speed - sampling makes research LESS TIME
CONSUMING.
4. Accuracy - reasons must be finished within a
reasonable period of time so that the data are still
TRUE, VALID, AND RELIABLE.
5. Saves the Sources of Data from Being All
Consumed - the act of gathering data MAY
CONSUME ALL RESOURCES OF
INFORMATION without sampling.
CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
1. Element - about WHICH INFORMATION IS
COLLECTED and PROVIDES THE BASIS of
analysis.
2. Population - theoretically specific aggregation
of the elements. Also called UNIVERSE.
3. Study Population - aggregation of elements
from which the sample is ACTUALLY
SELECTED.
4. Sample - ELEMENT (PEOPLE) who are
actually selected to participate or the subject
in the study/
5. Sampling Unit - element / set of elements
CONSIDERED FOR SELECTION in some
stage of sampling.
o Primary Sampling Unit
o Secondary Sampling Unit
o Final Sampling Unit
6. Sampling Frame - is an ACTUAL LIST OF
SAMPLING UNITS form which is the sample,
or some stage of sample. is selected.
7. Observation Unit - UNIT OF DATA
COLLECTION is an element or aggregation
of elements from which information is
collected.
8. Variable - a set of EXCLUSIVE
ATTRIBUTES.
9. Parameter - SUMMARY DESCRIPTION of a
given variable in a POPULATION.
10. Statistics - SUMMARY DESCRIPTION of a
given variable in a SAMPLE. used to make
estimates of POPULATION PARAMETERS,
11. Sampling Error - the DEGREE OF ERROR
OF A SAMPLE STATISTICS when compared
with the population parameter. The
acceptable MAXIMUM sampling ERROR IS
5%
12. Representative Sampling - sample will be
representative of the population from which it
is selected if the AGGREGATE
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE
CLOSELY APPROXIMATE.
13. Confidence Level - the DEGREE OF
CONFIDENCE that a sample statistic WILL
ACCURATELY FALL WITHIN A CERTAIN
OF SPECIFIED INTERVAL from the
population parameter.
14. Sampling Stratum - GROUP, SECTION OR
CATEGORY OF ELEMENTS from which
selection is made.
PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING
1. Appraisals are estimates and predictions only
2. Estimates are least accurate when the sample
is a small proportion of the whole.
3. Sampling may be categorical or temporal.
DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
1. If sampling is biased or not representative or
too small the conclusion may not be valid
and reliable.
2. If some of the samples do not have common
characteristics, the conclusion may be faulty.
3. If the population is very large, sample
procedure becomes very complicated.
4. If researcher does not possess necessary
skills and technical knowhow, sampling may
become bias and unrepresentative.
GENERAL TYPES OF SAMPLING
1. Probability Sampling - the sample is a
proportion (a certain percent) of the
population. Every element of the population
has a chance to be included in the sample.
2. Non-Probability Sampling - sample is not a
proportion of the population and there is no
system in the selection. Selection depends
upon the situation
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Pure Random Sampling / Unrestricted
Random Sampling = Everyone in the
population of the inquiry has an equal
chance of being selected, to be included in
the sample.
ADV: Easy to understand, easy to apply
DISADV - Hard to use with too large population.
2. Systematic Sampling - every nth name in a
list may be selected to be included in a
sample.
ADV: More convenient, faster and more
economical
DISADV: Sample becomes biased if the persons
in the list belong to a class by themselves,
investigation requires that all sectors to be
involved
3. Stratified Random Sampling - process of
selecting randomly, samples from the
different strata of the population used in the
study.
ADV: It contributes much to the
representativeness of the sample. Easy to apply.
4. Purposive Sampling - determining the target
population, those to be involved in the study.
5. Cluster Sampling / Multistage Cluster
Sampling - used when the population is so
bid or the geographical are of the research is
so large.
ADV: Efficiency
DISADV: Reduced accuracy or
representativeness, fact that in every stage there
is a sampling error.
GUIDELINES FOR DETERMINING ADEQUATE
SAMPLING
1. If population is more or less homogeneous, a
smaller sample is enough. If differences are
desired to be known a larger sample is
needed
VOCAB: Homogenous - Similar kind of nature
2. If only their differences are desired to be
known a smaller sample is sufficient.
3. Size of sample varies inversely as the size of
the population.
EX. Large proportion - 10%
 HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 04
ANALYSIS - Process of breaking up the whole
study into its constituent parts of categories
according to the specific questions under the
statement of the problem
-Bring out into focus the essential features of the
study
-Precedes presentation
Constituent Part - may still be divided into its
essential categories.
-similarly divided or subdivided
DATA ARE GROUPED UNDER THE
CATEGORIES OR PARTS WHICH THEY
BELONG:
CLASSIFICATION DATA - grouping together
data with same characteristics
a. Qualitative (Kind) - same quality are the
same kind are grouped together
b. Quantitative - grouped according to their
quantity. ex. age.
c. Geographical - according to location
d. Chronological - order of their
occurrences.
CROSS-CLASSIFICATION - Classifying a group
of data into subclasses.
-Breaking up or dividing a big class into smaller
classes. ex. Pub Ad 1st-4th Year
ARRANGEMENT OF DATA OR CLASSES OF
DATA - Bases of arrangement of data or groups
of data are the same as those classifications.
a. Qualitative - arranged alphabetically or
biggest class > smallest class. etc.
ranking
b. Quantitative - arranging data according
to their numerical magnitudes, greatest >
smallest number.
c. Geographical - arranged according to
their geographical location, or direction.
d. Chronological - listing down data that
occurred first > last.
CLASSIFICATION, CROSS CLASSIFICATION
AND ARRANGEMENT OF DATA are done for
PURPOSES OF ORGANIZING THE THESIS
REPORT, PRESENTING INTO TABULAR
FORM SO THAT RELATIONSHIP CAN BE
EASILY SEEN.
GROUPED-DERIVED GENERALIZATIONS
-Purpose is to FORM INFERENCES,
INTERPRETATION, CONCLUSION AND/OR
GENERALIZATIONS from the COLLECTED
DATA.
Normative Survey - method of collecting data for
research implies the study of groups.
Findings - formulated Conclusion in the form of
generalizations, pertain to particular group
studied
Conclusion - group-derived generalizations
designed to represent characteristics of groups.
4 TYPES OF GROUP-DERIVED
GENERALIZATIONS
1. Generally, only a proportional prediction can
be made - expressed in terms of proportion
of the cases in a group
2. The average can be made to represent the
whole group - results from using average as
a representation of the group of cases and
offering it as a typical result.
3. Full-Frequency distribution reveals
characteristics of a group - most
characteristic device, carry the implication of
probability.
4. A group itself generates new qualities,
characteristics, properties or aspects not
present in individual cases - order and
arrangement are group properties that
represent relationship.
5. Other group properties exist only in a group
which vanish in individual cases. ex.
Cooperation, Opposition, Organization,
Specialization
ADDITIONAL
1. A generalization can also be made about an
individual case - statement cannot be made if
there is only one.
2. Predictions on individual cases can be made
- accuracy of prediction is high if
a. Linearity in the relationship of the
two variables if graphed
b. distributions in the two variables are
normal or not badly skewed
3. Spread or scarred of two variables is the
same for each column/raw in correlation.
PREPARING DATA FOR PRESENTATION -
they have to be tallied first in a tabulation
diagram which may be called talligram, a
contraction of tally and diagram.
HOW TO CONSTRUCT TALLIGRAM
1. Determine Classes and their respective
subclasses along with their respective
numbers.
2. Make Rows for the Classes by drawing
horizontal lines with appropriate spaces
between the lines and the number
3. Make Columns for the subclasses by drawing
vertical lines with appropriate spaces
between the lines and the number of
columns
Tallying - responses to a questionnaire in a
talligram follows.
Presentation of Data - process of organizing data
into logical, sequential and meaningful categories
and classification.
Analysis and Presentation - put data into proper
order and in categories reduiming them into
forms that are intelligible and interpretable.
TEXTUAL PRESENTATION OF DATA - uses
statements with numerals or numbers to describe
data.
-to focus attention to some important data and
supplement tabular presentation.
DIS: TOO LONG > BORING TO READ, reader
might not be able to grasp the quantitative
relationship of data presented. Reader might skip
some statements.
TABULAR PRESENTATION OF DATA
1. Statistical table defined - systematic
arrangement of related data.
2. Purpose of a table - facilitate the study and
interpretation, making of inferences and
implications of the relationships of statistical
data.
3. Advantages of tabular over textual
presentation of data:
a. Statistical table is concise -
systematically grouped and
arranged.
 b. Data are more easily read,
understood and compared -
systematic and logical arrangement
into rows and columns.
c. Table gives the whole information -
tables are constructed that the ideas
they convey can be understood.
4. Major functional parts of a statistical table
a. Table Number - Each table should
have a number.
b. title - subject matter deals with, to
what entity or person it belongs,
when data were gathered, how data
are classified.
c. Headnote or Prefatory Note - written
below the title and usually enclosed
in parenthesis. Explain some things
in the table that are not Clear.
5. Sub - contains sub head and the row labels.
Sub head > what the sub contains, row label
> data contained in that row.
6. Box head - contains the master and column
captions, column sub captions.
1. Master Caption > Column Caption > Column
sub caption.
7. Main body, field or text - contains all the
quantitative and/or proportional information
presented.
8. Foot note - appears immediately below the
bottom like of the table explains, qualifies
and clarifies. Not necessary if table is clear.
9. Source Note - written below the foot note
indicates the origin or source data
presented. Not necessary if sources if data
are the respondents to a questionnaire
/interview sched.
10.
PURPOSE:
1. give credit or recognition to the author of the
table
2. allow the user to secure additional data from
the same source
3. provide the user a basis for determining the
accuracy and reliability of the information
4. protect the maker against any charge of
inaccuracy and unreliability.
RULING SPACES IN TABLES - Done in a table
to emphasize or make clear relationship.
1. table number is not separated by the line
from the title - two spaces above title
2. Title is separated from the rest of table -
double line placed two spaces below the
lowest line of the title
3. Stub, Master Caption, Sub caption and
Totals are separated from one another - by
vertical and horizontal lines
4. Rows and Columns are not separated by
lines - purposes of clarity
5. Both ends of the table are unruled
6. There is always a line either single or double
at the bottom of the table.
UNITY IN A TABLE - presenting too many ideas
in a single table should be avoided, one subject
matter is enough.
TEXTURAL PRESENTATION OF TABULAR
DATA - Precedes the table or table may be
placed within the textual presentation.
TWO WAYS OF MAKING TEXTUAL
PRESENTATION OF A TABLE
1. All items in the table are textually presented -
enables reader to comprehend the totality of
the data even without consulting the table.
2. Only the highlights or important parts of the
data are textually presented.
BASIS PRINCIPLES THAT SHOULD BE
REMEMBERED IN THE TEXTUAL
PRESENTATION OF A TABLE
1. Should be complete as possible - ideas
conveyed in the table are understood
2. Generally followed by interpretation,
inference or implication - done after the data
from the table.
FINDINGS - original data, quantitative or
otherwise, derived/taken from the original
sources. does not directly answer the specific
question, it provides basis for making the
answers
IMPLICATION, INFERENCE,
INTERPRETATION - three terms are
synonymous if not exactly the same meaning.
1. condition - based upon findings,
satisfactory/unsatisfactory
2. cause- there must be a logical and valid
relationship between the condition and its
cause
3. effects - there must be a logical and valid
relationship between the condition and its
effect
4. continuance / remedial measure - there must
be some suggestions for the adoption of
measures aimed at minimizing harmful
effects
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
Graph - a chart representing the quantitative
variations, changes of a variable in comparison to
another variable
Quantitative Variation - may refer to the
qualitative, geographical and chronological
attributes.
Purpose of Graphing - to present the variations,
changes and relationships of data in a most
attractive, appealing, effective and convincing
way
ADVANTAGES OF GEORAPHICAL METHOD
1. Attracts more effectively than do tables -
readers may skip tables but pause to look at
charts
2. Use of Colors and Pictorial diagrams - makes
a list of figures in business reports more
meaningful
3. Gives Comprehensive View of Quantitative
Data - wandering of a line exerts a more
powerful effects in the reader's mind
4. Graphs enable the busy executive of a
business grasp the essential parts quickly
without trouble - any relation not seen from
the figures is easily discovered in a graph
5. General usefulness lies in the simplicity
LIMITATIONS OF GRAPHS
1. Does not show much information
2. Does not show data accurately
3. Charts require more skill, time and expense
to prepare
4. Cannot be quoted
5. Can be only made after data have been
tabulized
TYPE OF GRAPHS OR CHARTS
1. Bar graphs
2. Linear Graphs
1. 3.Hundred percent graphs or charts
3. Pictograms
4. Statistical maps
5. Radio Charts
CONSTRUCTION OF INDIVIDUAL GRAPHS
1. Bar Graph - used to make comparison of
simple magnitudes very much more clearly
and more distinctly perceptible to the eye.
CONSTUCTION OF GRAPHS - two straight lines
are drawn perpendicular to each other
Point of Origin - 0
1. Horizontal line - baseline, coordinate, X-axis -
represents variables involved or the classes
or categories of the variable involved
2. Vertical Line - ordinate, Y-axis - represents
quantities of the variables involved or the
classes or categories of the variable involved
3. Abscissa of the point measured to any point
parallel to the X axis from the Y AXIS
4. Abscissa and the ordinate of a point - called
coordinates of the point
5. Plotting the graph - locating the meeting point
of abscissa and the coordinate
ESSENTIAL OF A GRAPH
1. Number - numbered for reference purposes
2. Title - usually written above the graph
3. Scale - indicates length or height unit that
represents a certain amount of the variable
4. Classification and Arrangement - same in
graphs as in tables
5. Classes, Categories or Time Series -
indicated at the X axis and Scale Units are in
Y-Axis
6. Symmetry of the Graph - whole chart should
be square or otherwise the length should be
a little greater than the height
7. Footnote - placed below the graph aligned
with the left side of the graph
8. Source - should be written below the chart at
the lower left immediately below the footnote
GROUPED (MULTIPLE OR COMPOSITE) BAR
GRAPH - used in comparing two or more
categories of a variable during a specified period
of time when the subgroup of categories has
common attributes.
DUO DIRECTIONAL OR BILATERAL BAR
GRAPH - used to present data in the form of
assets, profits, and positive numbers, liabilities,
loses and negative numbers.
SUBDIVIDED (or Component) BAR GRAPH -
used to show the variables or changes of the
component parts of a whole and the whole itself.
HISTOGRAM - Composed of bars placed side by
side whose heights indicate the magnitudes of
their respective classes or categories.
2. LINEAR GRAPHS - good devices to show
variations of values over consecutive periods of
time.
ADVANTAGES OF LINERAL GRAPHS OR
CHARTS
a. curve shows data as a continuous line
b. wandering line of the curve tells the whole
story
c. preparation required less time and skill

CONSTRUCTION - constructed in same way,
difference lies in the process of location the
intersections of the abscissa
Intersection of the abscissa and the ordinate -
marked with bold dots then joined successively
by either straight of curved lines
a. Time Series Linear Charts (Single line) -
depicts the variations of a variable over a
period of time
b. Time Series Composite or Multilinear Charts
- used when comparison is made between or
among categories over a period of time
c. Frequency Polygon - used to graph class or
grouped frequency distributions
d. Ogive - used to graph cumulative frequencies
e. Band Chart - a form of line graph of the time
series variety
3. ONE HUNDRED PERCENT GRAPHS OR
CHARTS - show comparison of the proportional
sizes of the component parts to make up the
whole.
KINDS OF 100% CHART
a. 100% Bar Graph / Rectangular Chart -
erected vertically and the whole height is
equivalent to 100%
b. Pie Chart / Circle Graph
4. PICTOGRAMS - used to portray data by
means of pictures or symbols. make the
comparison of magnitudes more vivid or clear
 HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 05
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
1. There should be a brief statement about the
main:
-purpose of the study,
-population or respondents,
-the period of the study,
-method of research used,
-research instrument,
-sampling design.
2. Each specific question under the statement
of the problem must be written first to be
followed by the findings
3. Findings should be textual generalizations. -
a summary of the important data consisting
text and numbers
4. Only important findings, the highlight of the
data, should be included in the summary.
5. Findings should be stated as concisely as
possible/
6. No new data should be introduced in the
summary of findings
GUIDELINES IN WRITING CONCLUSION
1. Conclusion are the logical and valid
overgrowths of the findings - they should not
contain any numerical because numerals
generally limit the forceful effect or impact
and scope of a generalization/
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the
specific questions raise at the beginning of
the investigation - in the order they are given
under the statement of the problem.
3. Conclusion should point out what were
factually learned from the inquiry
4. Conclusion should be formulated concisely,
brief and short yet they convey necessary
information resulting from the study
5. Without any strong evidence to the contrary,
conclusions should be stated categorically.
6. Conclusions should refer only to the
population, area or subject of the study
7. Conclusion should not be repetitions of any
statements anywhere in the thesis.
DANGERS TO AVOID IN DRAWING UP
CONCLUSION (BASED ON QUANTITATIVE
DATA)
1. Bias - a respondent may commit the same
bias to protect his own interests.
2. Incorrect generalizations - is made when
there is a limited body of information or when
the sample is not representative of the
population
3. Incorrect Deduction - when a general rule is
applied to a specific case.
4. Incorrect Comparison - basic error in
statistical work is to compare two things that
are not really comparable.
5. Abuse of correlation data - correlation study
may show a high degree of association
between two variables.
6. Limited Information furnished by any one
ratio - a ratio shows only a partial picture in
most analytical work.
7. Misleading impression concerning magnitude
of base variable - ratios can give erroneous
impressions when they are used to express
relationships between two variables of small
magnitude.
3. They may also be recommendations for the
continuance of a good practice or system or
even recommendation for its improvement
4. Recommendation should aim for the ideal but
they must be feasible, practical and
attainable.
5. Recommendations should be logical and
valid
6. Recommendation should be addressed to
the person, entities, agencies, offices who or
which are in a position to implement them.
7. There should be a recommendation for
further research on the same topic in other
places to verify, amplify, or negate the
findings of the study.
EVALUATION OF A THESIS OR
DISSERTATION
A thesis dissertation has to be defended
before a panel of examiners and then submitted
to the proper authorities for acceptance as a
piece of scholarly work.

GUIDELINES IN WRITING
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Recommendation should aim to solve or help
solve problems discovered in the
investigation
2. Recommendations for things not discussed
in the study are irrelevant