T H E CIV I LIZ ATI O N

O F I N D IA

B y RO M ES H c D UT I
’ ‘

.
, C I E
. . .
 C O N TEN T S

CH A P .

1 . V ED I C AG E
( 2 000 TO 1 40 0 D. C .
)
u. EP C I AG E
( 140 0 TO 8 00 B. C .
) 1
5
m . AG E O F LAW S AND P H I LO S O P H Y ( 8 00 TO
3 15 B C . .
) 2 5

x v. R I SE OF B U DD H I S M ( 5 2 2 D C.
.
) 3 6

B U DD H I S T AG E
(3 15 B . C. TO -
A .D .
5 00
)
u . P U RAN I C AG E
( A. D .
5 00 TO 8 00 )

m . AG E OF RAJ P U T AS CEN D EN CY ( A . D. 8 00 TO 12 00
) 79

11 11 . AC E o r T H E AF G H A N R U LE ( A . D. 1 2 0 6 TO 1
5 26
) 89

I! . CO N DI T I O N OF T HE PE O P LE U N D ER THE A F G H AN
RU L E 99

x . AG E OF T HE M O G H AL RU LE
( A. D . 1
5 2 6 TO 17 07
) 106

! I. CO N DI TI O N OF T HE P EO P L E U N DER TH E M O G H AL
RU L E

x n . AG E OF M AH RA TTA AS CEN DEN CY ( A D . . 1 7 18 TO

I N DE!
6
2 0 5 02 4
 LI ST O F I LLU ST R A T I O N S

P A E
G

A s oKA
’
s P I LLAR

C HAI TYA OR CH U RC H AT K AR L I

C HAI TYA OR C H U R CH AT A J AN TA

THE G R EAT T E M P L E O F B H U VA N ESWA RA

K AET I S WARA T E M P L E ,
S O UT H ERN INDIA

K U TE M I NAR
-

, D EL H I

A RBAR
’
S TOMB AT SERA N DRA

I N TER I O R OF T A! MA HAL, A G RA

M AP S
N O RT H ER N I N DIA

S OU T H ER N I N D I A

E M P I RE
’
A KB AR s
 TH E

C I V I LI S AT I O N OF I N D IA

C HAPT E R I
Ve d ic Age, I
C RC A 2 000 To 14 0 0 B . C.

Early H u m an Civilis a tion — F our .gifted races dis

t in guis h ed the m s elves by their cultur e and civilis at io n at a
very remote age over forty ce n turi es ago
, The H amitic .

race founded a n a n cie n t empire i n Egypt a n d spread their ,

conquests under great dy n asties of kings accounts of whos e ,

deeds have come dow n to us i n hi eroglyphic inscriptio n s .

The Somatic race co n quered Chald ea united Sumir and ,

Accad a n d have similarly left us records of their early

,

civilisatio n i n cun e iform i n scriptions a n d tablets The .

Tur an ian race founded a kingdom in Chi n a and cultivated ,

arts and literature from a remote age A n d lastly the A rya

.
,
n

race flourished i n I ndia as agric ulturists a n d gift ed bards ,

and as co n querors of the aborigi n al races The first begi n .

n in gs of hu m a n civilisatio n be long to these gifted races ;

and it may be n oted that a temperate cli m ate fertil e soil , ,

and inun dati n g rivers determin ed t h e earli est seats of civili

satio n
.

The banks of t h e N ile a n d the Euphrates and the ba n k s ,

of the Hoa n g h o a n d the I n dus were the isolated spots

-

which first wit n essed the culture of civilised arts and in

d us tries of scie n ce and lear n ing
,
V ast spaces b etwee n these
.

favoured spots were fill ed with swarms of hunting a n d

pastoral natio n s m igrating with their flocks and te n ts
, ,

warring agai n st each other a n d leavi n g n o trace in the

,
2 T H E C IV I L I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

e arly records of human c ulture and progress I t was i n .

Egypt and i n Babylo n ia in China and i n India that the lamp

, ,

was lighted whose lustre has since spread over the earth .

Th e A ryan s in th e P u n ja b — Th e Ar yans were

s ettl ed o n the Indus and its tributaries two or three thousand
years before Christ or it m ay be earlier ; and I ndia n pro
,

w e re i m port ed in to
ti me s F o r m any .

ere was a continuous war betwee n these Aryans

and the dark skin n ed aboriginal tribe s of I ndia u n til the
-

civilised race co n quered the w hole of the country n ow know n

as the Pun jab from the barbarians W ith their territorial .

conquests the Aryans e xtended agriculture cultivated arts ,

and i n dust ries perfected their beautiful Sanscrit language

,

the oldest Arya n language known to u s — and co m posed

hymns a n d songs of great be auty so m e of which have been ,

still preserved to us A section of these Arya n co n querors

.

le ft the Punjab in quest of western r egions settl ed down in ,

ancie n t Iran a n d are ge n erally call ed Ira n ians a n d they com

,

posed that body o f religious literature w hich is kn own as

the Zen d A w r ta Those who r em ain ed in the Punjab are
-
.
,

by distinction called Indo Aryans and their a n cie n t hymns

,
-

which are preserved to this day are k n own by the collective ,

n ame of the R ig Veda .

Th e H ym n s o f t h e R ig V e da — The hym n s which

are collected i n this work are 1 0 2 8 in n um ber and were ,

composed during several centuries They are the only .

materials we have for the history of this early period which ,

is call ed the V edic Age Th ey throw light o n the political

.

condition of the Indo Aryan tribes and their wars with the
-

aborigi n es They describe the arts industri es agricultu re

.
, , ,

and manufactures of the I n do Arya n s Th e y describe t heir -

.

social customs a n d ma n ners and give us a n insight into their

,

religious faith a n d O bservances And they give us a full and .

”
vivid account of the bright gods t h e Powers of N ature , ,

whom the Indo Aryans worshipp ed w ith libatio n s and o ffer

-

ings I n one word these hy m ns giv e us a complete an d

.
,
 V E D IC A GE 3

faithful picture of the civilisatio n of India forty cent uries

'

ago the earliest form of civilisatio n which was r eared by the

,

great Ar yan race .

Wars wi th th e A bo ri gin es — As stated before there ,

was a continuous war be tween the I n do Arya n s and the -

dark skinn ed aborigines dur i n g this age

-
The aborigi n es .

retreated before t h e m ore civilised organisatio n of the Aryans ,

but hung around in fastnesses and forests plundered the ,

peaceful villag es of t h e Aryans and stole their cattle W ith .

that tenacity which is p e culiar to barbarians they fought for ,

ce n turies as t h ey retr eated ; they interrupted the religious

“ ”
sacrific es of the conquerors d espised th e ir bright gods , ,

and plundered th eir w ealth But the Aryans co n quered i n .

the end ; t h e are a of civilisation widened w aste and jungle ,

lands were reclai m ed and dotted with village s and tow n s ,

and the barbaria n s eith er subm itted to the conquerors or re

treated to those hills and mountains wh ere their des ee n
dants still live History repeats its elf ; and the bank s o f
.

the I n dus were cleared of their non Arya n races e ighteen -

hu n dred years before Christ m uch in the sa m e way in which ,

t h e banks of the M ississippi hav e bee n cleared of their n o n

Arya n tr ibes in moder n times eightee n hun dred years aft er ,

Christ .

Ref er en ces t o th e Wa rs wi th t h e A bo rigin es .

The hymns of the R }; V eda are r eplete with refere n ces to

1

these interminable wars with t h e aborigine s who are called ,

D asyus or B asas A few v erse s will illustrate the spirit o f

.

hostility and of triumph which inspired th e conquerors

n n
Th e r e o w ed god I dr n a
t h e gr ea p erfor m e r of d ee ds h as r is e d
, t ,
a
u an n
p t h e ( Ary ) m an S tro g m ighty d ri m ph t h e h as bro ght
. , , an t u an , u
a
lo w t h e h e d of t h e m lign t D as a an a .

n a a an
I dr t h e sl yer of V ritra d t h e d es roye r of town s h as sc t
, t , a
t ered t h e troops of t h e D as a n
so s of d r k ess H e h as m ad e t h e
, a n .

a
e rth an a an
d" w t ers for t h e ( Ary ) m an , d f lfille d th e wish es of th e an u
s acr ifi cer —(R zg Veda I ! 2 0 6 d
.
'

, . an
.

a a v n
Th e fl eet Bl ck w rrior li e d o t h e b ks of th e A n s u m at i Ri er an v
with t en tho s u an
d troops I dr beca m e cog is
. n a of his lo d y e lli g n ant t u -
n
a u n
chi ef ; be d estroy ed t h e m r a di g hos for t h e be efi of ( Ary ) t n t an
m en .
4 THE C IV I LI S AT I ON OF I N D IA

I n dr a s a id I h ave s een t h e Bla ck warrior l urki n g i n th e hidd en

,
‘

r egio n s of t h e A n s u m at i lik e t h e s un i n a clo u d 0 M aruts ! I d esir e .

yo u t o en ga ge i n fight an d to d estroy h im .

Th e B l a ck wa rrior t h e n a pp ea re d shi n i n g o n t h e ban ks of th e

A n s u m at i I n dr a t ook Briha sp at i as his a lly an d des troye d th e fleet
an d godless a r m y —(R zg Veda v ii 9 6 13 to
.

.
, .
,

Wa rs a m on g th e A ryan Tr ibes —But there were

“

wars n ot only with the aborigi n e s but also amon g the di ff erent ,

Arya n tribe s The fertile valleys of the I n dus and its tribu
.

taries were parcelled out among these warlike tribes who

foun ded states and kingdoms a n d i n tern ec i n e wars amo n g the ,

Arya n kings and chiefs w er e not i n frequent Sudas the son .

,

of D ivodas a fi nds t h e m ost promi n ent me n tio n amo n g all the

,

k ings spoke n of in the R ig V eda He ruled over the Trit s u .

tribe living o n the banks of the Sarasvati river and his ,

priests were of th e fa m ous Trit s u or V as is h th a cla n Against .

him ca m e ten tribes fro m the west headed by the Bharatas , ,

and th e ir priests were of the equally famous V is vamitra

clan .The allied tribes cro s sed t h e Sutlej a n d attacked
Sudas ; but S udas was victorious a n d the te n tribes were ,

defeated
—
.

R e f e re n ce t o t h e A ry a n Tr i ba l W a n The ac
cou n ts give n in the R ig V eda of this battle of n ations are of
considerable importance as they throw light on the mutual ,

relatio n s of Ar ya n tribes their alliances a n d disputes their , ,

marches across rivers a n d their prayers o n the field of ,

battle A few verses from one of the many hymn s i n

.

which this i n ter tribal battle has bee n referred to will i n terest
-

readers
Loo ki n g to yo u y stro n g gods ! th y m arch d st w rds ar m d
, e e e ea a , e

w ith bro a d a x s an d thirsti n g for spoi l

e Y h lp d Su d as an d s m ot . e e e , e
his D as a an d Ary a n m i s O I n dr a an d V arun !
e e e , a
W h r s tro n g m co m tog th r with th ir b ann rs r ais d wh r
e e en e e e e e e , e e
i n th e enco un t r th r is n o ught f vo ur abl to us wh r a ll look u p to
e e e a e , e e

th e sky i t rror th r y spok t

n e , words of co m fort 0 I n dr a an d
e e e e o us ,

V a r nau
Th n ds of th a rth s m d lost i d ust an d t h sho ut w n t p
e e e e ee e n , e e u

to h av n O I n d a d V aruna ! A d th hostil forc s co m pas s d us

e e , r an n e e e e
ro un d th n y h rd o ur voic an d ca m to our h lp
e e ea e e e .

O I n dr a an d V ar una with your r sistl ss w a po n s y co n q u r d e e e e e e

 V E D IC AGE 5
B h eda an d prot ect d Sud as e . Ye listene d to t h e pr ayers of t h e
Trits us a m idst t h cry of w e ar , an d th eir priestly voc a tio n bo r e
fru i t .

O I n dr a an d V aruna ! th e wea po n s of foes an d ass a il ant s sor ely

troubled us Ye are t h e lords of t h e rich es of both worlds ; yo u
.

besto we d o n u s yo u r h elp o n th at decisi ve d a y .

Bo th sid es i nvoked you O I n dr a an d V a runa ! i n th e figh t for

,

v ict ory an d wea lth Yo u protect ed Sud as an d t h e Trits u s as s a iled by

—
.

t h e t en ki n gs (R zg Veda vii 8 3 1 t o
’

.
, .
,

A gr icu lt u re an d P a s t u re .
— Agriculture was the
pri n cipal i n dustry of the I n do Aryans forty ce n turies ago as -
,

it is of their desce n da n ts i n the present day It is believ ed .

that the n ame A rya which the race gave themselves comes
from the root fi r which means to till as if the c ivilised
, ,

Aryans wished to distinguish them selves by this n ame f rom

bar baria n s who lived by hunting or pasture The irrigation .

of fields by means of wells a n d ca n als is sometimes referred

to a n d horses were us ed for ploughing W heat and barley
, .

were the pri n cipal produce a n d rice seems to have been the n ,

un k n own An imal food was i n common use sp ecially at

'

.
,

sacrifices a n d the ferme n ted juice of the Soma pla n t m ade a

,

mild a n d whol esome beverage .

A n A gricu lt u ra l H ym n — The fo llowing is a very

i n teresting hymn to the gods of agriculture Amo n g t hem
we fi n d mentio n of S ita —the field fii rrow which produc ed
.

the crops L ater o n this furrow goddess became the heroine

.
-

of one of t h e two great Epics of a n cie n t India

W ith th e Lord of th e fi eld wh o is fri en dly t o us we wi ll win ,

th e fi eld M ay h e t h e
. , n ourish er of o ur ki n e an d horses be good ,

to us .

0 Lord of th e fi eld ! po ur o n us s wee t r a i n s weet as b ut ter an d , ,

p ur e an d copiou s a s th e co w yi elds m ilk

, .

M ay th e pl an ts be s weet to us m ay t h e ski es an d th e r a i n s an d th e
,

fi rm am en t favo u r u s M ay t h e Lord of th e fi eld be gr a cio us an d m ay

.
,

we follo w h im un i nj ur e d .

M ay o ur s t eers an d m en work m errily m ay th e plo u gh furro w .

m errily M ay t h e tr a ce s be fa stened m errily an d th e go a d be pli ed

. ,

m erri l y .

O Su n a an d Sir a a ccept this hy m n M oist en th e earth with th e .

r a i n yo u h ave m ad e i n th e s k y .

Aus picio us S i ta ! procee d o nwa rds we pr a y un t o th ee th at tho u , ,

m ay est bri n g u s prosp erity an d an a bun d an t crop .

6 TH E C I V I L I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

M ay I n dr a
a cc pt S it a an d m ay Pu sh an gu id h cours aright
e , e er e .

M y h b fill d w ith r a i n
a s e e d yi ld u s crops y a a ft r y a
e , an e e r e e r .

“
M y t h p l ou ghsh ar s t ur n u p t h sod m rrily an d m y t h
a e e e e , a e
ti l l rs m o v m rrily with t h s t rs M y P rj an y a f v our u s w t h
e e e e ee a a a 1
r i n an d m y Suna an d Sir besto w o n us w a l th —(R g V d i
.

”
a , a a e . z e a, v .

57 . I to 7

A r ts tries — Every consid erable Aryan

an d In d u s
village had its artisans in those days as n ow a n d w e have ,

fre quent mention of t h e constructio n of carts and char iots ,

and of the use of m etals The num erous r eferences to arm s .

and w eapons i n the hy m ns show that they were of common

u se W e are told of arm ours and hel m ets of the jav elin
.
, ,

t h e sword and the battle ax e of bows arro w s and quivers -

, , ,

of caparisoned war horses and war chariots S i m ilarly th ere

- -
.

are r efere nces to orna ments m ad e of gold and s ilver to n eck ,

lac es and breastp lates to brac el ets a n klets and golde n , , ,

crowns The N irbé a was probably a gold piece of a sp eci

.

fi ed weight us ed both as money an d orn a me n t

, M etal s .

wer e also exte nsively used for the m anufacture of domestic

ute n sils .

S o cia l L if e —There wer e no cast e distin ctio n s as yet

.

a m ong the Aryans of India and t h e peopl e were still o n e ,

united body and bo re the n am e of V i a or the People

, s , .

K i n gs had th e ir court priests for t h e p erfor m ance of elaborate

sacrific es but a m ong the hum bl e r clas ses ev e ry householder
,

was the pri est of his fa m ily lighted th e sacrificial fir e gave , ,

off erings an d libations and reci ted the sacred hymn s W om e n

, .

prepared the So m a li batio n a n d joined their husbands in t h e

-

sacrifice a n d we have n a mes preserved to us of l earn ed and

c ultured ladi es who co mposed some of the hym n s The .

unhealthy cus to m of child m arriage and the absolute seclusion -

of wo me n w ere u n known ; and polygamy permitted amo n g ,

the anci e nt Hindus as a m ong m ost anci e nt nations was ,

probably confi n ed to the royal an d richer classe s O n the .

whol e we obtai n from the hym ns t h e pictur e of a society in

,

w hich woma n was held in ho n our and respect She had a .

considerable auth ority i n the family too k h er share i n religious ,

 V E D IC A GE 7

rite s and worship and ex erted her legitimate i n flue n ce i n the ,

s phere i n which she lived

A M a r riage Ri tu al —W e get so m e glimpses into the

.

position of wome n in famil ies from a long hym n co n taini n g

what is virtually a marriage ritual W e quote the last five .

v erses
’

( Th Brid groo m s ays )

e M y t h Lord of cr a t r s bri n g childr
e . a e e u e en

u n to us m yA ry am an k p u s un it d till old ag E n t r auspicious l y

a ee e e. e
thy h usb an d s ho m 0 brid an d bri n g b l ssi n g to our m an d o ur
'

e, e e en
c a tt l e .

N ot an gry of y an d n ot a d stroy r of thy h usba n d be g n tl

e e, e e , e e
h art d an d f ul l of lustr an d bri n g w al unto o ur ca ttl
e e Be ari n g e, e e .

so n s h roic an d d vot d t th gods bri n g bl ssi n g to o ur m e an d to

, e e e o e , e n
o ur c a tt l e
.

O boun t ous I n dr a m ak this wo m an bl st i n so n s an d i n rich s

e , e e e .

G ran t un to h t so n s an d m ak h h usb an d t h lev n th m a

er en e er e e e n
B a r s way O brid ! ov r thy fa th r —
, .

e l w a d thy m o th r i law ;
, e e e -
In a n e -
h -

be a s a q u n ov r thy h u sb n d s sist rs a d t hy h usb an d s broth rs

' ’
ee e a e n e .

M y t h Al l gods an d t h Wa t rs un it o ur h arts
a e -
M ay M at is e e e e ar
an d D h at i an d D h t i un it u s —(R g V d x 8 5 43 to
.

v a n r es r e . z e a, . ,

A Fun are a few hy m ns in the

e ra l Ri t u al — There .
'

last book of the contain so me thing like a R ig V eda which

fu n eral ritual The dead body was sanctifi ed by the fire and
.

t he n buried a n d from this t o the rite of crematio n was a n

,

e asy step The departed spirit was be lieved to travel to the

.

higher world the ki n gdom of Y am a there to live with the

, ,

F athers or depar ted a n cestors in happiness and joy A few .

extracts will be interesti n g

B ur n n o t this d ea d 0 F ire ! n or q u it e co n sume h im ; let n o t his
,

body or his ski n be m an gl ed 0 F ire wh en tho u hast s an ctifi e d h im .

,

s en d him un to th e Fa thers .

W h en tho u h ast s an ct ifi e d h im 0 F ir e ! gi ve h im o ve r to th e ,

Fath ers W hen h e at ta i n s t h e futur e life h e will pas s un der th e sway

.
,

of th e gods .

( To t h e d ece a sed ) M ay t h e light of thi ne eye go t o t h e s un t h y

.
,

spir i t to th e a ir ; go forth t o h e ave n or t o e arth a ccordi n g to th ydeeds .

E n t er t h e wat ers if th at be thy d esti n e d p l a ce or dwe l l i n pl ants with

a ll thy h m bs 1—(R zg Veda x 16 1 to
,
" ’

. .
, ,

This verse see m s to

1 em body di mly an d obsc ur ely t h e idea of
, ,

Tr an s m igr a tio n of S o uls , which is a c a rdi na l pri n ciple of beli e f i n

I n di a .
8 TH E C IV IL I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

( To o m en wh o foll o wed th e d ecea se d ) M ayth ese un widowed

th e w .

wo m en with n o ble h usban ds a dor n th em se lves with u n guent an d ba lm .

W i thout t ears an d without sorrow wea ri n g or n ame nts let th e m a tron s , ,

first proc eed to th eir ho use 1 .

( To th e wido w of t h e dec ease d ) R ise co m e to th e world of t h e .

,

li v i n g 0 w o m an ! H e is lifeless by wh o s e side tho u lies t Be co m e

, .

t h e wife of h im wh o holds th ee by t h e h an d an d wh o wish es t o be thy

h us ba n d .

( R em o vi n g t h e bo w fro m th e h an d of t h e de ceased ) Fro m th e .

h an d of t h e d ea d I t a ke a way th e bo w h e ca rri ed ; m ay it bri n g us

m igh t an d glory an d st ren gt h Tho u a rt h er e ; m ay we as h eroe s .

o verco m e thos e wh o oppos e us .

( To t h e d e ceas ed ) G o thou d e ceas ed t o this earth which is a s

.
,

a m oth e r an d spa cio us an d ki n d M a y h er to u ch be soft lik e th a t of .

woo l or a yo un g wo m an an d m ay s h e prot ec t th ee fr om t h e boso m of

,

d es tru c t io n .

( To t h e Ea rth R i e a bo ve h im 0 E a r t h do n o t pr ess p a i n fully

s
,

o n h im ; gi ve h i m good t hi n gs gi ve h im co nsol a t io n As a m oth er

do tho u cover h im —(R zg Veda x
, .

c ov ers h er child w ith h e r cloth

’

, . , .

1 8 7 to
,

B elief F u tu r e L if e an d I m m o r tality —The

in
I n do Aryans be lieved i n a future world where the righteo us
-

w ere rewarded after death and the followi n g verses show ,

t heir noble co n ceptio n of a happy an d im m ortal life

O P avam an a ! ta k
to t h at d a thl ss an d i m p rish abl world
e me e e e e
w h r light d w l l s t rna l an d which is i n h av n
e e e e e Flo w I n d u for
, e e . , ,

I n dr a
M a k m i m m orta l i n th a t r a l m wh r Y
e e a is ki n g wh ere t h e e e a rn , ere
a re th g a t s of h av n an d t h w a t rs a e yo un g an d fr sh Flow
e e e e , e e r e .
,

I n du for I n d a !
, r
M a k m i m m orta l i n th at r al m wh r t h y c an wan d r a t h y
e e e e e e e s e

list —i t h third sph re of high s t h av n which is full of ligh t

h e e Flo w e e e , . ,

I n d u for I n dr a !
M ak m i mm ort a l i n t h a t r ea l m wh r ve y wish is a t i fi ed—t h
,

e e e e e r s s e
a bod of P adh m a wh r t h r is j oy an d co n t nt ment F lo w I n d u
e r ,
e e e e e .
, ,

f orI n dr a V d ix 3 7 t e a, . 11 , o

W o rs h ip of N a tu r e —It will app ear from what h as

bee n stated above that the religion of the Indo A rya n s was -

1 This vers e h a s a his t ory of its o wn Wh en t h e cruel pra ct i ce of .

S a t i or p e rm itti n g a wido w to b u r n h erse l f o n th e fun e ra l pyr e of h er

,

h us ban d be ca m e pr eva l ent In I n di a In co m p ar a ti vel y recent ti m es an

, ,

e n d e av o ur was m ade to j u stify t h e pr a ct i c e by m istra n sl a ti n gthis vers e .

T h e m istr an sl a t io n wa s e x p ose d an d it u as pro ved th a t t h e cru el cus to m

,

fi n ds n o s an c t io n in t h e a n cie n t script ur es of t h e H i n d u s .
 V E D IC AGE 9

mai n ly the worship of N ature in its most imposin g a n d

sublime aspects The di ffere n t phenomena of N ature t e
.

ceived di ff ere n t n ames an d from t h e co n templatio n of these ,

the worshipper rose to the conc eptio n of the O n e God

of the univ erse It was thus that the worship of the
.

’
sage s of ancie n t I ndia passed from N ature up to N ature s
God .

D YU or D Y A U S is the name of t h e sky that shin es and is ,

the most ancie n t name for the divine power among the Arya n
natio n s It is the sa me word as the Zeus of the Greeks
.

and the Jupiter of the L atins the Tiu of the Saxons and ,

the Z io of the G e rm ans an d the na me of the D eity amo n g ,

modern nations The sky was often invoked by the I n do

.

Aryans alo n g with P R I TH I V I the earth as the u n iversal , ,

pare n ts .

V ARU N A correspondi n g with the Uranus of the Greeks

, ,

is the sky that covers all ; and the hym n s to h im are the
holiest of the V edic hym n s He is o ften invoked alon g with .

M I T RA the sun or the sun n y sky

, The following are some .

verses addressed by a si n ner to the holy V aruna

Fa i n would I k n o w m y si n s an d I q u stio n oth rs I a sk th e , e e .

wis O V ar una ! an d t h s ag s s a y un to m Sur ly V a r una is an gry

e, e e e, e
wi t h th ee .

W h at 0 V ar una ! is m ysi n th at thou wou ldst sl ay th y fri n d wh

,
e o
si n gs thy pr a is s D c l ar i t unto m un co n q u r abl Lord ! t h at si n
e ? e e e, e e
l ss I m y a ppro a ch th with m y worship
e a ee .

D li ver u s fro m t h si s of o ur fa th rs an d fro m t h si n s co m m it t d

e e n e e e
by o urs lv s D li v r V a i h th a l i k a c a lf fro m i ts t th r lik a t h i f
e e . e e s s e e e , e e
f di n g o n stol n c att l
ee e e .

N ot wi l fully h av w si nn d O V ar u a but error or wi n dice or

e e e , n . e,
an g r h a s m is l d us Ev n th ld r l a ds th youn g r a s tr a y eve
e , e . e e e e e e e ,
n

sl p l ads us to evil
ee e .

Fr d fro m si n m y I lik a sl av s rv t h boun t ou s god ! M ay

ee , a e e e e e e

th e Ary a god be s to w o n u s wisdo m may t h wis god bes to w o n u s , e e

w a lth
e . V d v ii 8 6 3 to e a, .
,

I N DR A the sky that rains is i n voked more f reque n tly as

, ,

the god who strikes the cloud with the thu n der produces the ,

rain for the nourishme nt of crops and helps the Aryans i n ,

their war with the aboriginal ra ces There Is m a n y a stirring .

10 TH E C IV I L I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

hym n i n t h e R ig Veda a bout the a nn ual rai n s of India o f ,

which t h e following is a good specime n

I n dr with his d str uctiv th un d r s m ot t h clou d (V it a) i nt o
a, e e e , e e r r
pi c s T h dr ago n ( Ahi ) w l i s prostr a t o n arth lik th e t run k of
e e . e no e e e e
tr s f l l d by th a
ee e e e x e .

L i k a m d wa rrior V it
e a ch all n g d t h d stroyin g an d co n q u r
r ra e e e e e
i n g I n dra B ut h sca p d n ot d s t ructio n I n d a s f f l l crushi n g
. e e e e r
'
oe e ,

t h b an ks i n his fa l l
e .

Wa t rs e bo un di n g ov r his pros tr a t body as ri v rs fl w

a re e e e o
o ver fa l l n b anks V it wh n a live h a d withh ld t h e wat rs
e . r ra e e e ,

Ahi w li s pros t at un d r t h wat rs — ( R ;

n o e g V d
r e i 3 5 6 e e e . z e a, . 2, , ,

an d
The Su n is invoked under th e na mes S U R YA and S A V I T R I ,

a n d a b eautiful verse addr ess ed to the latter is still used as the

sacred m orning prayer by t h e Brah ma n s of I ndia .

ADI TI is the limitless sky the esse n ce of light ; and her ,

so n s t h e AD I TY A S are the suns of the di ffere n t months of the

, ,

year P U S H AN is the sun as view ed by shepherds a n d travel

.

lers and V I S H N U is the su n traversing the sk y by three steps

,

— at rising at zen ith and at setting

, , .

A G N I the fire is the pri est of the gods because all o ff er

, , ,

ings to the gods are m ade to the fire S O M A the juice used .
,

for libations at sacrifices is invoked as a god and all the , ,

hy m ns of o n e of the books of the R ig V eda are address ed to

h im . B RAH M AN the prayer uttered at sacrifices is also re
, ,

garded as a god a n d this n a m e was adopted subsequently as

,

the n ame of the Universal Soul the O n e God of the Arya n ,

H indus V AYU is the air a n d the MA RU T s are the storms

.
,

which bri n g i n the annual rai n s R U DRA is the thund er or .

thunder cloud a n d is the father of the M ar uts

-

, .

Y AM A is the ki n g of the dead the righteous ruler of the ,

regions where the virtuous go afte r their death He is i n .

o n e remarkable hym n i n voked with his twin sister and some -

scholars hold that the twi n s were originally co n ceiv ed to be

the primeval pare n ts of mankind and are now supposed to ,

rule over the realm of the departed O ther twins were the .

A svm s the physicians a m ong the gods a n d the helpers of

, ,

t h e distressed S cholars hav e held that the origi n al idea of

.

the A s vin twi n s was m orn ing a n d eve n i n g or the morn i n g ,

 V E D IC AGE 4 11

star and the evening star or the twi n stars of the third sign
,

of t h e zodiac.

O n ly two goddesses have any distinct i n dividuality S ARAS .

VAT I was the sev e nth river of the Punjab ( the I n dus and its
tributaries being the first six ) and was consid ered a sacred ,

river by which hymns w ere uttered a n d sacrific es were per

formed Sarasvati was therefore worshipped som etimes as
.

a river and so metim es as a goddess of hymns a n d speech .

U S H A S the daw n is O fte n er invoked and is the subject of

, , ,

so me of the most beautiful hym ns that are to be found i n th e

lyrical poetry of a n y anci e nt natio n A f r ee m etrical tra n s .

latio n of the first half of one hy m n is given below as a

specim en
B aut o us d aught r of th e sky
e e e

H ol d thy r uddy ligh t o n high ,

G r ant u s w a l th an d gr ant u s d a y
e ,

Bri n g u s food d m or n i n g s ra y an
'
.

Whit rob d godd ss of th m orn i n g sky

e -
e e e ,

Bri n g u s light l t n ight s d p sh a do ws fly

, e
’
ee .

R ich i n c a ttl rich i n st e d e, e ,

W ith thy gifts to m ort a l s sp d ee ,

Joyo us a tio n s w lco m th

n e e ee

F or th y bl ssi n gs v r fr e e e ee .

S p a k fort h words of co m fort

e d of joy an ,

G r an t u s w a l th an d bl iss w itho ut alloy

e .

Fa th rs h a il d th y gloriou s ligh t
e e ,

W too h a i l th
e godd ss bright ee , e ,

For lik ships th at cross th

e e s ea
Sky bor n ch a riot bri n g t h th
-
e e ee .

C o m th n godd ss i n th y r a di n t ca r
e e , e , a ,

Com e and bri n g t hy j oyo u s ligh t fro m fa r .

M of lor uplift th ir so n g
en e e ,

M orn i n g hy m n s to th bel o n g ee .

K anva si n gs his pio u s l a y s

To thy d r spl n d n t r ays
re e e e

K anva wis s t of th m of lor

, e e en e,

R a ds th ir na m s wh
e e f d an d bl ss t h e poor
e o ee e .

C o m lik hou s wif g n tl h art d

e e e e e e -
e e ,

T n di n g u s for n ight s d p art d

e ,
'
e e ,

G r an t an oth r jo y ou s d a y e
U nt o b a s t s an d birds so ga y
e
L t a ll cr a t u r s to th ir wor k r p a ir
e e e e e ,

Birds with j oyo u s a cc n ts fi ll t h a ir e e .

12 THE C IV ILIS AT I ON OF I N D IA

S tro n g m anhis work yo u s en d

to ,

To th e strick en favours len d ,

S oft t h y fr esh an d r u ddy r a y ,

Ah too fl eet i n g is thy s ta y .

H a st en t h en an d we t o work r ep a ir
, ,

Birds wit h j oyo us a cce nts fill th e a ir .

Sh e co m es s h e co m es i n r a di ant c a r ,

Sc atterin g splen do ur fro m afa r ,

Fro m th e rea lm s beyo n d t h e s un ,

I n h er ch a riot co m es t h e D awn
U S H A S co m e s i n r a di ant love li n ess
.

U S H A S co me s t o he a l us an d t o bl ess
,

M or t a ls in devo t io n ben d
,

H y m n s an d j oyo u s so n gs a sc en d ,

For s h e co mes with ru ddy r a ys ,

A n d s h e co m es t o h ea l an d bless .

Bri n gs us blessi n gs i n h er r a di an t c a r ,

Bri n gs u s s tren gth an d sc atters fo es a fa r

, .

48 , 1 to
These are the principal gods of the R ig Veda— the powers
a n d striki n g phe n ome n a of N ature Their conceptio n is still
.

tra n spare n t Mythology properly so called is still i n the

.

process of f ormatio n I n this respect the V edic hym n s take

.

us bac k to an earlier stage in the growth of n atural religio n

tha n the mythology of natio n s like the Greeks a nd the
R oma n s among whom the gods have already acquir ed a
,

stro n g perso n ality a n d the history of their origi n al co n

,

ce t io n a n d growth has alread y become obsc ure

p .

Co n cep tion o f On e G o d — But while the popular mi n d

i n a n cie n t I n dia thus imagi n ed a deity i n every striki n g n at ural
phe n ome n o n a n d while hym n s were sun g to the di ff ere nt
,

n ature gods at sacrifices the wise a n d the thoughtful believed

, ,

eve n i n this early age that all the operatio n s of n ature were
'

the work of O n e S upreme Power a n d all the gods i n voked

,

were but the di ff erent n ames of O n e Supreme God It is .

n ecessary to remember this disti n ction betwee n the popular

faith and the u n derlying philosophical faith i n I n dia for the ,

distinction which we mark i n the V edic Age has co n ti n ued to

the prese n t day The commo n peopl e i n India have always
.
 V E D IC AGE 13

paid worship to ma n y gods whil e the wise and the lear n ed ,

have always held these di ffere n t gods as the various powers

or the various n ames of O n e U n iversal Bei n g It is meces .

sary to remember this duality i n Hi nd u faith and doctrine i n

order to co mprehe n d the history of the Hi n du religio n duri n g
f OIu thousand years
'

W e quote below some verses f rom two hym n s i n whic h

the un ity of the Creator is proclaimed
Th e ll wis e a
d ll s eei g
-
an a
TH E R firs cre te d he se worlds i
-
n FA t a t n
t a
h eir w t ery for m The ir e ds wer e th e n fir m l y f ste ed
. n
d th e sky a n , an
an a
d t h e e rth were s ep ar ted d ext e d e d a an n
A
.

G re at at a u a
is th e A LL C R E TO R ; H e cre es ll H e s pports ll , H e
-

v a t ta u nt
presides o er ll Th e bles ob i n t h e f lfil m e of the ir desires
.

n
‘ lt ? th e O n e Be i g d we lls bn n at n
eyo d t h e co s t ell vn
io of t h e Se e
Risli Is .

Th e Fa th r wh m a d u s wh o k n o ws all r a c s an d a ll t hi n gs H E
e o e , e ,

is O N E beari n g t h na m of m an y gods Oth rs wish to kn ow of

e e e
—
, .

H im (R z:g Veda , x 8 2 , 1 to
L N C H I L D bor n th Lord of a ll
. .

I n t h e begi nn n
i g was th e G O D E , e .

H e h as fi xe d an t u
d hold e h p t his e r ha t an d th sky Who m sh all w e . e
worship wi t h o ur obl at io n
H im wh h a s giv n lif an d s t r n gth whos e will is obey d by a ll
o e e e , e
t h e gods whos sh a do w is d a th whos l u str is i m m orta l i t y
, e W hom e , e e .

sh a l l w worshi p with o ur obl tio

e a n ?
H im wh by his gr a t n ss is t h Lord of a ll t h a t m ov an d brea th e
o e e e e ,

of m an d c attl
en W ho m sh a ll w worshi p with our oblat ion
e. e
H im t hro ugh whose m igh t th s s n owy m o un t a i n s h av be n m a d e e e e e .

a d th
n a rth an d th
e e an d whos e a r m s a thes r gio n s of th e
e s ea , re e e
sky W ho m sh a ll w worship with o ur obl a tio n ?
. e
H im wh o fix d t h sky an d th a rth t h r gio n of ligh t an d t h e
e e e e e e

high es t h eav n s H im wh h a s m a sur d o ut t h fi m am t —(R :g

,

e . o e e e r en . z
Veda , x . 12 1 , 1 t o 5
14 .
TH E C IV I LI S AT I O N OF I N D IA
 CHAPT E R II

Ep ic A ge, C RC I A 1 4 00 To 8 00 B. C .

Co lo n is a tion of th e the
G a n ge tic Va lley . In
earliest p eriod of Indian history w hich we have call ed the ,

V e dic Age w e found t h e I n do Arya n s or Hindus s ettl ed on

,
-

t h e I n dus and its tributari e s and the whole of the P unjab

,

parcelled out into s mall state s or principaliti es rul ed by war

like chi efs All the ra ce s spok e t h e sa m e languag e practised
.
,

the sa me r eligious rites and worshipp ed the sam e “ bright

,
”
gods of N at ure and were thus h eld tog ether by strong
,

nati onal ties which s erved to make the m in spite of their ,

occasiona l wars o n e great confederatio n of rac e s

, .

But the Punjab Hindus we re not long conte nt with th eir

dominio n ov er the land of t h e s even rivers L ik e all young .

a n d warlik e races they thr ew out coloni es farth er and farther

,

to the east u n til the valley of th e Gang es embracing t h e

, ,

whol e of N orth ern I n dia was colonised And thus in the

, .

s econd period of I ndian history which we shall c all the Epic ,

A ge we find the w hole of t h e f ertile country fro m the J umna

-

to N orth B ehar occupi ed by Hindu colonists excelling th eir ,

mother country t h e Punjab i n w ealth and power i n lear n ing

-

, , , ,

arts and civilisation

,
.

Th e Ved ic A ge an d th e Ep ic Age co m p a r ed a n d
c o n tra s te d — It is thus that in the Epic A ge we hav e a
reproduction of the pictur e which we hav e sketch ed out for the
V edic Age— but a r eproduction on a wid er stage and a m idst ,

more stately sur roun dings I n place of p etty states carved

.

out by sturdy fighters i n the land of the Indus we fi n d ,

populous and spacious kingdo m s rul ed by august sover eigns in

t h e vall ey of the Gang e s In place of si mpl e rac es of agri
.

culturists who w er e priests and warriors and tillers of t h e

,

soil we find cultured n ations a m ong whom t h e vocations of

, ,
15
B
16 TH E C I V I LI S AT I ON OF I N D IA

the priest the warrior a n d the tiller had already assumed the
, ,

rigid divisio n s of caste Instead of simpl e sacrifices per

.

formed at the do mestic fireside with the recitation of si mple

hym n s we find the r ules and rites of sacrifices so elaborated
,

as to form a volumi n ous literature A n d i n stead of brief .

allusio n s to tri b al feuds or wars with the aborigi n es we have ,

accounts of the wars of great n ations and great kings sun g by ,

bards a n d a mplifi ed i n legends u n til they formed the n ucleus ,

of the two great Epics of ancie n t I n dia .

Th e F o rem os t N a tio n s o f th e Ep ic A ge Among .

t h e powerful a n d civilised n ations that flourished i n this Epic

Age it is n ecessary to distinguish four races which were
pre emi n ent among the a n cient Hindu races as the Sparta n s
-

and the Athenians were among the a n cie n t Greek races .

Two of th em the K U RU s and the P A N CHA LA s lived alo n g the

, ,

upp er course of the Ga n ges and are the m ai n actors of the ,

Hindu epic known as the M aba bhar ata Two other n atio n s -
.
,

the K O SALA s and the V IDEH A s lived in the territories n ow ,

k n ow n as O udh and N orth Behar and are the principal ,

actors of the epic know n as the R amaya a n .

Th e M a h a bh a ra ta — N o r eliable history of the K urus

!
.

a n d the P an ch alas has bee n left to us W e have a lo n g list .

of the K uru kings k now n as kings of the L un ar D y n asty ;

,

but bare lists of kings would be of littl e historical value eve n ,

if they were absolutely authentic a n d correct A n d the .

account of the war betw ee n the K urus a n d the P an ch alas

which is left to us in the M aba bha r a ta is lege n dary a n d largely
-

mythical the real heroes a n d i n cide n ts of the war bei n g lost

, .

But nevertheless this lege n dary accoun t of the war throws

,

much light o n the customs and ma nn ers of the age a n d ,

should therefore be k n ow n to all students of I n dia n history .

Accordi n g t o th e E pic P an d u was th e old ki ng of t h e K ur us or t h e

,

Bh ar a t as an d o n th e deat h of P an d u his broth er D h rita ras h tra

, , ,
-

a scen ded th e throne Th ere was m uch j ea lo usy bet ween th e fi ve son s
.

of P an du an d t h e h un dr ed so n s of D h rita ras h tra an d t heir diss en -

sio n s for m th e s u bj ect of th e E pic .

Yu dh is h t h ira t h e e ld est so n of P an d u was a m an of t r ut h an d pi et y

, , ,

an d thou gh li k e other pri n ces of t h e age h e was tr a i ned i n ar ms as

 E P IC AGE 17

well a s i n th n v r b c a m m u ch of a wa rrior Th s co n d
V ed as h e e
e , e e e . e e
broth r e , n for his m ighty st t ur an d physic a l pro w ss
Bhi m a, was k n o w a e e ,

a d co u ld u proot a t al l tr
n and it a s his st a ff A rj una t h third ee us e .
, e

bro th r dist i n gu ish d h i m s lf a bo v all oth r pri n c s i n a rch ry an d

e , e e e e e e
th e use of a l l wa rlik w a po n s an d is th Achill s of t h I n di an E pic
e e , e e e .

A mo n g t h so n s of D h it e ht th l d st D uryodh ana w a r a ras

-
ra , e e e , , as
pro ud an d v i n dict iv m a an d a s stou t fight r wa a ri va l of Bhi m a
e n ,
a e s .

A n d h wa h lp d by a warrior K a m a a m a of un k n o wn p ar nta g
e s e e , n e e,
but wh a s an a rch r an d s words m n w
o q ua l to Arj una a d is th
e a as e ,
n e
H c tor of t h
e I n di an po m T h ri va lry b t w n Arj una an d K ar na
e e . e e ee
is t h l adi n g id a of t h I n di an E pic a s t h rivalry bet w n Achi ll s
e e e e . e ee e
an d H ctor th l a di n g id a of t h Ili a d
e Is e e e e .

D uryodh ana t h ld st so n of D h it ,
ht d v is d a pl an t o kill
e e e r a ras ra , e e

his h a t d co usi n s Th y w r s n t to a dist n t pl c an d fi w

e . e e e e a a e, re as
se t to th ho us i which th y w r livi n g But t h so n s of P an d u
e e n e e e . e
e sc a p d an d wan d r d a bo ut i n disguis for a ti m
e , e e Th y h a rd th at e e . e e
th e pri n c ss of t h P a h al wa abo ut t s l ct h h usb an d fro m
e e n c as s o e e er
a m o g m an y s ui tors an d prin c s ; an d th y w n t to t h c a pi ta l of th
n e e e e e
P n ch al a co untry to wit n ss th f sti v iti s by t h a dv ic of th s a i ntly
a e e e e , e e e
V ya th r p u t d au thor of t h E pic
s a. e e e e .

D p d
ru ki n g of t h P h l h a d t u p a whirli n g disc high i n
a a, e an c a as , se
th e a ir an d h a d fix d a targ t be yo d t h d ; an d h procl ai m d
. e e n e Is c e e
th at who v r wo uld hi t th t a rg t thro ugh t h whirli n g disc wo uld wi
e e e e e n

his d aught r Th ki n gs an d prin c s wh h a d g a th r d to wi t h

e . e e o e e n e

P a ch l brid tri d t h f a t b ut f il d
n a a e a ft r an oth r Arj un
e e e , a e on e e e . a
th n aros an d p rfor m d t h wo n dro us f at Th P an ch al a pri n c ss
e e, e e e e . e e
a ccordi ngly chos Arj una a s h lord ; an d it is s a id h th n m rri d
e er s e e a e
a ll t h fi bro th rs This p rt of t h story ho w v r n o t i n h ar mo n y
e ve e . a e Is e e ,

w ith t h cu sto m s of t h H i n d us for a m o n g H i n d us i an ci n t a i n

e e ,
n e s
m od r n ti m s po ly n dry h
e e n v r b n k no wn or p r m itt d T h
, a as e e ee e e . e

so s of P an du str n gth n d by t h al li n c with th ki n g of t h P a

n , e e e e a e e e n

ch l as d m an d d a sh a r of th ir fa th r s ki n gdo m T h K ur u ki g
a , e e e e e
'
. e n

d m w
o a ccordi n gl y di vid d th so n s of D h ita h t r t a i n d t h
as e e r -
ras ra e e e
co un try o n th G an g s an d th so n s of P an d u b uilt a w c a pi t a l o n
e e , e n e

th J m na t h si t of wh i ch is m a rk d by m od r n D lhi
e u , e e e e e .

Y dh i h th i a p rfor m d
u s gr a t s a crific i his w c a pit a l but soo n
r e e a e e n ne ,

a ft r w ov rt a k n by dis a st r an d ru i n W ith all his pi ty h w

e as e e e . e e as
fo d of ga m bli n g lik all t h pri n c s of th g H w ch a ll g d
n e e e e a e . e as en e

t o a g a m by th wi l y so n s of D h it
e h t a an d h stak d an d los t h
e r a ras
-
r , e e is

n e w ki n gdo m his wif an d his p rso n l l ib r ty an d th at of his broth rs

, e e a e e .

T h broth rs t h n r tir d to for s t s an d p ss d t w lv y ars i n wild r

e e e e e e , a e e e e e
n ss s an d also p ass d th thirt nth y ar i co n c al m n t a ccordi n g
e e , e e ee e n e e ,

t t h co n ditio n s of th ir xil
o e e e e .

Wh t h p riod of b an ish m n t w ov r th so s of P an d u issu d

en e e e as e , e n e
o ut of th ir co n c a lm nt an d d m n d d t h r stor at io n of th ir ki n gdo m
e e e e a e e e e .

A l l th ld rs of t h K ur u Ian d dv is d this st p but t h st r n an d prou d

e e e e -
a e e , e e
D uryodh an a s tubbor n ly r fus d H s a id e e . e

W h t gr at cri m or d arken i n g sorro w sh ado ws

a e m y bit t r fat
e o er
’
e e,
Th at y chi fs an d K uru s m o narch m rk D y dh a for yo ur h a t
e e
'
a ur o n e,
18 TH E C I V I LI S AT I ON OF I N D IA

S p ea k , wh t a na
m el ess g ilt or folly u s ecret si n to me un k n own
, ,

un u
T r s fro m m e yo r swee ffect io ta n fa th er s love th a t was m y o wn
,
’

I f Y dh i h t h i fo n d of g am bli n g pl ay d a h dl ss r ckl ss ga m
u s r, , e ee e , e e e.
Los t his m pir an d his fr do m wa it th D y dh a bla m
e e ee , s en ur o
’

n s e,

A n d if fr d fro m sh a m an d bo n da g i n his fol l y pla y d aga i n

ee e e e ,

Lost a g a i n an d w n t to xil wh r for e doth h ew co m pla i n e e, e e e no

W a k a th y i fri n ds an d forc s f bl is th ir fi t f l st ar
e re e n e e , ee e e u ,

Wh r for th n i n prid an d folly s k with un q a l w

e e e e e ee us e u ar ,

S h a ll w wh to m ighty I N D R A sca rc will do th ho m a g d

e o e e e ue,
B w t o ho m l ss so n s of P an d u an d t h ir co m r a d s fa i nt an d f w
o e e e e e ,

B w to t h m whil wa rlik D ro na l a ds u s as i n d a ys of old

o e e e e ,

B h i h m a gr a t r th an t h bright gods a rch r K a r na t rue

s e e d bo ld ? e -

, e an

I f i n d ubio u s ga m of ba ttl w sho uld forf it fa m an d life e e e e e,

H av n wi l l p e its gold n por ta ls for t h wa rrior sl a i n i n st if
e e o e e r e,

If n be n di n g to o u r fo m n w sho u ld pr ss t h gory pl a i n
u e e e e e ,

S ti n gl ss is t h bed of a rro ws d a th for

e e will h av n o p a i n , e us e

I f i n p a st i n tho ughtl ss fo ll y o n c t h r al m was brok i n t wai ne e e e e ,

K u u la n d is r un it d n v r sh a ll be spl i t a g a i n
r -
e e , e e ,

T a k m y m ssa g t m y ki n s m n for D u yod h

e e ew ords a
o plai n e , r an s
’
re ,

Portio n of th K r u m pir so n s of P an d u s k i n va i n
e u e e ee ,

To wn n or v ill ag m art n or h a m l t h lp us right o us gods i h aven

e, e , e e n e ,

S pot t h a t n e d l s poi n t can cov r sh a ll n ot un to t h m b gi v n

’
e e e e e e

Th r s u lt wa a w
e e or r ath r a s u cc ssio n of ba ttl s d uri n g
s ar , e e e ,

eight d a ys i n t h e h istoric fi ld of K ur u K h tr wh r oth r g a t

een e -
s e a, e e e re

b ttl s h av si n c b n fou ght i n m od rn tim s Th so n s of D h ita

a e e e ee e e . e r

a ht
r s w r sl a i n an d t h so n s of P an d u a id d by Krish na chi f of
ra e e , e , e , e
D wa rk a tri u m ph d ,
Th y th n pe rf or m d a gr at hors
e . rifi e e e e e s ac
-
ce ,
an d a ft r s a ti n g a g an dso n of Arjuna o n th thro n r tir d i nto t h e
e e r e e, e e
H i m a l a y a s an d w n t to h av n e e e .

Th e Ra m aya n Epic of the Hindus a .

—The other anci ent
relate s to the K o salas of O udh and t h e V ideh as of N ort h
Behar N o reliable history of the K o s alas has bee n l eft to
.

us , and a bare list of the K o s ala kings , known as kings of

the Solar D ynasty , is of littl e historical value W e tur n , .

therefore , to the lege n dary Epic for a picture of the times .

D as a rath a ki n g of th
-

, K o s alas
e , h a d fo ur so n s t h e e ldes t of who m , ,

R am a, is th e h ero of t h e E pic .
J ana ka ki n g of t h e V ideh as h ad a
, ,
 E P IC AGE 19

d aught er Sit a who m h e h a d o bt a i n ed fro m a fi eld furro w an d h er e t h e

, ,

r ea d er will n otice h o w t h e goddess of t h e furro w worshippe d i n V e dic ,

hy m n s h as n o w p ass ed i n to t h e ch a r a ct er of t h e h eroi n e of t h e E pic

, .

Jana k a ki n g of t h e V id eh as produc ed a h eavy bo w an d procla i m e d

, , ,

th a t who eve r co uld wi eld th e bo w wo uld win his d aught er All t h e .

s uitors wh o h a d a ss em ble d to win t h e bride a tt em pt ed t h e fea t an d

fa i l e d bu t R a m a th en c a m e an d bent t h e h eavy bo w till it broke i n t wai n .

I t was th us th at h e wo n his S it a an d r e t ur ne d to his o wn co un try , .

D as a r a th a k i n g of t h e K o s alas h a d be co m e old an d feebl e an d

-
. , ,

d esire d to pl a ce R a m a o n t h e thro n e an d to p ass his old age i n pea ce

an d retire m ent B ut o n e of his q ueens i n sisted th at t h e so n s h e h a d
.

bor ne to h im Bh ar a t a sho uld be pl a ce d o n t h e thro n e Th e feebl e

, , .

old ki n g yie lded to his stro n g m i n d e d q ueen Bh a r a t a was pl a ce d o n -

t h e thro ne an d R a m a we n t i n to e xi l e for fo u rt ee n ye a rs
,
H e W Is h e d .

his youn g w ife S it a to st a y at ho me but S it a t h e m odel of a d evot e d

, . , ,

W i fe wo u ld n ot list e n to t h e propos al
, S h e d esired to l eave ho m e an d .

ki n dre d an d to fo ll o w h er lord i nt o th e p ath less wilder n ess

, .

For th fa ithful wo m an follo ws wh r h w dd d lord m y l a d

e e e er e e a e ,

I n th ban ish m n t of R m a Sit a s xil is d cr d

e e a ,
'
e e e ee ,

S ir n or so n n or lovi n g broth r ru l s t h w dd d wo m an s st a t
’
e e e e e e e,
W i t h h lord h fa l l s or ris s with h co nsort courts h fa t
er s e e ,
er er e

I f th e righ t o us so n of R agh u w n ds t for sts d ark an d dr ar

e e o e e ,

S ita st eps be for h h usb an d w i l d an d thorn y p ths to cl ar

e er a e ,

C a an d s t d an d gild d p a l a c va i n th s to wo m an s lif ’

r ee e e, are e e e,
D ear r is h e h usb an d s sh a do w to t h lov d an d lov i n g wif
er
'

e e e

A n d m y m oth r ft n t augh t m an d m y fath r oft n sp a k

e O e e e e e,
Th at h ho m th w dd d wo m an doth b sid h h usb an d m ak
er e e e e e e er e.

As t h sh a do w t o t h s ubs tan c to h lord is fa ithfu l wif

e e e, er e,
A n d h p arts n o t fro m h Co n sort ti ll h p t with fl t i n g lif
s e er s e ar s
'

ee e

Th r for bid m s k t h j ungl an d i n p a thl ss for sts ro am

e e e e ee e e e e ,

W h r t h wild d r fr ly r n g s an d t h tig r m a k s his ho m e

e e e ee ee a e e e e ,

H a ppi r th an i n fa th r s m an sio n s i n t h w ods w ill S i t a rov

'
e e e o e,

Wa st n o thou gh t o n ho m or ki n dr d n stli n g i n h h usb an d s lov

e e e e er
'
e

A n d th wild fr u it h will g a th r fro m t h e fr sh an d fr agr an t

e s e d e e vi o o ,

A n d th food by R a m a t ast d sh all be S it a s ch rish d food

e e
’

e e ,

H av n co n c a ls n o t bright r m an sio n s i n its s unn y fi lds of prid

e e e e e e,
Wh r wi thou t h lord an d h usb an d fa i thful S it a wo ul d r sid e !
e e er e

Th r for e l t m s eek t h j un gl wh r t h j ungl r an g rs rov

e e e e e e e e e e -
e e,
D a r r t h an t h roy a l p al a c wh r I sh a r m y h usb an d s lo v
'
e e e e, e e e e,

A n d m y h art i n t co m m un io
e sh a ll m y R a m a s wish s sh a r
s vi ee n
’

e e
A n d m y wif l y toil sh a ll light n R am a s lo a d of w an d c ar
e e
'
oe e
20 THE C IV I L I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

R am a ulti m a t l y con s n t d an d a ccom p an i d by S ita an d his

e e e , e
broth r Laks h m e , r p a ir d to t h wild r ss Th D cc an an d
an a , e e e e ne . e e
S o u th r n I n di a h a d n ot y t be n colo n is d by I n do Ary an r a c s an d
e e e e -
e ,

w r e e u n cultiva t d an d wild an d t h borigi na l p opl wh li v d i n t h

e ea e e o e e
woods a d scri be d by t h po t a s m o n k ys an d b ars F or thirt n
re e e e e e . ee
y s R am a li v d a mo n g th es trib s
ear e e e .

R avana k i n g of C ylo n h a rd of t h
, be auty of S i ta an d i n t h
e , e e , e
a bs n c of R am a c rri d h off fro m h h t an d took h to C ylo n
e e a e er er u ,
er e .

R a m a a ft r a lo n g s a rch o bt a i n d c l u of h
, e H m a d a lli an c s
e , e e er . e e e
with t h w i l d t ib of t h woods cross d o v r t C ylo n an d l aid si g
e r es e , e e o e , e e

to t h c a pi ta l to wn L an k a with a h u g ar m y
e , , e .

Th a cco unt of t h lo n g w
e which follo w d thou gh fu ll of stirri n g
e ar e ,

i n cid n ts is t diou s an d childish C hi f a ft r chi f wa s n t o u t by

e , e . e e e s e
R vana to br a k th o ugh t h
a b si gi n g forc but v ry chi f wa
e r e e e e, e e e s
sl a i n d R a m a s besi gi n g li n s r m a i n d un brok n
, an
'
At l a st R avana
e e e e e .

hi m s lf wh is d scribed a s a m o n s t r W i th t h a ds c am o ut an d
e , o e e en e , e

w as sl a i n an d S it a w r cov r d by R a m a Sh h a d r m a i n d p ur
,
as e e e . e e e e

and faithful to R a m a un d r v ry tri a l an d m nac an d h prov d h e e e e e, s e e er

p urity by an ord a l of fi e e r .

T h fo ur t n th y a r of b an ish m n t h a d
e ee w xpir d an d R a m a
e e no e e ,

r t ur n d to Ayodhy a or O udh an d asc n d d his fath r s thron

e e B ut , e e e
’
e .

t h pe opl j u dg d S it a h a rshly an d co n sid

e e ed h t a i n t d A n d R am a , er e er e . ,

w a k a s his fa th r yi l d d to t h c l am ou s of his s ubj cts an d sent h i s

e e , e e e r e ,

p u r an d fai thfu l wif to exil

e e e .

V a l m iki th r p ut d au thor of t h E pic wa a s a i n t wh

, e e e liv d i e , s o e n
his h it ag i n t h woods
ern i H er c i v d t h xil d Sit a an d h
e . e e e e e e e , s e
g av birth to t wi n so n s L ava an d K u s a i n t h h rm it ag Th pri n c s
e , , e e e . e e
gr w u p to b st urdy an d m an ly bo ys un d r th ca r of th s a i n t th y
e e e e e e e
a cq u ir d th l a r n i g of t h g ; an d th y s an g th h roic d ds of
e e e n e a e e e e ee
R a m a witho u t k n o wi n g th a t R a m a wa t h ir fa th r s e e .

R a m a d cid d to c l bra t t h s a crific of t h hors i n Ayodhy a

e e e e A e e e e e .

hors wa l t loos an d th s a crific wa co m m n c ed i n t h for st of

e s e e, e e s e e e
N im i h a
a L ava an d K u sh a c am th r with th ir pr c ptor V l
s . e e e e e e a
m iki an d ch an t d t h R m y
,
be for R a m a an d his ass m bl d
e e a a an a e e e

gu sts R am a hi ms lf at las t r cog is d his h roic boys t h i n h ritors

e . e e n e e , e e
of his m atchl ss pro w ss an d glory e e .

But th r was n o joy i n stor for Sit a T h e br a th of s uspicio n h a d

e e e . e
clo u d d h lif an d S it a san k i nt o t h arth t h fi ld furrow which
e er e, e e , e e -

h ad gi v n h birth To th m i ll io n s of t h peopl of I n di a S i t a is n o t
e er . e e e

an a ll gory but t h m od l of wif ly d votion wo m anly lov an d f m al

e , e e e e ,
e, e e

s lf ab n ga tio n To t h m illio n s o f H i n d u wo m n t h story of Sit a

e -
e . e e e

an d of h s uf f ri n gs an d fa ithful n ss is a m or a l l sso n i m p ar t d a t
er e e e , e

th e cr a dl an d r m m ber d until d ath T h world s lit r atu e h a s

e e e e e . e
’
e r

produ c d n o lofti r id ea l of wo m an s lov an d wo m an s d votio n

e e
’

e
'
e .

L if e a n d Cas te — The origin of the caste

S o cial
system in I n dia may be traced to this period of I ndian his
tory L ife was more settled amo n g the Gangetic Hind us
.

in the Epic Age tha n it had bee n i n the V ed ic Age i n the

 E P IC AG E 21

Punjab r eligious rites became mor e pompous and elaborat e

, ,

and the hereditary performers of these rite s easily separated

t h em s elves f ro m the rest of the people
. The broad distin c.

tion betwee n the Aryans a n d t h e Aborigines which prevail ed

in th e V edic A ge suggested si m ilar divisio n s a m ong t h e
Aryans the m selves and the pri estly classes soon for med a
,

community a caste of th eir own — th e B r ahman ; of I ndia

, .

They still m arri ed wo men of other castes but it was not co n ,

s idered good for m for a Brahman girl to choos e a husba n d

from outside her caste The example set by priests was soo n
.

followed by k ings and chiefs and warriors they too separated

themselves from the body of the tradi n g and agric ultural
populatio n and for med t h e K rbatr iya caste of I n dia The
, .

m ass of the Arya n people retained their old name of V isas

or Vairya while the aboriginal races who had submitted
to the Arya n conquerors for med the Sud a caste r .

Th e history of Europ e the history of the whole world

, ,

does n ot present another instance of a caste system so rigid -

and so enduring as t h e caste system of I ndia The num be r

-
.

of castes has increased to many hundreds in modern tim es ;

every aboriginal tribe coming under Hindu infl ue n ce has
for med a caste of its own ; and every profession or trade guild -

too has crystallised i n to a caste .

Great care was take n i n the a n cient days for the educa
tion of Ar ya n boys They left their pare n ts at an early
.

age lived with teachers for years a n d lear n t the V edas

,

a n d the scie nces know n to the age ; and after studyi n g

with such teachers clever and distin guished boys wen t up to
,

Parishads answ ering to the U n iversiti es of Europe W he n

, .

their educatio n was at last completed they e n tered the ,

second stage of life married and s ettl ed dow n as house

, ,

hold ers. I t was held meritorious to pass the old age in

retiremen t — firs t i n the performa n ce of pen ances and
austere rite s an d then in a calm a n d holy contemplation
,

a n d these are t h e four ideal stages of correct Hin du life .

W o m e n were held in higher resp ect i n I n dia tha n in oth er

a n cie n t cou n tries a n d the Epics a n d old literature of I n dia
,
22 THE C IV ILI S AT I O N OF I N D IA

assig n a higher position to th em tha n the epics a n d literature

of a n cie n t Greece Hi n du wome n en joyed some rights of
.

property from the V edic A ge took a share i n social a n d ,

!

religious rites and were so metimes disti n gu ished by their

,

learning . The absolute s eclusio n of wome n i n I n dia was

un k n ow n i n a n cient times .

Th e f o u r Veda s a n d th e L ea rn in g o f th e A ge .

W e spoke of the R ig V eda i n the last chapter ; but the

people of I n dia recog n ise four V edas a n d this is how th ey ,

have grow n up Some of the hym n s were by a n a n cien t custo m

.

chan ted at sacrific e s i n stead of being recited a n d a separate ,

collection was m ade of these cha nted hy m n s a n d call ed

Sa ma V eda Special sacrificial formulas a n d rules also
.

existed fro m anci en t times for the performance of rites an d ,

these for m ulas a n d rules were collected under the n ame o f

Taj r V eda
u A n d a collectio n of later hymns often co n
.
,

sisti n g of Charms a n d i n cantations agai n st evil i n fluen ces ,

grew up under the n ame of fltbar va Veda f

.

Every V eda agai n has comme n taries a n d dogmatic ex

, ,

pla n atio n s the work of gen eratio n s of priests ; a n d the vast

,

body of these co mmentari es is k n own as B r ahman /Ir W hile .

these works were for the use of s acrifi cers i n towns and
households oth er treatise s k n o w n as A anyaf a wer e com
,
r r

pil ed for the use of thos e who had retired to forests to pass
th eir lives i n devotion an d con tem platio n It is in these last .

nam ed works that we g enerally find those remarkable com

positions k n ow n as Up a irbadr contai n ing sublim e and n ,

philosophical spec ulatio n s concern ing the U n iversal Soul ,

the All pervadi n g Breath

-
.

Clos ely co nn ected with this vast body of religious litera

ture were other departme n ts of learni n g which the pious ,

Hin du co n sidered it his duty to acquire I n o n e of the old .

Upanishads we fi n d these d epartments of learn ing thus

e numerated : The four V edas Chr on icl es a n d Cos m ogon ies
,
‘
,

G ra mm ar An cestral W orship Arith m etic Science of Por

, , ,

te n ts D ivisio n s of Ti m e L ogic Ethics Etymology Pro

, , , , ,

n un ciat ion and Prosod y D emo n ology S c ien ce of Arms

, , ,
 E P IC AGE 23

Astro n o m y and the Sci en c e of Serpents and Spirits : This

,

enumeration remi n ds on e of the be n t of the huma n mind and

the human i n telle ct during the M iddle Ages in Europe In .

Gr ammar the Hindus first traced the descent of words fro m

a limited n um ber of roots ; in Arith metic th ey discov ered th e
deci m al n otatio n system which was introduc ed by t he Arabs
,

into Europe i n the M iddle Ages and is n ow the com m o n ,

property of all n ation s a n d in Astro n omy they divided t h e

path of the moon i n to those twe n ty seven co n stellatio n s which -

were borrow ed fro m them by the Chi n ese un der the n a me of

Sin ) a n d by the Arabs under the title of M an a z iL
,

D o c trin e o f Tra n s m igra tio n o f S o u ls a n d o f th e

Un i v ers a l S o u l — O f all the productions of t h e age , how
.

ever the Upanishads are the m ost striking Th ey represent

, .

the beli ef of the l earned and the wise as the Brahmanas ,

repr es ent the rites and practices of the people The .

Upanishads elucidate the doctrine of the Universal S oul ,

as t h e Brahmanas elucidate the popular belief in various

N ature gods
-
The Upanishads embody the philosophy and
.

spiritual k nowl edge of the age as the Brahmanas illustrate ,

the popular O bservanc es In India the Upanishads are classed

.

as works which i m part Tr u k ow /edg while the Brahmanas e n e,

r egulate Obrer v an ee This disti n ctio n has e n dured i n I n dia

r.

in all times .

The cardinal doctrines of the Upa n ishads are the doctrines

of Transmigration of Souls a n d of the U n iv ersal Soul W e .

have s ee n both thes e ideas in a hazy form i n the hy m ns of

the R ig Veda i n the Upanishads we find them more fully ,

developed .

All things chang e all things cast o ff th eir old fo rms and
,

assume new shapes The Soul wi thin living beings thus

.

changes its outward for m en ters i n to n ew shapes until it is

, ,

merg ed i n to t h e Univ ersal Soul call ed by t h e V edic na me o f

B R A H M A This cardinal principl e of the Upanishads is best
.

e xplained in the la n gu age of the Upanishads

As a golds m i th t a ki n g a pi ece of gold t ur n s i t i nt o an oth er n ewer

, ,

an d m ore beautiful sh a pe so do es th e Soul a fter h av i n g thrown off this

, ,
24 TH E C IV I L IS AT I ON OF I N D IA

body an d disp ll d a ll ign or an c m a k un to hi m s lf an oth r n w r

, e e e, e e e e e
an d m or b au tifu l sh a p e e e .

S m u ch for t h m
o wh d sir s Bu t to th m wh do se an o e e . as e an o e
n ot d sir wh n ot d siri n g fr fro m d si s s atisfi d i n his d sir s
e e, o e , ee e re , e e e ,

d sir s th So ul o n ly his spirit do s n ot d p t ls wh r ; be i n g

e e e e e ar e e e e
B R A H MA h go s t o B R A H MA
,

e e i v
A l l this I S B R A H MA L t a m m dit at o n th v isib l wor l d a s
, . .

e an e e e e
b ginn i n g n di n g an d br athi n g i n B R A H MA
.

e , e , e .

Th I n t l l ig nt whos body is spirit whos f orm is light whos

e e e e e e
truth whos natur is lik th r—om n ipr s n t an d i
, ,

tho ughts a re e e e e e e e n
v isibl —fro m wh i all works al l d sir s a ll sw t odo urs an d t ast s
,

e or i , e e , ee e
proc d ; H wh m br a ces ll this wh n v r sp aks an d is n v r
ee e o e a , o e e e e e
s urpris d ; e

H is m yS oul withi n t h h a rt s m a l l r th an a cor of ric

e s m a ll r e e , e n e, e

t h an a cor n of b arl y s m a l l r t h an a m u st a rd s d s m a ll r th an a
e , e ee ,
e
c anary s d or t h k r n l of a c an r y s d H a l o is m y S o l withi n
ee e e e a ee . e s u

th h a rt gr a t r th an t h a rth gr a t r th an t h sky g at r th an
e e , e e e e , e e e , re e
h av n g a t r th an a l l t h worlds ;
e e , re e e

H fro m whom all works all d sir s a ll s w t odours an d t a st s

e , e e , ee e
proc d wh ee m br a c s a ll this wh
o n v r speaks an d is n v r
e e o e e e e
s u pris d ; H m y So ul withi n t h h a rt is B R A MA Wh n I sh ll
, ,

r e e, e e ,
H . e a
h av d p art d fro m h n c I sh all obt a i n H im — ( Cl l d gy
e e e e e, . z z an o a,
iii .

This is true philosophical Hinduis m as it was thr ee thou

san d years ago and as it is n ow Th e doctrine is that all , .

universe and all bei n gs proceed from B R A H M A liv e i n Him , ,

are a part of H im and end in Him Each individual S oul , .

has its be ginning in the Universal S oul and passe s through ,

a n umb er of outward shapes or incar n ations a ccordi n g to its

doi n gs in this world and in the end merge in H im Th e ,
.

great idea of a true Unity compreh en ding all changing

phenomena is conc e ived and e xplain ed in t h e Hindu
,

doctrines of Transmigratio n of Souls and of a Univ ersal

S oul .
 C HAPT E R III
A ge of La ws an d P h ilos op h y, 8 0 0 TO 3 ; 1 a c
.

Co lon is a tio n of th e W h ole the first of ln d ia .

—I n
period of India n history we found the Indo Aryans or -

H indus s ettled on t h e Indus and its tributaries In the .

s eco n d period they had colonised the whole of the Gangetic

valley as far as N orth B ehar a n d had fou n ded great and
,

flourishing ki n gdoms all over N orthern I ndia IV e n ow .

come to the third period duri n g which t h e Hindus spread

,

th emselves all over India and all the races and nations of
,

the land except wild hill tribe s accepted Hindu religion

, , ,

Hindu learning and laws Hindu manners and civilisation

, .

The whole of India was Hinduised if we may use the ,

word before the fourth c en tury B C i e befor e Al exand er

, . .
, . .

t h e Gr eat invad ed India .

Ten G rea t H in d u K in gd o m s W e shall be able to .

for m some id ea of th e spr ead of Hi n du i n fluence and power

during this third A ge if we pass in rapid r evi ew so me of t h e
great Hindu kingdo m s which fl ourished i n this age F oremost .

a m ong th em was M AG AD H A or South B ehar which was yet ,

uncivilised in the second Age but which became the first

,

power in India during the third Age To the east the whol e .
,

of Be n gal and O rissa w ere brought under Hindu influenc e ,

a n d formed the sister kingdoms of A N G A ( W est Bengal ) ,

V AN G A ( East Bengal ) and K AL I N GA ( O rissa )

, AVAN T I .

M C R A S H TR A
( alwa ) in e n tral I n dia a n d S,AU ( Gujrat )
in the w est were si m ilarly formed into H indu ki n g
,

doms ; and th e tabl eland of the D ecca n was the seat of a

m ighty nation t h e A N D H RA s who became soo n k n own for
, ,

their power and civilisation their schools of l ear n i n g and

,

the ir laws And farther away South er n I ndia was parcelled

.
,

o ff into thre e sister kingdoms viz those of the CH OLA s on

, .
,
25
26 TH E C IV I L I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

the Co ro m an del coast the CH ERA s on the M alabar coast a n d th e

, ,

P A N DvA s i n the extre m e south n ear Cap e Comorin These ten .

gr eat kingdoms of the third A ge now outshone the older kin g

doms of the Gangetic vall ey as the Ga n getic ki n gdoms had
,

outshone i n the second Age the still older states of the Pu njab .

It co n siderably si mplifies our study of th e first three Ages

of Indian history if we reme m ber how civilisation l ear n ,

ing and pol itical power gravitated eastwards a n d southwards

,

by successive stage s during these long ce n turies D uri n g t h e .

V edic Age 2 0 00 to 1 40 0 B C ) Arya n civilisatio n spread itself

. .

over the Punjab and the literature and the history of t h e age
,

are the literature a n d the history of the Pu n jab I n the Epic .

Age ( 1 400 to 8 0 0 B C ) the n ew colonies in N orthern I n dia

. .

attai n ed a higher civilisatio n a n d political importance a n d ,

the literature and history of this age are mainly the literature
and history of N orth ern India I n the third or P h ilo so .

p cal Age ( 8 0 0 to 3 1 5 B C ) the N orth ern I n dian States almost

h i . .

pass out of our view kingdo m s i n Easter n and Southern

,

India have rise n to a higher political pow er a n d the scenes of ,

the gr eatest i n tellectual a n d r eligious movem en ts of this age

are laid in Eastern and Southern I n dia The works left to .

us by each successive age thus i n dicate the march of civilisa

tion and political power in ancie n t I n dia from the W est to the
East a n d South .

M aga dh a . It is not n ecessary for us to n arrate separately

the history of all the ten great kingdoms which flourished in
this Philosophical Age nor have the people of those ki n g
,

doms preserved a n y connected and reliable accoun t of their

ancient deeds But among them M agadh a or South Behar
.
,

soo n became the foremost power in India and some reliabl e ,

annals of M agadh a have bee n left to us It is n ecessary to .

tak e note of the salient facts of the history of this kingdom .

W e have a list of tw en ty eight ki n gs who are supposed to

-

have reig n ed i n Magadh a from the time of the war of th e

M afia bhar ata to the seven th ce n tury B C
-
but of these . .

twe n ty eight ki n gs we k n ow n othi n g but the n ames

-
In .

the seve n th ce n tury B C Sis un aga foun ded a n ew dy n asty

. .
,
 AG E OF L AW S AN D P H I LO S O P H Y 27

which is called after his na me ; and t h e fifth king of this

dynasty the pious a n d gentle Bi m bisara ruled in M agadh a
, ,

when Gautama the Buddha first preached th e Buddhist t e

ligion in 5 2 2 D C Bimbisara was succeeded by Ajatasatr u a
. .
,

stro n g a n d aggressive ruler a n d he extended the limits of

,

the M agadh a kingdom by conquering n eighbouring s tates

a n d territories F our other ki n gs r ul ed after h im and the
.
,

S isun aga dyn asty ended about 3 7 0 B C . .

N anda and his eight sons rul ed for about fifty or sixty
y ears and then the great Chandragupta the contem porary and
, ,

at on e ti me the friend of Alexa n de r the Great subjugated th e ,

w hole of N orth er n India and thus raised M agadh a to the

,

ra n k of a gr eat empire This is perhaps the most im

.

portant even t in the political history of ancient I ndia ; the

divisio n s of N orthern I n dia into n u merous states and ki n g
dom s were swept away and for the first ti me t h e whole of
,

N orther n I n dia was brought under on e I mp erial power .

This event which occurr ed about 3 1 5 B C m arks the close

,
. .
,

of the third Age .

Co d es o f La w —I t will thus be obs erv ed that the poli

.

tical results of this third period of Indian history w ere

brillia n t a n d importan t It was i n this age that t h e whol e
.

of I n dia was Hi n duised a n d it was at the clos e of this

,

age that the whole of N orther n I n dia was brought un der one
powerful r ule The literary and scientific achievemen ts of
.

this age which we hav e called the Age of L a ws a n d Philo

,

s o phy were no l ess brilliant

, .

The voluminous co mmentari e s and rules contained i n t h e

religious works know n as the B r ahma ar for the proper n ,

p erforma n ce of sacrifices were reduced i n to co n cis e handy

,

manuals called Sr a uta Sutr a: rules of domestic rites a n d

,

domestic c er em onies were similarly compiled u n der the n ame

of Gr ibya S tr a: and the whole body of civil and crimi n al
u

laws was co n densed und er t h e na me of D har ma Su tr ar .

Sutra m eans literally a thread and implies an aphoris m in ,

which r ules and laws are co n densed and stru n g together s o ,

as to be easily re mem bered All sacrificial rules all rules .

,
28 T H E C I V I L I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

of domestic rites and all civil a n d crimi n al laws of the land

,

w ere thus co n de n sed i n the S utra or aphoristic form i n order

that each Ar ya n boy Brah m a n or Kshatriya or V aisya
, ,

m ight learn the whole body of laws i n early life and re ,

m em ber them ever a fterwards Every pious H indu was

.

expected to k n ow all his duties as worshipper as fam ily , ,

ma n and as citize n ; a n d th e meth o d i n which he acquired

,
‘

this knowledge was to get the threefold code by h eart

w hen he was you n g a n d when he resided with his t eacher
,

for the acquisitio n of sacred lear n i n g N o n atio n on earth .

e ver devised a more e ff ective met hod for regulating t h e

c onduct a n d character of men and for impressi n g o n every
,

m ember of the community his religious domestic and legal , ,

duties a n d obligatio n s .

Codes of this threefold law thus spru n g up i n every

state all over India a n d di fferent schools of Sutra literatur e
, ,

con n ected themselves with the di ff ere n t V edas A well .

k n ow n ancient treatise n ames five Sutra schools of the R ig

V eda twen t y seven Sut ra sch ools of the Black Y ajur V eda
,
-
,

fifteen of the W hite Y aj ur V eda twelve of the Sama V eda , ,

and nin e of the A th arva V eda Each Sutra school had a .

co mplete c ode of the thr eefold law ; a n d the followers of

any partic ular school i n whatev er part of I n dia they might
,

live lear n t a n d imparted to stude n ts the laws of that school

, .

A vast mass of Sutra literatur e thus sprang up all over I n dia ;

the schools of the D eccan and of Southern I n dia rivall ed
those of the N orth a n d all races a n d n atio n s of I n dia were
held together by these codes of Arya n law all prescribi n g ,

the same rites a n d duties all breathi n g the same sp irit all
, ,

recog n isi n g the V edas and V edic sacrifices It is di ffi cult .

“

to believe it but n evertheless it is a fact that a n cie n t Hi n du

, ,

ism spread all over I n dia more by its moral a n d i n tellectual

i n flue n ce tha n by the force of arms ; a n d t hat n atio n s were
held together as o n e great confederatio n less by political and
military weapo n s tha n by a commo n religio n by the O bserv ,

ance of commo n rites and by codes of Arya n law shapi n g

,

and determi n i n g the co n duct of all Aryans .

 AGE OF LAW S AN D P H I LO S O P H Y 29

R eligio u s and D o m es tic

La ws O f the threefold .
-

law mentioned above , the rules

of sacrifices do n ot requir e
any le n gthy me ntio n Sacrifices were of various kinds but
.
,

one famous code classifies them i n to twe n ty one di ffere n t -

forms D o me stic rites a n d season festivals are also classified

.

i n this code under ninetee n heads and thus all the Hindu ,

Arya n rites are grouped together as the F orty Sacra ments .

W e get m any curious glimpses of a n cie n t Hindu life fro m

t h e description of these ni n etee n do m estic rites and season
“

festivals The marriage cere m ony is variously described in

.

the di ff eren t codes but the m ain rites are the sa me Th e

,
.

bride we n t three ti mes roun d a lighted fire made a ,

sacrifice to the fire and stepped for ward seven steps with
,

the bridegroo m And the n they watched and waited for

.

the Polar star th e symbol of constancy and faithful n ess

,
.

The birth of a child its first feedi n g with solid food and its
, ,

tonsure were all accompan ied by appropriate cere m onies .

The most i mportant rite for a boy how ever was his , ,

initiatio n wh en h e was m ade ov er by his fath er to t h e guru

,

a teacher f or educatio n He wore a loose gar m en t a girdle .

, ,

a n d a sta ff ; he lived a n abstemious life refrai n i n g from every ,

luxury ; a n d he dwelt with his teacher as his so n an d his

me n ial begging his food from day to day Thus passed years
, .

of Stude n tship W hen at last the Aryan boy had acquired th e

.

lear n ing of his fath ers he return ed hom e to his longing frie n ds
, ,

m arried a n d settl ed d ow n as a householder setting up the

, ,

domestic sacrificial fire which was a n importa n t rite And .

a m on g the duties of householders five daily duties are sp e cially ,

n amed viz sacrifices to the gods and to departed fathers

, .
, ,

hospitality to me n ho n our to spirits a n d devotio n to God

, , .

Am ong the festivals celebrated the for emost was t h e ,

m onthly rite perfor m ed in memory of ancestors L ear n ed .

Brahma n s were fed and rewarded with perfumes garlands , ,

and clothes and o ff eri n gs wer e m ad e to d eparted fathers

, .

R ites wer e p erfor med on the n ew moo n a n d full m oon days ,

a n d a special rite w as c el ebrated on the full moo n day of th e

rainy season the object of which was to propitiate s n akes
, ,
30 TH E C IV I L I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

always a so urc e of dan ger in India The autum nal harvest .

moo n brought in a more imposi n g festival followed according ,

to one cod e by a sacrifice to S ita the goddess of the furrow , .

The n fol low ed other harv est festivals con sisting of dis tribu ,

tion of cakes m ad e of the new cor n ; a n d the festival of

the last m o n th of the year closed the year It is remark .

able that ma n y o f th es e do m estic rites a n d seaso n festivals

conti n ue to be celebrated i n som e form or other by t h e
Hi n dus of the prese n t day ; a n d i n spite of political a n d
social cha n ges the spirit of ancient Hinduism a n d eve n of
,

Hi n du rites a n d O bserva n ces is much the same n ow as it

was twe n ty five ce n t uries ago
-
.

Civil a n d Cr im in a l La W S — The portio n s of the codes .

which lay dow n the civil a n d crimi n al law s are of great value
and i n t erest I n dia has always bee n a great agricultural
.

cou n try and the civil laws deal with la n ds an d crops the
, ,

conditio n s of tillag e and the lia b iliti e s of herdsmen for

,

damage do n e by cattle The laws of prop erty a n d i n herit

.

ance a n d of marriage and successio n are laid down in great

d etail a n d the legal rates o f interest are mi n utely prescribed
, .

The i n terest o n mo n ey le n t o n good security was 1 5 per

cent The cri m i n al laws were based on caste distinctio n s
.
-

the pe n alties for Brahmans were light a n d those for Sudras ,

were cruelly severe D eath or corporal pu n ishme n t was the

.

pe n alty for theft but the king had the prerogative of mercy
, ,

a n d the right of self defenc e was cl early defined

-
.

The laws of eviden ce were also clearly i n dicated a n d docu ,

me n ts and oral testimo n y were r elied o n F alse evide n ce .

was made punishable by severe pen alti es .

The taxes due to the king are thus detailed in one code
C ulti va tors p a y t o t h ki n g a t a x a mo un ti n g to e t nth
e on -
e , on e
e ighth or,
six t h of th prod uc
on e -
e e .

S o m d cl a re th at t h t a x o n c at tl an d gold a m ount t o
e e e fi f ti th e on e -
e

of th e stock .

I n th e c a s e of merch an dis e o n e twen ti et h is p a y a ble bv th e s eller

,
-

a s d uty .

Of roots fr u its flo wers m edici na l h erbs ho n ey m e at gr ass an d

firewood o n e six teenth —( Ga u ta ma s D lz a r ma S u tr a x 2 4 to
, , , , , , ,
'
.
, . ,
 AG E OF L AW S AN D P H ILO S O P H Y 31

Th e S ix V edan gas .
— The threefold law described
above is considered as o n ly one V eda n ga i o n e of the ,
. e.

bra n ches of V edic l ear n ing The other five V eda n gas were
.

Pho n etics Metre Gram m ar Glossary a n d Astronomy It

, , , , .

is easy to see why these subjects were called V eda mgas The
study of all these s ubjects was n ecessary for the proper utter
a n ce of hym n s the proper compr ehensio n of the V edas a n d
, ,

the proper p erforma n ce of V edic rites u n der di ffere n t con s tel

latio n s .

Grammar was studied with special assiduity and Pani n i ,

who flourished i n this age is probably the greatest gram

maria n that the world has ever produced His precise time .

has bee n the subj ect of much controversy ; but we k n ow

that a disti n guished critic of Panini s grammar flourished i n ’

the fourth ce n tury E C a n d Panini himself must have lived

,

some ce n turies earlier .

The observatio n of stars for fi xi n g the time of sacrifice

led to the study of astro n omy a n d a treatise was attached
,

to each V eda fixi n g the sacred cale n dar The co n structio n .

of altars of specifi ed shapes a n d areas led to the study o f

geo metry i n I ndia lo n g before that scie n ce was k n ow n i n
Gr eece F o r the co n structio n of proper altars squares had
.
,

to be fou n d equal to two or m ore give n squar es or equal to ,

the di fference betwee n two given squares ; oblongs had to be

tur n ed to squares a n d squares i n to oblo n gs ; tria n gles had
,

to be constructed equal to given squares and oblo n gs ; and

circles had to be fou n d approximately equal to give n squares .

The rules for these a n d various other problems are fou n d in

the codes of thre efold law spoken above
G en era l O bs er va tion s o n H in d u Cu lt u re —The
.

brief sketch which we have give n above of the Hindu laws

and lear n ing of this age e n ables us to mark their notable a n d
characteristic features The originality a n d inve n tive n ess
.

of the Hindu mi n d strike us beyo n d a n ything else Their .

laws their astro n omy their arithmetic their geom etry a n d

, , , ,

their grammar were e n tirely their ow n ; a n d many of th e

discoveries made in ancie n t I n dia like the decimal n otation
,

C
32 TH E C IV I L I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

in arith meti c are n ow the comm on heritageof the civilised

,

world . Another thing which is equally n oticeable is

that the culture of all bra n ches of lear n ing co nn ected itself
with r eligio n a n d religious rites in ancient India R eligio n .

i n spired obs ervatio n s stimulated inquiries led to the discovery

, ,

of rules encouraged the com pilation of laws extended the

, ,

triumphs of scie n ce i n I n dia So close is this connectio n

.
,

that ancient sages i n I n dia believed they were upholdi n g a n d

spreadi n g their ancie n t faith a n d rites whe n they were addi n g ,

to the stores of k nowledge and m oder n scholars are unable

to decide where religious speculations e n d a n d scie n ce
a n d philosophy begin I n the third place we n ote what
.
,

extraordi n ary care was take n by the sages of ancie n t I n dia

to impress o n every Aryan boy the whole of the a n cestral
learni n g a n d laws A new a n d aphoristic form of com
.

positio n was discov e red ih order to compress all the r ules of

religious rites a n d domestic co n duct and civil law i n to a brief
compass and every Aryan boy was m ade to lear n this by
,

rote during his stude n tship of twelve or twenty four or eve n -

thirty six years before he marri ed a n d settled dow n as a

-

householder and a member of society L astly we n otice .

,

that while the utmost importa n ce was attached to the three

fold law a n d to the six branches of V edic lear n ing a high ,

moral to n e pervaded the cultur e of the ti me and pure moral ,

co n duct was held to be abov e and beyond all the F orty

Sacrame n ts a n d all the V edas and V eda n gas .

F orty Sa cr a m nts us l ss
e are e e

To t h m t o p a ssion s gi v n
e an e
F or t h y l a d h im n ot to B R A H MA
,

e e

L a d h im n o t to B R A H MA S h av n
,
’
e e e .

S a cr a m n ts thou gh r a r ly ta k n
e e e ,

Bl ss th m a to v irt u gi v n
e e n e e
L d his so ul to holy B R A H MA
,

ea

L a d his so u l t o B R A H MA S h av n
,
'
e e e
—( Ga u ta ma s
.

'
D lz a r m a S u tr a , v iii . 24 an d
V ain a rea s without virtu
V ed e,
Si V d an g s bri n g n o r s t
x e a e ,

S a cr d l a r n i n g q uits t h si nn r
e e e e
As th e fl dg d bird q u i ts i ts n s t
e e e .
 A GE OF L AW S AN D P H I LO S O P H Y 33
V ed a s an d th six V d an g s e e a

Bl ss n ot m a of si n ful lif
e n e,

As un to th bl i n d a d sightl ss
e n e

V a i n is b u ty of a wifea e .

S a cr d t xts an d s a crific s
e e e

Sav n ot me d c itful pro ud

en e e , ,

R it s an d l a r n i n g bl ss t h v i t uo u s
e e e e r

Lik t h aut um s r a i n y clo u d

e e n
'
.

D /z a r m a S u t r a , vi .
3 to

It is p erhaps scarc ely fair to judg e anci e nt life and c ivilisa

ti o n by modern standards ; but t h e comparison is so meti mes
made a n d is n ot altog eth er u n profitable To th e m ode rn reader
,
.

the m inute details of t h e rules of conduct laid down in th ese

anci e nt Hindu code s are perplexin g and almost unintelligible .

Every rite ev ery action of daily li fe every custo m and

, ,

observance w ere prescribed by law and rule Hu ma n beings .

were almost regarded as creatur es of law and rule a n d th ere ,

s eem ed to be littl e scope for that freedo mof healthy progress

and change which is so esse n tial a feature of m odern civilisa
tion T h e inequality of laws between the Aryan and non
.

Arya n races b etween the Brahman and the Sudra is also

, ,

another unh ealthy feature of the ancient Hindu laws Equal .

laws for all classes are r ecognised at l east in th eory in , ,

m odern com m unities ; although in practic e ev e n t h e most ,

civilised conquerors do n ot yet ad m inister equal justic e be

twee n them s elv es and co n quered nations in any part of th e
w orld .And lastly the exclusive n ess of modern conquerors
,

had its counterpart in the exclusiv en ess of t h e anci ent Hindu

cod es .

All rites and sacra ments all la ws and rul es all the V edas , ,

and the V edangas were for t h e Aryans ; th e m ass of the

,

non Aryans who for med the m ajority of Hindus in Easter n

-

and Southern I ndia wer e ignor ed W e get gli mpses of th e

, .

life a n d r eligion and learning in the littl e Aryan coloni es all

o ver I ndia but the gre at nati o ns wh o had accepted the
,

c ivilisation of th e Arya n race were still left in the shad e ,

e xclud ed fro m sacr e d kno w ledg e and sacr e d rites This .

e xclusiveness could n ot however be lo n g m ai n tai n ed after

, ,
34 THE C IV I L I S AT I O N or I N D IA

the mass of n o n Arya n n atio n s i n Easter n and Souther n

-

I ndia had acquired political power and importa n ce ; a n d it

was the missio n of Buddhism to throw down the barriers ,

a n d to u n ite Ar ya n s a n d n o n Aryans i n to that o n e great

-

community n ow k n ow n as Hindus The times called for .

a lev ell er and a leveller appeared

, .

S ix S ys tem s o f P h ilos op h y — The six V edangas .

,

spok en of above do n ot by any m ea n s exhaust t h e intellectual

,

progress of this age ; the most brilliant results of the

period are its six systems of philosophy A great many .

separate schools of philosophy flourished in a n cie n t I n dia ,

but orthodox Hindu writers specially n ote six systems It .

would be outside the scope of the prese n t work to explai n

these six systems a n d we ca n only briefl y indicate th e ir n ature
,

a n d purport withi n our limits .

The San k/{ya philosophy is the earli est system of me n tal

philosophy known to the world ; it flourished i n I n dia i n the
seventh ce n tury B C or earlier and some of its pri n ciples are
. .
,

believed to have bee n borrowed by Pythagoras a n d i n troduced

i n Greece Accordi n g to this system N ature a n d Soul are
.
,

eter n al a n d self existent ; an d from N ature spring the gross

-

an d subtle eleme n ts the se n ses an d orga n s of actio n as

, ,

well as Se n satio n Co n scious n ess and I n tellect The Soul

, , .

acquires k n owledge by bei n g u n ited with N ature a n d whe n ,

it has acquired this k n owledge it is em a n cipated an d freed

for e vermore .

S a n khya philosophy is silent o n the existen ce of a Supreme

Bei n g a n d the Toga system of philosoph ysought to remove
,

this w a n t It treats of meditatio n o n God a n d of various

.
,

practices an d exercises F ollowers of this system pretend

.

to acquire occult a n d sup er n atural powers by these exercises ,

and m uch of the superstition a n d black magic of m oder n I n dia

co n nect themselves with this system of philosophy .

N yaya is L ogic a n d deals with proof an d the thi n g to be

,

proved A Hi n du syllogism is very like the syllogism of

.

Aristotle but has two redu n da n t terms The followi n g is

, .

an i n sta n ce
 AGE OF L AW S AN D P H I LO S O P H Y 35

1 . Th e bill is fi ery ,
2 . For it s m ok es .

3 . W a v
h te er s m ok es is fi ery a s a kitche n
, .

4 . Th e bill is s m oki g , n
5 . Th er efore it is fi ery .

The Vairerbiéa system is a school of atomic philosophy .

All substa n ces consist of atoms The ato m s are eter n al a n d .

indestructible substances perish simply by the disi n tegratio n

,

of atoms .

,The M iman ra system is n ot a system of philosophy

properly so c all ed but is an orthodox reactio n against the
,

alarmi n g doctri n es of philosoph ers It is a system which .

i n sists on those V edic rites and sacrifi ces which moder n

philosophy had n eglected .

The Vedan ta system is similarly an orthodox reaction ,

a n d bri n gs us back once more to the doctri n e of the Up

an is h ads the doctri n e of the Universal Soul
, N ature is n ot .

disti n ct from the Soul N ature is on ly a m ultiform man ifes .

t at ion of the U n iversal Soul takes its birth from that Soul , ,

a n d will merge i n that Soul .

Th e a is sean d n ot oth r th an its water : y t wav s fo am

on e e e e , ,

spr a y drops froth an d o th r m odifica tio n s of it di ff r fro m a ch o th r "

—B , , , e e e e .

r a }z m a S u tr a , ii . 1, 5 .

Like th e s un s eem i n gly m ult iplie d by reflectio n t ho ugh rea lly

si n gle an d like sp ace a pp arently s u bdiv ided i n co n t a i n i n g vess els but
r ea lly w itho ut disti n ctio n t h e S UP R EM E L I GH T is Wi t ho ut di fferen c e
,

—B r a }z m a S u tr a iii 2
,

a n d w itho u t disti n c t io n . , . .

H av i n g enjoye d th e reco m p en se an d s uf fered t h e p a i n s of good an d

b a d a ct io n s th e possessor of di v i n e kn o wledge o n th e d em is e of
proceeds to a reun io n with B R A H MA —B r alz ma S u tr a
, ,

t h e body , .
,

I v. 1 , 14.

This is the cardinal pri n ciple of H induism dimly fore

shadowed in the R ig V eda forcibly illustrated i n the ,

Upanishads mai n tained b y reaso n a n d argu me n t i n V edan ta

,

philosophy a n d believed by millio n s of orthodox a n d pious

,

Hi n dus to the present day .

 CHAPT E R IV

Ris e of B u ddh is m , 5 22 R C.

Ca u s es of th e Ris e of B u d dh is m .
—
All the n on
Ar yan races and nations of India assum ed t h e man tle of the
Arya n religion and civilisatio n i n this age a n d formed a ,

confederatio n of Hi n du states and kingdoms from M agadh a

to the extre m e south of India But n evertheless the Arya n s
.

with the pride of a superior race had created a n i mpassabl e

gulf betw ee n the m selv e s and the m illions of the Hinduis ed
n o n Aryans who surrounded them o n every side who
-
, ,

fou n ded ki n gdo m s and states and who clai m ed the pri
,

vile es of Ar ya n s after they had assum ed t h e Ar ya n r eligio n

g
an d civilisatio n . The s m all Ar ya n co m m un ities gu ard ed
th eir a n cie n t priv ileges by c odes of Arya n law which be ,

ca m e more and more ob n oxious to the p eopl e at large w h o ,

were now Aryans in every way exc ept in desce n t The .

anomaly requir ed a solution the gulf requir ed to be bridged

,

over The times called for a religious revolution w hich

.

wo uld e ff ace distinction s an d weld t oget h ei all Hindus into

one co m mun ity instead of two Buddhism suppli ed this
.

solution A n d though this n ew m oveme n t did n ot e ffect ually

.

sweep away cast e it brought tog ether Hindus of all cast es

,

w ithi n the char m ed c ircle of Hindu laws and Hi n du rites ,

within the pale of Hinduism as it is n ow un ders too d This f

is the great social a n d political result which Buddhism has

e ff ected i n I n dia and the r esult re m ains though Buddhis m
, ,

as a religio n has disappeared from I n dia .

The philosophical speculation s w hich were c urrent in this

age helped and haste n ed the religious r evolutio n I n a n age .

when philosophers were p er m itt ed to promulgate heterodox

O pi n ions and doctri n es of every shade it beca me easier for a,

R efor m er to broade n a n d purify a n a n cie n t religion I n an .

36
 R IS E OF B U D D H IS M 37

age when the mi n ds of thoughtful men w ere accustom ed to

weigh and co mpare conflicting Opinio n s of co n flicting schools ,

t h e teachings of a n ew R eformer rec e ived attention and ear n e st

co n sideration .

’
L astly the R eformer s saintly character his broad sym
, ,

pathy and world embracing love his beautiful maxims of

-

charity forgiv en ess and love and his ear n est advocacy of moral
, ,

culture and moral elevatio n as a substitut e for the elaborat e

cere monials and po m pous rites of old supplied the third and ,

n ot the least e ffi cacious r eason for the succ ess o f the reforma
tio n Thousands of thoughtful men turned f ro m d ead un
.
,

meaning cere monials to the man who preach ed moral c ultur e

i n maxims and parables of unprecedented beauty and m illions
of the poor a n d the lowly the no n Arya n a n d the ignorant
,
-

flocked roun d t h e n ew R eformer whose doctrines w ere large ,

a n d catholic and a ff orded relief and sh elter to all

L if e o f Ga u tam a th e B u d dh a —That R eformer was
.
,

Gautama th e Buddha He was born at K ap ilavastu o n t h e

.
,

fronti ers of N epal about 5 5 7 B C and was the o n ly so n of

, . .
,

the chief or king of the Sakya clan At t h e age of eightee n .

he was m arried to Y as odh ara daughter of the chief of th e,

Koli cla n and ten y ears after his marriage his wife bore him
a son who was named R ah ula But Gautama s m ind was
, .
’

stirred by the y ear n ings of a refor mer a n d his domestic ,

’
bliss and his father s kingdom gave h im no satisfaction .

A n d soo n after the birth of his child he l eft his wife and
’
i n fa n t one night i n se cret and l eft his fath er s r ealms as a
,

wa n derer over the earth in quest of truth for the salvatio n of

manki n d .

Gautama w en t to R ajagriha the capital of the M agadh a

ki n gdom attached himself to some l ear n ed Brahma n s and
, ,

learned all that Hi n du philosophers h ad to teach The .

lear n ing did n ot satisfy his i n ward longings and he tur n ed an

a n chorite and for six years perfor med the most severe pen
,

an ces . T h e penances were e qually fruitless and brought h im

no consolation ; and when he gave the m up his discipl es ,

abandoned him and he was left alone and friendl ess

,
.
38 THE C IV I LIS AT I ON OF I N D IA

Alo n e i n the world Gautama wander ed o n the ba n ks of

,

the N iran jara R iver received his m or n ing meal from the
,
’
hands of a villag er s daughter and sat dow n u n der the Bodhi,

tree in conte mplatio n M any are the legends told i n B ud

.
,
’
dh ist works of Gauta m a s co n te m platio n on this eventful day
, ,

of his te mptatio n by the Evil Spirit and of the perturbatio n s ,

of N ature which i n dicated a great e ve n t for the good of

m a n kind . It was i n course of this solitary a n d peaceful co n
t em latio n that Gautama found the truth which n either lear n
p
i n g n or penances had taught him A n d the truth which he .

discovered a n d preached to huma n ity was that the salvatio n

of ma n lay— n ot In sacrifi ces a n d ceremonials nor in pe n a n ces ,

— but I n moral c ulture and a holy life i n charity forgive n ess , , ,

a n d love .

This was i n 5 2 2 B C a n d for forty fi ve years i e until

. .
,
-

, . .

his death i n 4 7 7 B C the B uddha or the Awake n ed

. .
, ,

proclaimed th e truth and preached the reform wherever he

we n t . A n d he s en t disciples too i n every directio n a n d ,

told them Go ye n ow 0 B h ikkh us and wa n der for the

, , , ,

gai n of the ma n y for the welfare of the ma n y out of com

, ,

passion for the world for the good for the gai n for the
, , ,

welfare of gods a n d me n L et not two of you go the same

.

wa
Gautama first preached his reform in Be n ares the holy ,

city of the Hindus from a n cie n t times a n d had a number of ,

followers The n ce he repaired to R ajagriha the capital of

.
,

Magadh a where he was welcomed by the ki n g Bimbisara ;

,

a n d it is said the quee n of the M agadh as eve n tually e m brac ed

his tenets He paid a visit to his native town and whe n he
.
,

e stablish ed a religious O rder his wife Yasodh ara became a,

n u n a n d his so n R ahula a m onk

,
He travelled to K osambi .

a n d various other places i n N orthern I n dia ; a n d it is a n

evide n ce of the religious toleration which prevailed i n
a n cie n t I n dia that Gautama was honoured a n d liste n ed to
wherever he we n t a n d preached .

Bimbisara was succeeded o n the throne of M agadh a by

the powerful Ajatasatru The n ew ki n g built the tow n of
.
 R IS E OF B U D D H IS M 39

P at alip utra or Pat n a to keep o ff the V ajjian clans a race of ,

Tura n ia n i n vaders who had penetrated into N orth ern India ,

a n d occupi ed the cou n try to the north of the Ga n ges I .

”
will root out these V ajjian s said Ajatasatru , mighty and ,
”
powerful though they be and he Co n sulted the ho n oured
,

Gautama as to the issue of the co n flict Gautama was n o .

respecter of kings and repli ed that so long as the V ajjian s

,

remained united and true to their a n cient customs “ we ,

”
expect the m not to decli n e but to prosper , .

Gauta m a then we n t southwards to N alanda the site of ,

a famous Buddhist mo n astery and university in subseque n t

times He then recrossed t h e Ganges a n d repaired to
.
,

V aisali the capital of the powerful L ich ch avis of the n orth .

Here he received the hospitality of A mbap ali a woma n that ,

was a sin n er a n d she presented a mansio n and property to

,

the Buddhist O rd er After some farther wanderi n gs he

.

repaired to K us in agara where he died i n 4 7 7 B C

, . .

A beautiful legend is told of the death of this holy man ,

which is i n k eeping with his holy li fe It is said that at the .

approach of his death trees put forth blossoms out of seaso n ,

and N ature paid honours to the departing M aster But tr ue .

to his teachings Gautama disclaimed such divine honours

, ,

and declared that only by the holy life of his brothers a n d

sisters on earth was he ho n oured .

Th u s i n m an y l an ds th y wan d r d e e e ,

Buddh a an d his fa ithful fri n d e ,

I a chi n g tr th to m an y nat io n s
‘

e u
Till his lif a ppro a ch d i t s d
e e en .

A n d th y s ay a lo n g th p a thwa y
e , e
As th e s a i ntly M ast r w nt e e ,

Fruit tr s blosso m d out of s a so n

-
ee e e ,

A n d a lov ly fr a gr an c l n t
e e e .

A n d th at flo w rs an d s an d al po wd r
e e
G ntly f ll o n h im fro m high
e e ,

A n d th t s t r a i n s of h v n ly m usic
a ea e
G n tly so un d d fro m th sky !
e e e

But th e s a i ntly M aster whisper ed

To his fri en d beloved an d blest ,

Tis n o t th us 0 frien d A nan da

, ,

Th at th e B uddh a s ho n o ur ed best '

.
40 TH E C IV IL I S AT I ON OF IN D IA

N ot by flo wers or s an d a l powd er ,

N o t by m usic s h e aven ly s tr a i n
'

15 t h e so u l s t rue worship ren d er ed

'

U s el ess are th es e t hi ngs an d va i n .

But t h e broth er an d th e sis ter ,

M an d evo ut an d wo m an holy ,

P ur e i n life i n duty fa ithful

, ,

Th ey perfor m t h e worship truly

—Ma l ap a r im bba
. z
'

n a S u tta .

B u d dh is t S crip t u r es — A volumi n ous mass of Bud

dhist sacr ed literature has been collected from all the Buddhist
countries i n the world a n d this literature divides itself into
,

two disti n ct schools South ern Buddhism is the Buddhism

.

of Ceylo n and Burma and S iam while N orther n Buddhism ,

is the Buddhism of Thibet a n d China a n d Japa n It would .

be usefu l to remember that Buddhism was i n troduced i n

C eylon about B C in Burma about A D 4 5 0 and i n
. .
, _ . .
,

S iam in A D 6 3 8 I n the n orth Chi n a accepted Buddhism

. . .
,

in the fourth century Japan in the sixth ce n tury and Thibet

, ,

i n the seve n th ce n tury after Christ .

O f all the cou n tries which are Buddhist at the present day ,

Ceylo n was therefore the first to accept that r eligion A .

little over two hundred years afte r the death of the Buddha ,

his t eachi n gs were co n vey ed to Ceylo n by word of m outh .

A n d in 8 8 B C these teachings k n ow n in their collected form

. .
,

as the Three Baskets were r educed into writi n g i n the shape

,

i n which we have them now It is believed ther efore that

.
, ,

these Three Baskets faithfully represent the teachings of the

Buddha in the m ai n outline though considerable additions
,

must have bee n made i n d etails within the four centuries from
the death of the Buddha to the date when the Buddhist Scrip
ture s were reduced i n to writing i n Ceylo n O f the Three .

Bask ets or collectio n s of works the first professes to n arrate

, ,

the actual doings a n d sayings of the Buddha the se cond ,

is a compilatio n of mo n astic rules a n d the third co mprise s ,

Buddhist philosophy and speculation It is likely that the .

additio n s made during the four ce n turies after the d eath of the
Buddha were mostly i n the seco n d a n d third Baskets The .

rules of monastic life settled by Gautama hi m self i n his life

,
 R IS E OF B U D D H IS M 41

time n o doubt grew in di men sio n s fro m age to age after his
,

death An d philosophical speculations about the soul and

.

future life which Gautam a considered as more or less p rofitles s

, ,

wer e vastly elaborated by the Buddhist school m en who suc

ceeded h im and to who m such speculations were cong e nial
, .

M aking ev ery allowanc e for this we mayacc ept the Ceylon ese ,

Thre e Baskets— the first writte n record of Buddhist faith and

doctrines— as a ge n erally faithful account of the teachi n gs of
Buddha
B u dd h is t D o c trin es —D octrines a n d beliefs were of
.

’
secondary i mportance in the Buddha s system It is likely .

that in insisting on m oral culture and a holy life as the aim

,

and obj ect of his reform he left the a n ci e nt doctri n es a n d

,

beli efs of Hinduism untouched Brahm a and Indra and the .

oth e r gods of anci ent Hi n duism find frequ ent mentio n i n the
Buddhist Scriptures as ben efi cen t beings who are themselves
striving for m oral culture and perfect holin ess The elaborate .

and wearisom e discussions i n the Buddhist Scriptures about

the non existenc e of t h e soul seem to be the result of cen
-

t uries of lat er sp ec ulation Gautama appears to have taci tly

.

accepted the faiths and beliefs of his fathers a n d exerted him ,

self as a refor me r only to build up a n elaborate system o f

m oral rules for all m en i n place of those unmeaning cer e
,

monials into which the religio n of his fathers had deg en e rated .

F o u r Tr u th s a n d th e Eigh tf old P a th — W e shall

thus find that the m ain doctrines of Buddhism are old Hi ndu
doctri n es adapted to a n ew system— old wine put i n new bottl e s
—as they have been d escribed Th e Buddhist doctri n e of the
.

F our tr uth is that L ife is su ffering that D esire leads to ,

re births that Ce ssation of d e sire l eads to d eliverance fro m

-

, ,

re births and su ff ering

-
And the doctrine of the E igbff o/( l
.

a t/J lays down that this for m al d eliverance may be obtain e d

p
by right beli ef a n d aspirations right sp eech and co n duct by
, ,

si n less liv elihood and ex ertion by watchfuln ess and m editation

, .

I t is the old Hindu idea of fi n al salvatio n achi e v ed by perfect ,

knowledge and righteous n ess which we have fou n d i n the,

Upanishads .
42 THE C I V I LI S AT I O N OF I N DIA

Th e D o c trin e of K a ri n a — It
is by such self culture -

that perfect holin ess may be attai n ed if n ot i n this life the n , ,

after a successio n of re births Gods a n d m en a n d all livi n g

-
.

creature s are striving for that holin ess which is higher tha n all ,

a n d are passi n g through a succession of t e births to at tain it -

.

The doctri n e of K ar ma is that e very Kar m a or doin g i n ,

this life leads to its legiti m ate re sult in an a fter life a n d the
,

relatio n of one life to the n e xt is that of the flame of a lamp

to the flam e of a n oth er lighted by it A n d if the i nn oc en t .

ma n suff ers i n this world he argue s “ it is the result of my

, ,
”
doi n g in a past life why should I complai n ? This also
,

is the old doctrin e of th e Upanishads which the Buddha n ow

plac ed before th e million Arya n a n d n o n Aryan , The -
.

fi ne disti n ctio n drawn betwee n the old H in du d octri n e of

Tra n s m igratio n of Souls a n d the Buddh ist doctri n e of Karma
( admitti n g re births but de n yi n g souls
-

) is on e of those abstrus e

sp eculations which we would rather attribute to g eneration s

of later Buddhist school m e n tha n to the Buddha hi m self .

Th e D o c trin e o f N ir va n a — A n d when the fetters .

which li n k us to life a n d to re birth are at last broke n by pro

-

lo n ged self culture on e attai n s that p erfect holiness which

-

Buddhists call N irv an a That state is best described i n the

.

la n guage of Buddh ist S criptur es

Th er e is n o s u fferi n g for h im wh o h as fi n ish ed h is j o ur n ey an d
“

a ban doned gri ef wh o h as freed hi m self o n all sid es an d th rown o ff a ll

,

fetters .

Th e y d ep a r t wi t h t h eir thoughts well coll ecte d t h e y are n o t h a ppy .

withi n a bo d e ; l ik e swans wh o ha ve l e ft th e ir l ak e th ey l eave t h eir hou se

,

an d hom e .
9 0 an d

The fr e sh n ess a n d beauty with which such passages are

i n sti n ct reproduc e the beauty and freshness of the Upan ishads
i n their descriptio n of the F inal Eman cipatio n But the .

Buddha i n preachi n g this to the millio n boldly assert ed t hat

, ,

this fi n al goal of all livi n g bei n gs could be reached o nly by

moral culture a n d a holy life and by n o other mea n s ; a n d
that this final bliss could be obtai n ed by men h ere below
'

as well as by god s an d an gels i n celestial regio n s N irva n a .

,
 R IS E OF B U D D H IS M 43

or perfect bliss attainable by righteous n ess is placed by ,

Gauta m a abov e all me n and all gods ; it is the fi n al e n d

which gods and me n are strivi n g through repeated re births -

to atta i n .

F o r the rest Gautama swept aside almost co n temptuously

,

the elaborate V edic rites and sacrifices which had grown

i n to cumbrous forms atte n ded with the slaughter of a n i m als .

He swept aside with equal contempt those austere a n d cruel

pe n a n ces which were co n sidered meritorious which were ,

undertake n through va n ity or delusio n a n d which were ,

fruitless or mischievous The caste system had taken fi rm .

-

root in the I n dian society a n d Gauta m a tolerated it i n th e ,

laity ; but i n t h e Holy O rder of mo n ks a n d n u n s which he ,

founded n o disti n ctio n of castes was recogn ised ; all were

,

equal whe n they had e mb raced a holy life

Th e D o c trin e o f F in a l Em a n cip a tio n —
.

There has .

bee n a great deal of speculatio n and co n troversy on t h e doc

tri n e of the F i n al D eliverance M uch of this speculatio n is th e .

creation of the later Buddhist school men for the Buddha him ,

self seems n ever to have wasted much ti m e i n discussi n g t h e

u n know n A curious co n versation which is said to have taken
.
,

place o n a c ertai n occasion betwee n the king of the K o s alas

an d the quee n of t h e M agadh as explai n s to us how t h e ,

Buddha was co n tent to leave alon e unk n owabl e truths i n his

pursuit of the great m oral reform he had u n dertake n
V n r abl e l a dy
e e a sk d th ki ng do s th p rf ct
, e xis t a ft
e , e e e e on e e e

d ath
e
Th e e x alt d Buddh a 0 gr a t ki n g r pli d th q u n h a n o t
e , e , e e e ee , s
d cla r d t h at t h p rf ct
e e ,
e exis t s a ft r d a th
e e on e e e .

Th n do s th p rf ct
e e n ot xist a ft r d a th ve r abl l a dy ?
e e e on e e e e , ne e
i q uir d t h ki n g
n e e .

This lso 0 gr at ki n g r pli d th q u n th x alt d B uddh a

,
a ,
e ,
e e e ee , e e e
h a s n o t d cl ar d th at th e p rf ct
e e ,
do s n o t xist a ft r d ath
e e on e e e e e .
"

M o ra l P recep ts The special boast and glory o f

.
-

Buddhism therefore is n ot i n its doctrin es and articles of

faith but i n its moral precepts which plac e this religio n on
,

a high er l ev el tha n all other religions of the ancie n t world .

The annals of the ancien t nations of the earth do not disclose

44 TH E C IV IL I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

anythi n g so lofty i n its teachi n gs so pure in its spirit so rich

, ,

in its lessons of charity forgive n ess a n d love as th e religio n

, , ,

of Gautama .

Th e F i ve Co m m a n d m en ts a n d th e Ten Co m
m an d m en ts The Te n Comm andme n ts of Buddhism are
.
-

binding o n the m embers of the Holy O rder , while o n ly fi ve

of them are binding o n all Buddhists lay me n as well as ,

monks They are th es e

.

Let n ot on ekill an y li vi n g b ei n g .

Let n ot o n e tak e wh at is n ot given to h im .

Le t n ot o n e s p e a k fa ls ely .

Let n ot o n e dri n k i n toxic a t i n g dri n ks .

n o t o n e be un ch a st e
"
Let
—D lz a m m i€a
.

, S u tta . 25 .

D u ties L if e — A fuller a n d cl earer expositio n of

of .

human duties is giv en i n a n excellent treatise which is com

m on both to the N orth e rn and to the Southern Buddhists .

Th e relations betwee n par ents and children pupils a n d ,

teach ers between husba n d and wife friends and friends

, , ,

betwee n master and servant and m onks a n d laym en are set , ,

forth i n a series of sixty maxi m s which give us gli mpses into ,

a pure ideal Hindu life with its pleasa n t domestic relations

,

and its religious faith a n d fervour The purport of these .

maxi m s is co n de n sed below .

P ar ents tr a i n u p children i n v irt ue an d i n a rt s an d childre n ho n o ur ,

t h eir par ents an d su pport th em i n old age Pu pils obey a n d m i n ister .

t o t h e wan t s of t he ir t ea chers an d t e a ch ers i n st ru c t t h eir p u pils i n

,

good n ess an d i n k n o wledge Th e h usb an d is ki n d an d fa i thful to his

.

wife an d ho n ours h er an d c aus es h er to be ho n o u red by oth ers an d t h e

, ,

w ife is a fr u g al an d dilig ent ho u s ek ee per a ki n d host ess an d a ch a ste , ,

a n d d ev ot ed spo us e Fri en ds sh are th eir blessi n gs i n prosperit y an d

.
,

are fa ithfu l i n d an ger an d a d versity T h e m a st er is ki n d an d th e

.
,

s er vant is diligen t an d co n t e nt Th e l ay m an is a ffectio n at e an d r espe ct

.

ful to t h e r el igio us m an i n word an d i n d eed an d t h e r eligiou s m an ,

dissua des t h e l a y m an fro m v ic e ex orts h im t o v irtue an d h elps h im

by poi n t i n g th e wayt o he ave n —( S zgalova da S u tta )
, ,
" ’

. .

P a ra ble of L o ve f o r H a tred — Higher

R e tu rn in g
tha n these excell ent rules of life are those subli me teach
i n gs of Gautama co n tained in e n dless birth stori es tales a n d -

, ,
 R IS E OF B U D D H IS M 45

parables by which he impressed o n his followe rs the supreme

,

duty of returning good for evil and forgiv en ess for injuries , .

These parables are so instinct with a spirit of tru e pi ety and

love that they raise t he great teach er of Buddhism and his
r eligio n to a level higher than that of any other creed of th e
ancient world The story of one of these parables is co n
.

den sed below .

A ki n g of t h e K os alas an d his q ueen were robbed of th eir ki ngdo m

an d cruel ly sl a i n by B rah m ad at ta ki n g of t h e K a sis At th e t i m e of , .

his deat h t h e co n dem ne d ki n g looke d at his so n an d g ave his las t ,

i nj un ctio n : N ot by h at re d m y dear D igh avu is h atr ed a pp eas ed, .

By lo ve m y d ear D igh avu is h atred a pp eas ed

, , .

A n d t h e orph an pr i n ce wept an d wan der ed i n th e for est an d th en ,

too k em ploy m en t a s a m en i a l i n th e roya l s tables of B rah m adatta .

A n d o n e d ay h e s an g a so n g an d pl ayed o n t h e lute A n d th e ki n g .

he ard h im an d was so pleased with h im t h at h e en g a ged t h e boy a s his

a tten d an t n ot k n owi n g wh o h e was
, .

A n d i t so h a ppened th at o n o n e occ asio n t h e ki n g wen t o ut to h un t ,

ta ki ng D igh avu with h im A n d th e ki n g los t his way an d fel t tired

.
,

a n d l a y do wn H e l a id his h ead o n t h e l a p of D igh avu an d fel l

.

a sl eep.

“
A n d D igh avu t hough t wi thi n hi ms elf This ki n g B rah m ad at ta of
K asi h as do n e m uch h a r m to us By h im we h ave been robb ed of o ur .

troops a n d vehicl es o ur r ea l m o u r tr ea s u ri es an d stor ehou s e s

, , An d .

h e h as ki l l d m y fat h er an d m oth er
e N o w th e t i me h a s co m e to m e t o
.

s atisfy my h a tred .

A n d Digh avu un sh ea th ed his s word but th e dyi n g i nj un ctio n of his

fa th er c am e to his m i n d N ot by h atred m y dear D igh avu is h atred , ,

a ppeased By love m y dear D igh avu is h a tred a pp eased A n d t h e

. , , .

pri n ce p ut u p his s word .

A n d t h e ki n g dr e a m t a frightfu l dr eam ; an d wh en h e awoke D ig

h avu t old h im t h e whole tru th forg ave h im th e m urd er of his p a ren ts, ,

an d gave h im his l ife A n d th e ki n g th en ren dered back to D igh avu

.

his fa ther s ki n gdo m an d gave h im his d augh ter to wed

'

, .

N o w 0 m o n k s co n cl ud e d th e B u ddh a if s uch is th e forbear an ce

"
, , ,

an d m ild ness of ki n gs wh o wi eld t h e sceptre an d be ar t h e sword so ,

m u ch m ore 0 m o n ks m u st yo u so let your ligh t shi n e b e fore t h e world

, , ,

t h at yo u h av i n g e m br a c ed t h e r e ligio u s life a ccordi n g to so well t augh t

,

a doctri n e a n d a disci p l i n e are s een t o be forbeari n g an d m ild

, .

( M a /ca vagga x , .

Th e D h a m m ap a da .
— The same lesso n of returning
love for hatr ed of forgive n ess for injuries a n d of doi n g good
,

unto all creatur es is repeatedly i m pr essed i n the D hammap ada

, ,

a string of 4 2 3 M oral M axi m s unsurpassed i n t h e world for

46 THE C I V I L I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

their beauty a n d worth . O ur space permits us to quote only

a few as examples
5 atr d do s n o t ceas e by h at r d at an y ti m h atr d c a s s by
. H e e e e e e e
lo ve t his is i ts natu r e .

5 Lik a be aut iful flow r fu ll of colo ur b ut witho ut sc nt a

1 . e e , , e re

t h f i n e an d fr itl ess words of h im wh o do s n o t a c t a ccordi n gly

e u e .

“
1 9 All m t r mbl at p un ish m n t a ll m f ar dea th R e
2 . en e e e , en e .

m m ber th at yo u ar e lik e unt o t h m an d do n ot kill n or cau se

e e , ,

sl aught r e .

3 1 All m tr m bl at p un ish m n t a ll m love lif R m m ber

0 . en e e e , en e . e e
th at you a lik unt o th m an d do n ot kill n or c aus slaught r
re e e , , e e .

8 3 N ot to co m m i t si n t o do good t p urify o n s m i n d this is ’

1 .
, , o e ,

t h t a chi n g of t h proph ts
e e e e .

9 7 Let u s li v h a ppily n o t h a ti n g thos wh h ate u s

1 . e A mo ng , e o .

m en wh h ate u s l t us li ve fr
o fro m h a tr d e ee e .

“
3 L t
22 . ov rco m an g r by lov l t h im ov rco me ev il by
e on e e e e e, e e
good L t h im ov rco m th gr dy by lib r a l i ty th li a r by t ruth
. e e e e ee e , e .

“
3 2 T h faul t of oth ers is asily p rc i v d b ut th a t of o n s l f is
2 . e e e e e , e e
di ffi cu lt t p rc i v ; a m a wi nn ows his n ighbo ur s fau lts lik ch a ff
o e e e n e
’

e ,

but his wn fault h hid es a a ch a t hid s t h b a d d i fro m t h

o e , s e e e e e
g am bl r e .
"

60 A m a is n ot an E ld r be caus his h a d is gr y
“
2 . n H is age e e e e .

m ay be rip b u t h is c a ll d old i n va i n
"
e, e e .

“
6 2 H i n who m t h er is t ruth lo ve r es tr a i n t m oder a tio n h e
1 . e e , , , ,

wh is fr o fro m i m p u i ty an d wis h is c a ll d an E ld r
ee r e, e e e .

3 9 3 A m a do s n o t be co m a Br a h m an by his pl at t d h ir by
. n e e e a ,

his fa m ily or by birth I n who m th r is t ru th an d right ous n ss h e is

. e e e e ,

bl ss d h is a Br a h m an
e e , e .

3 9 4 W h at is t h
. se of pl a tt d h a ir 0 fool wh at of th
e u r ai m nt of e , , e e
go atski n s ? W ithi n th e t h r e is r av n i n g but t h e o utsid tho u mak st
cl an —D l mm p a
e e e ,
e e
" ’
e . za a a a.

B t M on as tic S ys tem — I t is a m istak e to

u d d h is .

suppose that Gautama recommended all me n to resign th eir

property a n d occupations in the world a n d t ur n mo n ks O n .

the contrary he had the sa me respect for the laity as the

,

a n cie n t Arya n law codes had for students and householders -

,

i e me n in the first a n d seco n d stage s of the ideal Hind u

. .

life A n d he laid dow n special rul e s for th e gu ida n ce a n d

.

enlightenme n t of his lay disciples O n the other hand his -

.
,

Holy O rder correspo n ds with the third a n d fourth stages of

the ideal Hindu life r e cognised in the old Arya n codes It is .

for the men who embrac ed the Holy O rder that the Buddha
recomme n d ed resig n atio n of the world a n d a com munal life ,
 R IS E OF B U D D H IS M 47

and the Holy O rder esta blished by him was the first m onastic
system of which we have a n y k nowledge .

Gauta m a lived for forty fi ve years a fter he fi rst proclaimed

-

his religio n and there ca n be little doubt that h e had ample

,

ti me to elaborate r ules for regulating the conduct and lives of

his mo n ks and n u n s It is equally c ertai n that a great deal
.

was added to these rules d uring the centuries after his death ,

a n d before th e r ul es were record ed .

Buddhist m onasteri es multiplied all over India for a thousa n d

y ears from the ti m e of the Buddha a n d during the ce n turies
,

immediately before a n d after the Christia n era these mo n as

t eries were th e seats of lear n ing and the ce n tr e s of national
education . The monks formed a hierarchy of pri e sts l eading ,

a life of celibacy and performing rites and religious s ervic e s

,

strictly r egulated by rul es The y gave instructio n to th e

.

youth of t h e country and th ey spread the m selv es all ov er th e

,

land to m inister to the r eligious n eeds of t h e laity Chi n ese .

pilgrims and trav ellers who came to I n dia after the Christian
e ra visited th e se m o n asteries made copies of m anuscripts and
,

religious works preserved there and speak i n the high est terms
,

of the c ulture a n d lear n i n g of the times A n d now that Bud .

dh is m has disappeared from India the rui n s of Buddhist ,

Church e s and monast eries dating fro m the third or fourth

ce n tury B C to A D 5 0 0 are th e earliest existing specime n s of
. . . .

I ndia n archit ectur e .

I t has b ee n stated b efore that while the Buddhist laity still

adh er ed to their caste divisio n s no such distinction was re
,

cognised within the Holy O rder All men and wome n to .

whatever caste th ey belonged could beco me m onks a n d n un s ,

and thenc eforth th ey were equal to high born monks and -

n uns. A touchi n g record is k ept in one of t h e Buddhist

S criptures of the m an n er in which a poor swe ep er enter ed
the Holy O rder and rose to be one of the Elders of the
,

Buddhist Church .

I h ave co me s ays Sun it a th e Elder of a h u m ble fa m ily I was

poor an d n ee dy l h e work I p erfo rm ed was l o wly —
, ,

.
' '

s weepi n g t h e ,

with ered flo wers . I was d espis ed of m en look ed do wn u po n an d, ,

D
48 TH E C IV I LI S AT I O N OF I N D IA

ligh t ly esteeme d W ith s ubm issi ve m ien I sho wed respect t o m an y

. .

Th en I beh eld B uddh a wit h his b an d of m o n ks a s h e p asse d th e gr eat ,

h e ro unt o t h e m ost i m por t an t t o wn of M agadh a Th en I c ast a way

, .

m y b urd en an d r an t o bo w m ys elf i n reveren c e be fore h im

, Fro m pi ty .

for m e h e h alt ed th a t high est am o n g m e n Th en I bo we d m yself at

, .

th e M a ster s feet s tepp e d u p t o h im an d begged h im t h e high es t

'

, , ,

a m o n g a ll bei n gs to a ccept m e as a m o n k Th en s a id unto m e t h e

, .

gr a ciou s M a st e r C o me hith er O mo n k Th at was th e i n iti atio n I

‘ ’

rec ei ved —T/zem gatlza

.
, ,

. .

It was this catholicity of the Buddhist religion a n d th e ,

surpassing beauty of its m oral precepts that secured the spread ,

of the n ew faith in India and a m on g nations living far beyo n d

,

the limits of I n dia A n d ther e can be no doubt that the

.

m o n astic system — which kept the Buddhist monks tog ether

as brethre n a n d co n federates in the work of spreading their
faith a n d as littl e coteries of teachers a n d lear n ed men in
,

strang e lands a n d am idst stra n g e n ations — spread the religion

over the eastern world and sa ved it in quiet cloisters a n d
,

shady groves whe n n atio n s were fighting with nations a n d

, ,

dy n asties and empires were hurled to rui n A n d at the

prese n t day whe n twe n ty —
.

, four ce n turies have passed from the

death of the Buddha t h e religio n of charity forgiv en ess
, , ,

a n d love which he foun d ed embraces a third of the hum an

race .
 CHAPT E R V

B u d d h is t Age , 3 15 B . C. TO A O .
.
5 oo
Th e B u d d h is t Age .
—
The death of Alexand er the
G reat marks t h e co mm ence m ent of a n ew epoch in the
history of the world and a n ew epoch i n th e history of
,

India . The great political e v e nt of this age was that the

whole of N orther n I n dia was f o r the first ti me united a n d
co n solidated i n to o n e great e m pir e by t h e g enius of Cha n
d ragup ta. The great religious event of this age was that
t he religion found ed by Gauta m a which had for two c enturi e s
,

bee n making slow progress among the humble a n d th e lowly ,

was embraced by Ch an dragup ta s grandso n a n d becam e so

’

, ,

to speak the state r eligion of India

Ch a n d ragup ta —
.
,

Chandragupta had met Al e xa n d e r the

.

Gr eat in th e Punjab ; and it is possible that Alexander s great ’

conquests fill ed his mind with similar sch emes of ambition .

It is certai n that after the retreat o f Al exander Cha n dragupta ,

wrested the thro n e of M agadh a from an e ff ete dy n asty co n ,

quered the whole of N orthern India dro ve out th e Gree ks ,

from the Punjab and thus formed the whole of N orther n

,

I n dia into one united e mpire Sel eucus conclud ed a t reaty

.
,

of p eace with t h e I n dian Emp eror and gave his daughter ,

i n m arriag e with him A Greek a mbassador M egas th en es

.
, ,

lived in th e court of Chandragupta at P atalip utra ( Patna ) for

a n umber of years and his acco un ts compiled from extracts ,

found i n the works of later R oma n writers throw consider ,

abl e light o u the co n dition of India i n this age .

Megasth en es de scribe s P atalip utra as a flourishing tow n i n

t h e shape of a parall elogra m nin e mil e s long and two miles
,

w ide girded by a woode n wall pierced with loophol e s for

,

t h e discharge of arrows a n d defe n ded by a moat

, The .

e mp e ror had a standing army of foot ,

49
50 TH E C I V I L I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

horse an d 9 0 0 0 el ephants “ wh ence m ay be for med some

, ,
”
co n j ectu re as to the vastn ess of his r esourc e s .

M ega s th en es on A d m in is tra tion — It is s eldom .

t hat we have the testi m o n y of an i m partial e e witn e ss i n

y
-

regard to a n ci en t Hi n du life m anners and ad ministratio n ; , ,

and the accou n t left to us by M egas th en es of I ndia i n the ,

four th century before Christ is th er efore of exceptional value ,

a n d i n terest to the historian O f the admi n istration of Patali .

putra the capital of the empire Megas th en es speaks at so me

, ,

length
“
Those wh have ch a g of t h city are di vid d i nt o six bodi es of
o r e e e
five e a ch Th e m em bers of t h first lo k a ft r everythi n g r l ati n g t
. e o e e o
th ei n dustri al arts Thos of t h s co n d at t n d t o t h nt rt a i n m nt
. e e e e e e e e
of for ign rse Th t hird body co n sis ts of thos wh i n q u ir whe n
e . e e o e
an d h w births a d d aths occu with t h e vi w n ot o n ly of l vyin g a t a
o n e r, e e x ,

b ut a ls o i n ord r th at births an d d ths am o n g both high an d l w m ay

e ea o

n ot sca p e th cogn isan ce of G ov rn m nt Th fo urt h cl a ss p eri

e e e e . e su n
t n ds tr a de a d co mm rc Its m m bers h av ch arg of w ights an d
e n e e . e e e e
m s ur es an d
ea th at th prod ucts i n th eir sea so n
, s ee sold by p ublic
e are
n otice N . is a llowed t o d a l i n m or th an
0 on e ki n d of co m m o d i t y e e on e
un l ss h e p ays a do ubl t a x Th fifth class su per vis s m anuf a ct ur d
e e . e e e
a rtic l s which th y s l l by p ublic n otic
e , eW h at is w is old
e e. n e s
s p ar a t ly fro m h at is old an d th r is a fi for m ixi n g t h t w
e e u , e e ne e o
t og th r Th ixth an d l ast cl ass con sists of t hos wh coll c t t h
e e . e s e o e e

t nths of th pric s of th ar t icl s sold

e e e e e .
"
1

the capital tow n there were bodi es of o flicers for

O utside
superi n te n di n g agric ulture a n d ge n erally for the admin istratio n ,

of the coun try

So m esu peri n t en d t h e rivers m ea s ure th e la n d as is do n e i n Egypt , , ,

an d i n spect t h e sl uices by which water is let o u t from t h e m a i n c ana ls

i nt o th e ir br an ch es so th at every o n e m ay h ave an eq ua l s u pply of i t
,
.

Th e s am e perso n s h a ve ch arge a lso of t h e h un ts m e n an d are en tr us ted ,

w ith t h e po wer of rewa rdi n g or p un ishin g t h e m a ccordi n g to th eir

dese r ts Th ey collect th e taxes an d s u p er i nten d th e occup atio n s co n
.
,

n ected wit h la n d as thos e of t h e wood cu tt ers

,
t h e c a rpe nters the -
, ,

bla cks m iths an d t h e m i n ers Th ey co n struct ro a ds an d at every ten

, . ,

s tadi a set u p a pill ar t o sho w th e by ro a ds an d dist an ces 2 -

.
"

Of th e peopl e of India M egasth en es gives a very good

accoun t :
1 M acC r in d le
'

s Tr an sl atio n .
2 Ibid .
 B U D D H IS T A GE 51
Th ey li ve h a ppily en ough bei n g si m ple i n t h eir m ann ers an d fru gal
,
.

Th ey n ever dri n k wi n e e xcept at s a crifices Th eir bever a ge is a liq uor .

co m posed from rice i n s te a d of b a rl ey an d t h eir food is pri n cip all y a ,

ric e pott age Th e si m p l icity of th eir l aws an d t h eir co ntr a cts is proved
.

by t h e fact th at th ey s eldom go to law Th ey h ave n o s u its a bou t .

p l edges an d deposits n or do they r eq uire e ith er s e als or wit n ess es bu t

, ,

m a k e th eir d e posits an d co n fid e i n ea ch oth er Tr uth an d v irt ue .

they ho l d al ike i n es teem 1 .

"

A n d lastly in d escribi n g the ge n eral prosperity of the

,

people of India M egas th en es writ es thus

,

Th e gr ea ter p a r t of th e soil m or eove r is un der irrig at io n an d co n

, , ,

s eq uen tly be ars two crops i n t h e course of t h e year I n a dditio n .

to c ereal s th er e gr ows t hr oughout I n di a m uch m illet which is k e pt

, ,

we ll wa t ere d by t h e profu sio n of ri ver stream s an d m uch p ulse of -

d i ffer en t sorts an d ric e a lso an d wh at is c a lle d bosp or u m as well a s

, , ,

m an y o th er pl ant s us e fu l for food of which m ost gr ow Spo ntane o us ly, .

T h e soil yi elds m or e ove r n ot a f ew o t h er e dibl e prod u ct s fi t for t h e

, ,

s u bsist en ce of an i m al s a bo u t which it would be t edio us t o writ e I t is

. .

a ccordi ngly a ffi r m ed th at fa m i ne h a s n ever v isit ed I n di a an d th at th ere ,

h a s never been a gen era l sc arcity i n t h e s upply of n o urishi n g food 2 .

"

Village Co m m u n i ties an d S elf G o vern m en -

t .

This is a pleasing picture of the gen eral prospe rity of an

anci e nt and mainly agricultur al nation under their ow n system
of ad m inistration W ars and dissensions were no doubt fre
.

que nt but th ese wars were waged by professional soldi ers

, ,

and seldom disturbed the industrial or agricultur al population .

The husba n dmen says M egas t h en es are regarded as a

,
“
,

class that is sacr ed a n d inviolabl e the tillers of the soil ev e n ,

when battl e is raging in th eir n eighbourhood are undisturbed ,

”
by a n y sense of danger And the peopl e lived i n peace i n
.

th eir ancient village communities m anaging th eir ow n village ,

concerns enjoying the most complete autono m y i n their

,

village administratio n and payi n g to the ki n g s representativ e

,
’

t h e tax assess ed o n ev ery village Th ese self governing .

-

v illag e co mm uniti e s e xisted

-
in I ndia from the daw n of
history to the close of the eighteenth century after Christ ;
they survived the fate of dy n asties a n d empires ; the y
escaped danger and destructio n when rival chi efs or races
1 M C i dl Tr an sl ation
ac r n 2 Ibid
e s
'
. .
52 TH E C IV ILIS AT I ON OF I N D IA

strove for the imperial pow e r M anu s I n stitute s of which

.
’
,

we shall speak farther on in this chapter speak of 3 lord of ,

e ach v illage lords of te n villages lords of a hundred villages

, , ,

a n d lords of a thousa n d villages and it was the duty of these

lords to levy tax check crime and protect the villag ers
, , .

Beyo n d this the co n trol of the king s represe n tatives did n ot ’

exte n d the n atio n lived in self gover n ing village i n stitutions

-

for thousands of years

A s oka th e G r ea t —Cha n dragupta was succe ed ed by
.

his son B in dus ara about 2 9 0 B C and he was succeeded by

. .
,

his son t h e renowned Asoka in 2 6 0 B C This prince

, , . .

added B engal and O rissa to t h e vast empire which he had

inherited By these conquests Asoka n ot o n ly b rought t h e
.

whole of N orthern I ndia from the I n dus to the Brahma

putra u n d er one rule but he also extended to t h e extreme
,

east the light of Ar ya n civilisation which N orth ern I ndia had

e njoyed for fiftee n centuri es Asoka s conquest of B engal is
.
’

ther efore a n important political fact it brought the populous

a n d fertile a n d unp erfectly civilised provinc e of Be n gal for
the first ti m e withi n the pale of Aryan cultur e .

Asoka the Great did for Buddhis m w hat Constantine the

Great did for C hristianity ; h e e m braced the Buddhist
religion and m ad e it the state religio n of his great empire
, .

F ortunately for us he has lef t us his edicts engraved o n rocks ,

and pillars in various parts of I ndia which giv e us som e in ,

sight i n to his ti mes and his ad m inistration .

A s o ka s R o ck Ed ic ts — The edicts on rocks w ere

’
.

i n scribed i n the thirteenth and fourte enth y ears from Asoka s ’

c oronation The same series of fourteen edicts are foun d

.

on rocks in di ff erent pa rts of India from the I n dus to

O rissa

Th e fi r s t edic t prohibited th e slaught er of an i m a ls th e s econ d pro ,

vid ed m edic a l aid for m en an d anim als ; t h e th ir d enj o in e d a q uin

q u en n ial B u ddhis t c e l ebr at io n ; t h e f ou r th m a de an ann o un ce m en t of

r eligiou s gr a c e ; th e f if th a p p oi n t ed religio u s m i n ist ers an d m ission
ari es t h e s ix th a ppoi n t ed m or a l i n s tru c t ors to r egu la t e t h e so ci a l an d
do m estic l ife of th e p eopl e ; th e s even th proclai med un i vers a l r eli giou s
tolerat io n ; th e eigh th r eco m m en ded pio us past i m es an d enj oy m en ts ;
 B U D D H IS T A GE 53
the n r eco m m en ded th e i m p arti n g of r eligio u s an d m or a l in s truc
in th
tio n ; t h e ten th ex tolled th e true glo ry foun d ed o n spre a di n g t h e t rue
religio n ; th e elet en th d escrib ed t h e i m p ai tin g of r eligio us i n stru ctio n
'

a s th e bes t form of ch a ri ty ; t h e twelf th procl a i m ed t h e ki n g 5 wish to '

co nver t un beli evers by m or a l p ers ua sio n ; t h e th i teen th spok e of t h e r

k i n g s co n q ues t of Ben g al an d of his tr ea ti es with fi ve G r eek ki n gs

'

i n to whos e country h e s ent Bu ddhis t m issio n ari es ; an d th e f ou r teen th

s um m ed u p th e pr ec edi n g e dicts with so m e r em arks abo ut th e en gr avi n g
of t h e edicts .

B u d d h is Wes t — O f all t h e
m P rea ch ed in th e
edicts bri efly indicated in the above summary the thirtee n th ,

edict is the most important from a historical poi n t of view .

That c elebrated edict mak es m ention of five Gre e k ki n gs who

’
were Asoka s contemporaries as w ell as of the n atio n s of ,

Southern India Th e passag e runs thus

.

A m on g h is n eighbo urs A n t ioch us kin g of t h e Yavan as an d , ,

b eyon d A nt iochus four ki n gs P tolem y A n tigo n as M a g a s an d Alex

, , , , ,

an der ; to t h e south am o n g th e C hola s P an d yas a s far a s T a m ba , ,

p ann i an d a lso t h e H en araja V is m avas i ; a m o n g th e G r eeks an d

,

K am bojas t h e N abh akas an d N abh ap an tis t h e Bhoj a s an d th e

, ,

P et en ikas th e A n dhr as an d th e P u lin das ; every wh er e th e y co n for m

,

to t h e religio u s i n str u ctio n s of th e Be loved of t h e G ods ( Asok a ) Th ere .

wh ere th e m ess en g ers of th e B e love d of th e G ods h ave been s en t th er e ,

t h e p eopl e h ea rd of t h e d ut i es of th e r eligio n pr e a ch e d o n th e p a rt of
t h e Be lo ved of t h e G ods an d co n for m an d will co n for m t o th e r eligio n
, , ,

o n all sides .

W e know fro m Greek records that in the third c entury

b efore Christ A n tiochus rul ed in Syria Ptolemy i n Egypt
, , ,

A n tigon as in M acedon M agas in Cyrene a n d Alexa n der in

, ,

Ep iros a n d the edict of Asoka shows that Buddhist mis

s i on aries were se n t an d Buddhism was preached
, i n these ,

wester n lands 1n th e third ce n tury before Christ N or were .

the labours of the Buddhist monks and missio n ers fruitl e ss

in thes e places They continued their labours a n d preached
.

th eir do ctrines and parabl e s from ge n eratio n to ge n eratio n ;

their commun ities bound to a life of celibacy i n creased from
, ,

age to age as outsiders received instruction and join ed their

ranks ; a n d their doctri n es and prec epts were wid ely k n own
i n Palesti n e when J esus Christ was born W hat Pliny says .

of the Esse n es of the first ce n tury after Christ shows us the

54 TH E C IV I L I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

results of Buddhist work duri n g three hu n dred

years i n Syria
On n shor ( of t h D a d S a ) but dista nt
the west er e e e e ,

fro m t h fa n ough t o sca pe its n oxious br s

e s ea r e e eez e ,

dw lt th E ss n s Th y a a h rm it clan
e e e e ma . e re e , on e r
v ll o s beyon d all oth rs i n t h w orld without an y
e n e e ,

wo m n without t h joys of dom stic lif wi t ho ut m o n y

e , e e e, e ,

an d t h a ssoci at s of p al m tr es D a ily is th thron g of

e e -
e . e
thos wh cro wd a bo u t th m r n w d m r s rti n g t o
e o e e e e , en e o

th em i n num bers dri v n throu gh w a ri n ss of xis t n ce. e e e e e ,

an d t h s urg s of ill fort un i n th ir m ann r of lif Th us

e e -
e e e e.
it is th at th ough tho u s an ds of a g s i n cr dibl to r la t
, r e , e e e e
th ir soci ty i n which n o o is bo n l v s o n pe r nn i al
e e ne r 1 e e
—H is t
.
, ,

. N at v. 1 7 .

A s o ka
’
s P illa r E dic ts .
— Asoka s pillar ’

e dicts inscribed about the close of his reig n are

, ,

of less historical i mportan ce The edicts are eight .

in n umber
Th fi te dict d ir ct d his r ligio us m i n is t rs t o work
rs e e e e e
with a l an d pi ty ; th
ze d xpla i n d r li gio n t o be
e e s econ e e e
m rcy ch arity t ru th an d p urity ; t h th i d pr escrib d
e . , ,
e r e
s lf q u stio n i n g a d th avoid an c of si n s ; t h f th
e -
e , n e e e ou r

en t u st d th r ligio us i n structio n of t h p opl to a class

r e e e e e e
of o f fic rs ca ll d R ajj ka an d f a m ed rul s a bo ut priso n s
e e u s , r e er
co n d m n d t o dea th ; th e fif th prohi bit d th killi n g of
e e e e
various an i m als ; th i th procl a i m d good will t th e s x e -
o e
peopl an d hop for th co nv rsio n of all s cts ; t h
e, e e e e e
v
s e en th xpr ss d a hope t h at th dicts an d r ligio us i
e e e e e e n

t
s ru c t io wo u ld l a d m e t o t h e right p at h ; an d t h
ns e n e

igh th r cou t d t h ki n g s works of p u blic u tili t y an d his

'
e e n e e ,

m eas ur es for t h r ligio u a dvan c m n t of th e pe opl

e e s e e e
.

W o r ks o f P u blic Utility Along the .

”
highways says Asoka i n his last pillar edict I
, ,

hav e planted n yagrodh a trees that they may give - -

shade to m en a n d to a n imals ; I have planted out

garde n s with man goes ; I ha ve caus ed wells to be
d ug at every half krosa ; a n d i n n umerous places
I have erected r esti n g houses for the repose of
me n and of a n i m als Ancient Hi n du ki n gs .

rejoiced i n such work s of public utility as we ,

lear n from n umerous inscriptio n s of other ki n gs .

 B U D D H IS T AGE 55

Th e A n d h ra Em p e r o rs —Asoka di ed i n 222 B . C. ,

and the great dynasty founded by his gra n dfather e nded

with th e reigns of som e feeble ki n gs withi n forty years
after Asoka s death Two short lived dyn asties succeeded
’
.
-

a n d th en a powerful A n dhra chief co n quered the ki n g

do m of M agadh a and co m menced a n ew dynasty which ,

ruled from 2 6 B C to about . . T h e po wer of the

Andhra e m perors varied from age to age and at one time ,

th ey were the supreme power in India and extend ed their ,

sway as far as the western seaboard Saurashtra ( Gujrat ) was .

lost i n the first ce n tury afte r C hrist but was r econqu ered ,

i n the seco n d By the fourth century the A n dhras had

.

decli n ed i n po wer and a new dynasty the famo us Guptas

, , ,

became the e m p erors of India .

T e G up
h ta m
E pe ro r s — The Gupta emperors founded
a n era which comme n ces from A D 3 1 9 a n d is said to . .
,

have be en established by Cha n drag upta L the seco n d ruler ,

of this dyn asty He was succeeded by Samudragup ta who

.
,
’
has left us an i n scriptio n on one of Asoka s pillars testifyi n g ,

to his vast power in the fourth c e ntury W e lear n from this .

i n scription that the whol e of N orthern I ndia bore the sway

of Samudragup ta that kings in South er n I ndia owned his
,

supremacy and that the fronti er ki n gdoms of Bengal a n d

,

Assam N epal and M alwa paid him tribute Samudragup ta

, , .

was succ eeded by Cha n dragupta I I early 1n the fifth c entury .

,

but befor e t h e close of that century foreign invaders were at

the gates of the empire and the Guptas declined i n pow er
F o reign I n va s ion s — Th e B a c trian G reeks —The
.
,

path of invasion was open ed by Alexander the Great and ,

his exam pl e was o n ly too diligently fo llow ed by successive

W estern powers The Greeks of Ba ctria w ere pow erful in
.

t h e second ce n tury be fore Christ They repeatedly crossed

.

the I n dus a n d conquer ed portions of the Pu njab ; and

one of th em M en and e r pen etrated as far as the Ga n ge s
, , .

There ca n be littl e doubt that Greek art a n d l earning exerted

co n siderable i n flue n ce on I n dia from this age W e fi n d .

Greek sculptures imbedded a m idst Buddhist rui n s Greek ,

56 THE C I V I LI S AT I ON OF I N D IA

i n scriptio n s stamped o n Hindu coi n s a n d Greek astronomers ,

referred to by the astronomers of I n dia

—K an is h ka— Th e
.

Th e Tu ran ia n s S h ah K in gs
—The Bactria n k ingdom came to a n untim ely end i n
.
'

12 6 D C. .
,

whe n the Yu Chis and other Turanian tribes swept through

-

Ce n tral Asia H avis h ka of this Yu Ch i tribe rul ed i n

.
-

Kabul a n d conquer ed Kashmir ; and his successors H ash ka ,

a n d the re n own ed K an is h ka exte n ded the power of the ,

dyn asty i n the first century after Christ .

K an is h ka was a great conqueror a n d his empire exte n d ed ,

from Kabul and Y arkh an d to the J um n a a n d Gujrat He .

was also a pious Buddhist a n d held a great council to settle ,

the Scriptures of the N orther n Buddhists And h e found ed .

the Saka era commencing from A D 7 8 which is still o n e of

,
. .
,

the two eras prevale n t i n India Thirty kings ruled i n .

Kashmir after K an is h ka ; and then M at rigup ta the frie n d ,

of V ikramaditya of Ujjain asce n ded the thro n e i n the sixth ,

centu ry after Christ .

S aurashtra or Gujrat had ow n ed the sway of the mighty

, ,

K an is h ka but became independent after his death and a lo n g

, ,

lin e o f twe n ty sev e n kings r uled this kingdom from about

'

A D 1 2 0 to 8 8 Th e s e kings are known as the Shah Kings

. .
3 .

of G ujrat a n d have l eft us inscriptions of great historical

,

v alue W e find from these inscriptio n s that Buddh ism and

.

Hi n duism flo urished side by side u n der these rulers of W est er n

I n dia as the two r eligio n s flour ished without discord und er
,

the An dhras and Guptas of N orther n I ndia and the D ec

ca n The most rem arkabl e of these inscriptions is that of
.

R u dr a D ama n in which he sp e aks of a bridge which he

repaired The caus eway so runs the inscriptio n had been
.
, ,

r epaired by a n engin eer of Chandragupta and then by a ,

Greek o ffi cer of Asoka the Great and fi n ally it was recon ,

s tructed by R udra D aman hi m self And he boasts i n th is .

i n scriptio n that he had overcome the Andhras of the D eccan ,

had concluded a n alliance with them and had exte n ded his ,

power over Saurashtra Kach and other places , , .

Th e Wh i te H u n s — The last horde of i n vaders who .

 B U D D H IS T '
AG E 57

p en etrated into India from the W est i n this age were a sectio n
o f the same Hu n s who swept through all Asia and convu lsed

Europe und er the terrible Attila Tribes of this peopl e .

poured into India and attacked the Guptas the n the ce n tral ,

power i n India Th e invi n cible Toraman a wrested eastern

.

M al w a from the Guptas in A D 4 6 6 and his so n the terrible

. .
, ,

M ih irakula bega n his co n quests i n

, 5 1
5 The Guptas .

were hurled from their power and their empire was ,

de stroy ed .

S u m m a ry o f th e H is to ry o f th e B u ddh is t Age .

I t will thus appear t hat the p eriod of eight ce n turies which

we have called the Buddhist A ge is full of stirri ng incidents .

The first ce n tur y of this long age witnessed the co n solidatio n

o f the empire of N orth e rn India under Chandragupta , the

acc eptanc e of Buddhis m as the state religion by Asoka th e

G r eat and the spread of that religion by his m onks and
,

m issionaries as far as Ceylon to the south a n d M acedon , ,

Egypt and Palestine to the west

,
Th e sc en e then changes ; .

the dy n asty of Asoka is e xtinct and in the first century ,

after Christ we see the great Andhras ruli n g M agadh a a n d

N orther n I n dia while K an is h ka has fou n ded a powerful
,

dynasty i n Kashm ir Th e sc e n e cha n g es once more ; the

.

suprem e power in N orthern India has passed from the Andhras

to the Guptas by th e fourth century while Gujrat has shaken ,

o ff the yoke of K an is h ka s successors a n d und er the Shah

’
,

K i n gs rivals the empire of the Guptas in po wer and sple n dour .

And last of all we witness t h e closing scene th e fierce Huns

,

poured into I ndia as th ey poured into ev ery civilised country

in t h e fifth century and by t h e sixth c e ntury they have carv ed
,

out a ki n gdom for thems elves in the Punjab .

The waves of foreig n co n quest did not weake n the Hindu

n atio n or the Hi n du rule Each new race of invaders fro m
.

the first to th e fifth c e ntury after Christ settl ed down in

I ndia acc e pted Hi n duis m or Buddhis m and thus m erg e d
, ,

in to and strengthe n ed the co n federatio n of Hindu races i n

ancient I n dia .

B u d d h is t A rch itec tu r e S cu lp tu re , , an d P a in t
58 THE C I V I LI S AT IO N OF I N D IA

in g .
— B uddhist topes ( m ounds erect ed on sacred spots )
a n d Buddhist churches and m onasteri es are to be fou n d i n
ma n y parts of India and are the oldest existing specim ens
,

of India n architecture I n many places the topes hav e dis.

appeared but the rails rou n d them exist and these rails are
, ,

laborat ely carved and sc ulptured .

Th e rails of Buddha Gaya a n d B harhut belong to the

century of Asoka the Great W he n Hindu sculpture .

first dawns upo n us i n the rails of Buddha Gaya a n d Bharhut ,

2 00 to 2 5 0 B C it is thoroughly origi n al absolutely without

. .
, ,

a trace of foreign influe n ce but quite capable of expressi n g its ,

ideas a n d of telli n g its story with a disti n ctn ess that never was
,

surpass ed at least i n I n dia

, F or a n ho n est purpo se like
.
,
-

pre R aphaelite ki n d of art there is pro b ably nothing much

-

,
” 1
better to be found a n ywhere At Bhilsa i n Central India .
, ,

som e twenty fi ve top es still exist and the rails a n d gateways

-

round the principal tope know n as the great tope of Sa n chi , ,

belong to the first century after Christ The elaborate sculp .

tures on these gateways represent scenes from the life of the

Buddha and from Buddhist legends and birth stories and -

form a perfect pictur e Bibl e of Buddhism of the first century

of t h e Christia n era .

Turni n g n ow to Chaityas or Buddhist church es it is ,

n ecessary to premise that they are not constructed but ex ca

vat ed in rocks Twe n ty or thirty churche s are known to
.

xist a n d with one exc e ptio n they are all excavated The
, .

groun d pla n of these B uddhist churches is very similar to

-

C hristia n churches in Europe ; but while the exter n al view

of Christia n church es is th eir most n otable and imposi n g
feature the Buddhist churches— being caves hollowed out i n
,

rocks— have no external View except the fa cade which is , ,

often elaborately o rn amented .

There are several Buddhist church e s excavated i n the hills

of the W ester n Ghats a n d at B eds er a n d N ass ik the dates of
, ,

which are the third a n d second ce n tury before Christ But we .

'
1 F ergu s s o n s I n d ia n an d E as tern A r ch itect u r e .
 B U D D H IS T AGE 59

come to the most perfect sp ecime n of this ki n d of architecture

when we co me to the church of Karli excavated i n th e fi rst
,

century bef ore Christ The buildi n g co n sists of a n ave and

.

side aisles ter m i n atin g i n a n ap se or semi dome rou n d which

-
,
-
,
60 THE C IV I LIS AT I O N OF I N D IA

the aisle is carried It is 1 2 6 feet from the e n trance to t h e

.

back wall an d 4 5 feet 7 inches i n width F i ftee n pillars o n

, .

each side separate the n ave from the aisles a n d each pillar ,

has figures of elephan ts o n the top with well executed huma n ,

-

figu res o n the m Above this spri n gs the semicircular roof

.
,

a n d the whole i n terior is lighted by o n e un d ivided volume of

light comi n g from a single O pe n i n g overhead .

L astly we tur n to V iharas or Buddhist mo n asteries

, ,

which like the churches are also e xcavated n ot co n structed

, , , .

The caves of O rissa are th e earliest specime n s of Buddh i st

mo n asteries t hat exist an d so m e of them are singl e cells i n
,

rocks hollowed out for the reside n ce of si n gl e m onks I n .

W estern I n dia n ear N as s ik we have monasteries excavated

, ,

by th e Shah Ki n gs i n the cen turies after the Christia n era ;

but the most in ter esti n g existin g specime n s of Buddhist
mo n as teries i n I n dia are those of Aja n ta which together ,

with the Aja n ta Chaityas or churches were excavated i n the

fifth cen tu ry after Christ .

Cave N o 1 6 of Aja n ta measures 6 5 feet each way and

.
,

has twe n ty pillars It has sixteen c ells for m o n ks o n two

.

sides a great hall i n the ce n tre a vera n da in front and a

, , ,

sa n ctuary i n the back ; an d all the walls are covered with

fresco pai n tin gs represe n ti n g sce n es from the life of Buddha
, ,

or from Buddhist lege n ds They are the earliest speci

.

men s of I n dia n painti n g extan t ; a n d without prete n d

ing to high art they are expressive p urpose like a n d
, ,
-
,

pleasa n t .

H in d u La ws — Th e In s titu tes o f M a n n —I t has .

bee n said before that Hi n duism a n d Buddhism flourished side

b y side i n frie n dly rivalry i n most parts of I n dia duri n g this
age H igh caste a n d learn ed m en ge n erally adhered to
.
-

their exclusive a n d a n cient privileges while the mass of t h e ,

people were drawn away b y the festivities a n d imposi n g

processio n s and pilgrimages of Buddhis m F a Hia n a .
,

renown ed Chi n ese pilgrim a n d traveller who came to I n dia

early i n the fi fth ce n tury fou n d Hindu temples a n d Buddh ist
,

mo n asteries in every great to wn in N orther n India and does ,

 B U D D H IS T AG E 61

n ot record on einsta n ce of hostilities or p ersecutio n A n d .

all the great dy n asties of the age — those of Cha n dragupta

and of K an is h ka the A n dhras the Guptas and the Shah
, , ,

K ings encouraged the holy m en of both religio n s a n d

, ,

bestowed valuable gifts of land a n d property on Brahma n s

and Buddhist m o n ks alike But n evertheless it is easy to
.
, ,

c o nceive that Brahma n s regarded with jealousy a n d some ,

thing like hatred th e mass of the people te mpted away by

, .

CH A A
I TY OR C H URCH AT AJ A TA
N .

the popular g atheri n gs the gay pilgrimages a n d th e pompous

, ,

processio n s of Buddhis m I mages of the Buddha w ere

.

worshipped with various rites by the million a n d Buddhist ,

shrines and sacred spots attracted pilgri m s by the te n thousa n d .

The course of eve n ts was irresistible and Hi n duism itself ,

was gradually modified o n these popular lines a nd was ,

becomi n g a r eligion of image worship a n d of pilgrimag es

-

the performan ce of V edic sacrific es being n eglected Agai n st .

62 TH E C I V I LI S AT I O N OF I N D IA

this ge n eral ten den cy of the times the supporters of the an cie n t
religio n strove in vai n ; a n d it is agai n st this cha n ge from
a n c i en t Hin duis m to modern Hinduism that the code k n own
as the Institutes of M anu m akes a stan d .

The I n stitutes of M anu in their origi n al form belo n ged

to a precedi n g age and like all older codes were i n the
,

Sutra or aphoristic form That origin al work is lost a n d

.
,

the existi n g work is a later adaptation of it in verse com ,

piled probably in the ce n tury im m ediately before or after the

Christia n era . I n its present for m therefore it belon gs to
, ,

the Buddhist Age ; a n d its contents su flicien tly indicate that

it sta n ds half way betw een the older D har ma Sutr a: of the
-

Philosophical Age and the later D har ma Sas tr as of the

Pura n ic A ge of which we shall speak i n the n ext chapter
, .

Un like the former it belon gs to n o partic ular V edic school

,

but is for all Arya n s an d u n like the latter it ign ores Puranic ,

mythology and modern Hi n duism and still prescribes V edic

,

r i tes a n d sacrifices .

M anu s code is divided into twelve books

’
The two .

lo n gest bo oks ( viii a n d ix ) are d evoted to civil and criminal

. .

laws a n d the civil laws of M anu are held to be the foun

,

dation of the Hindu law The other books treat of civil

.

a n d military adm inistration of religious rites a n d social a n d

,

domestic duties Th ey are all inter esting and throw much

.
,

light o n a n cient Hindu life and m anners .

M anu speaks of the four stages of the life of a pious Arya n ,

and lays down the duties of each stage He enu m erates .

the sacraments which Arya n s should perform and dwells at ,

l en gth o n the forms of marria ge and th e rules of i n heritance .

H e em phatically recom m ends honour and r espect to wome n ,

but lays down on the other hand that wo m en should ev er

, ,

be depe n de n t o n me n and sho uld never seek for separatio n

,

from family
n u t
H o o r o t h e f ithf a u l wo m a n

Be by lo i g h sb v n u an d p a id .

a
By h er f th er , by h er broth er ,

I f th ey s eek th e ir v ir tue s m eed '

.
 B U D D H IS T AGE 63

Ho n o r to th right ous wo m an
u e e
Pl as s G ods of righ t o us m ight
e e e ,

F or wh r wo m an is n ot ho n our d
e e e
V a i n is fi ial rit s acr1 c e.

A n d wh r wo m n gri v an d l n gu ish
e e e e e a
P rish m of fat d r a c
e en e e,
But i n ho m s wh r th y a ho n o ur d
e e e e re e
Prosp r m i n worth an d gr a c
e en e
—M a
.

n n , iii .
55 to 5 7 .

D uteous girl ob ys h fath r e er e ,

A d t h h u sb an d s wa ys t h wi f
n e e e,

Son co n trols th w d w d m oth r e 1 o e e ,

N v r fr is wo m an s lif
e e ee
'

e .

Fro m h fath r so n or co n sort

er e , . ,

W o m an n v r should b fr e e e ee ,
F or h wilful s p a ra tio
er e n

S t ai ns h h us ban d s fa m ily '

er .

Fa i thful to h lovi n g co nsor t er .

Apt i n d u ti s of h hous e er e,
Ev r ch rfu l c a r ful fru g al
e ee , e , ,

Is t h t r u an d d ut o us spous
e e e e
—M a n z/
.

, 148 to 15 0 .

As tro n om y . may easily be imagi n ed that gr eat pro

-
It
gress was m ade i n this brilliant age in scie n ces and arts .

Most of the works however of this age have app eared in

, ,

later forms i n subseque n t ages and are therefore lost to us ,

‘

in their original shape Hindu writers speak of eightee n

.

Siddha n ta s or astronomical systems which flourish ed i n this

, ,

g
a e. The oldest of them are those of P arasara and G arga ,

a n d requir e a bri ef me n tion .

P aras ara is a n ancient name i n Hindu astronomy and 13 ,

connected with the com pilation of the V edic cale n dar ; but
the work P aras ara Tantra which professes to contain his ,

teachi n gs b elongs to the Buddhist Age It is mostly written

, .

in prose a n d has an entire chapter o n geography which

, ,

was reproduced in th e succ eeding A ge .

Garga is on e of the f ew Hi n du writers who tell us some

thi n g o f the Greek i n vasio n of I ndia i n the s eco n d century
befor e Christ . The Yavan as ( Bactria n Greeks ) are outer
E
64 TH E C IV IL I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

barbarians he writes but amongst th em this scie n c e ( as

, ,
”
)
t ro n o my is well e stablish ed And Garga describes how
.

t h e Gr eeks conquered O udh Pa n chala M athura and Pat n a , , , ,

and the n fell a prey to internal disse n sio n s a n d were succeeded ,

by the Turania n conqueror s All these historical facts alluded .

to by Garga fi x his date as the first ce n tury before C hrist .

Another work on astro n omy k n own as Surya S iddhanta , ,

was recast by the Hi n du astronom ers of the subs eque n t age ,

and has been tra n slated into English A fourth work called .
,

Pulisa Siddha n ta is a Hindu adaptation fro m a Gr ee k work

, ,

probably that of Paulus Al exandrinus And a fifth work .

,

known as Brah m a S iddhanta w as also recast a n d r eproduced ,

b y Hindu astro n omers of the subseque n t age .

M ed icin e a n d S u rg ery — The sc i e n ce of M edici n e .

was early cultivated i n I n dia and m oder n researches hav e ,

disclosed the fact that the M ateria M edica of the Greeks ,

eve n of Hippocrates the F ath er of M edi ci n e is based o n ,

th e older M ateria M edica of the Hindus 1 The scie n ce .

mad e gr e at progr ess in the Buddhist Age and th e two

standard works on Hindu m
,

edicine th ose of Ch araka and ,

Charaka s work is divided into

’
Sus rut a belong to this age
, .

eight books describi n g various dis eas es and their treatm ent ;
,
’
and Susruta s work has six parts and sp ecially tr eats of sur ,

g e ry and of operations which are co n sidered diflicult eve n i n

mod ern ti m es V arious chemical processes wer e know n to
.

the Hi n dus O xides s ulphates a n d sulphurets of va1ious

.
, ,

metals were prepared a n d m etallic substances we re adm in is

,

t ered i n ter n ally 1n I n dia lo n g b e fore the Arabs b or1o wed t h e

practice from the m and introduc ed it in Europe i n the M iddl e

,

Ages .

The earliest Arabia n writ ers on medicine S erapio n , ,

R haz e s and Avic e nna mention Ch araka by name in their

, ,

works ; and in th e eighth c entury after Christ Harou n al ,

-

R ashid of Bagdad retai n ed two Hi n du physicia n s i n his .

court k n ow n as M a n ka and Saleh i n Arabian r ecords

, .

1 Dr R yl
. oA tiq ity f H i d M di i
e s
'
n u ; D W is s R i w f
o n u e c ne r . e
'
ev e o
th e H is tory of M ed icin e .
 CHAPT ER V I

P ic Age , A m. 8 00
u ra n 500 TO

Vikra m a d itya th e G rea t, S ix th Cen tu ry .

VVest ern India was desolated i n the fifth and sixth ce n turies
by foreig n invaders until a great India n pri n ce arose
, .

V ikramaditya is to the Hi n dus what Alfred the Great is to

the English people He expelled foreign invaders fou n ded
.
,

a powerful empire and revived literature sci ence and arts

, , , .

As a literary period his reig n is o n e of the m ost brillia n t

,

i n India n history a n d Kalidasa is assuredly the foremost

,

poet of I n dia n ext after th e unk n ow n authors ofthe two a n cient

,

Epics . In science too a n array of bright n ames throw light

, ,

o n the reign of V ikrama And i n religio n his age m ark s

the final trium ph of moder n Hinduism—that popular a n d
.

catholic system of religion and worship which replaced

Buddhism a n d reun ited the Hi n du nation of all castes a n d
’
all ra n ks And as if V ikrama s true clai m s to glory were
.

n ot s uffi cie n t in n umerable tales a n d lege n ds current in

, ,

I n dia to this day familiaris e his n ame to the rich an d

,

the poor t h e l earn ed and the ig n ora n t the high and

, ,

the low .

The h istorical eve n ts which are k n own of this great pri n ce

are v e ry few He defeated the foreign i n vaders probably
.
,

the Hun s in the regio n of K orur betwee n M ultan a n d the

, ,

castle of L oni He had his capital at Ujjai n i n Central India

.
,

but his power was recognised all over N orthern India H e .

placed his friend M atrigup ta o n the thron e of Kash m ir H e .

favoured the Hi n du religion but n ever p ersecuted Buddhists , .

He fostered poetry arts and scie n ce a n d was surrounded

, , ,

by a group of distinguish ed me n who are still k n ow n as the ,

“ N i n e Gems of his court A n d i n his ti m e was revived .

what seems to have bee n a n old era curre n t i n Central I n dia ,

6s
66 TH E C IV I L I S AT I ON OF I N D IA
 P U R A N IC AGE 67

dati n g from 5 7 B C Si n ce V ikrama s tim e it is co nn ected

. .
’

with his name a n d is k n own as the Samvat era

,
.

S ila ditya Il .
, S e ven th Cen tu ry .

came supr eme in N o rthern India after the death of V ik

rama ; a n d after the reigns of two weak kings Siladitya II , .

asce n ded the throne of K an ouj i n A D 6 1 0 and rul ed for . .

,

forty years He was a patro n of letters a n d arts a n d is

.
,

himself known as an author u n der the name of Harsha He .

was a friend of Buddh ism but n ev er pers ecuted Brahma n s ; ,

and a famous Chi n ese pilgri m and traveller Houen Tsa n g , ,

has l eft us accoun ts of a great quinquennial Buddhist celebra

tio n i n his court at which twenty kings invited from di ffere n t
, ,

parts of I n dia were present , .

Ya s o varm a n a n d La lita ditya , E igh th Cen t u ry .

-
Yaso varman was a weak king who ruled i n K an ouj i n the
eighth century , and h e was defeated by L alitaditya, ki n g of
K ash m ir T h e fact is i n teresti n g a n d important o n ly in co n
.

i
n ect o n with Bhavabhuti the last of the great poets of this
,

brillia n t age Bhavabhuti was a n ativ e of Berar and was

.
,

living as a n ho n oured poet i n the court of K an o uj whe n the

war broke out A n d the k ing of Kashmir knew of no higher
.

trophy of his victory than this great poet who m he took away ,

in triumph to K ashmir to grace his own court N o higher .

compli m ent has ev er been paid by royalty to genius .

The brilliant age which began with V ikramaditya in the

sixth century clos es with the e ighth and was succeeded by ,

centuri es of wars a n d r evolutions of gloo m and ignora n c e , ,

corr espo n di n g to t h e D ark Ages of Europ e O f this we will .

speak i n the n ext chapter .

R is e o f M o d.
e rn H in d u is m —W e have in the last .

chapter briefly indicated t h e slow changes which the forms

and the rites of th e anci ent Aryan religion underwent as it
b ecame more and mor e popularis ed and influe nced by Bud
dh is m . It was n ecessary that the rul es and O bs ervances ,

fra med for small Aryan colonies living i n th e midst of vast

Hinduised nations should und ergo changes so as to m eet th e
,

requirements of the people Buddhis m was the result of this .

68 TH E C I V I L I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

growi n g need it spread and popularised the old Arya n doc

,

tri n es of b elief it rejected V edic sacrifices and exclusive rites

, ,

and it substituted a system of moral culture and moral precepts

which all Hi n dus all mankind could lear n and practise
, , .

The n atio n e n tered by the wide d oor which was thus ope n ed
to it a n d Buddhism becam e more a n d more popular in its
,

rites a n d forms its pilgri m ages a n d celebratio n s Churches

, .

a n d monasteries were excavated saints and relics were ,

honou red legends a n d tales were multipli ed a n d the image

, ,

of the Buddha was worshipped in all parts of I n dia after the

Christia n era The old Aryan religio n struggled i n vai n
.

agai n st these in n ovations M a n u s I n stitutes e n deavoured i n

’

vain to m ake a stand for the a n cie n t faith a n d obs erva u ces .

D uring a thousand years Hi n duism was influenced by Bud

dh is m un til Hi n duism adopt ed all that had made Buddhism
,

popular a n d the n ceforth Buddhis m decli n ed It is a m istake

, .

to suppose that Buddhism was stamped out i n India by

persecutio n ; except in very rare i n stances whe n co n ,

q uero rs i n dulged i n cruelty and massacres there was n o ,

religious persecution i n I ndia Buddhism disappeared from

.

I n dia because its missio n was fulfilled Hinduism had adopted .

joyous celebratio n s a n d vast pilgrimages Hinduism had ,

assumed image worship a n d popular rites Hi n duism had

-

reun ited the Aryans a n d the H induised n o n Arya n s into -

one homoge n eous com m unity and the n ceforth B uddhism

,

declined i n I n dia because its missio n was fulfilled a n d it

ceased to be n ecessary .

K u m a rila a n d S an ka ra Two great n ames are co n

.
-

n ect ed with the decline of Buddhism a n d the revival of

Hinduis m K umarila Bhatta lived i n the seventh ce n tury
.
,

and wrote a famous c omme n tary o n the M man s a system of

philosophy a n d he was the most u n compromisi n g oppo n en t
,

of Buddhism i n the world of controversy He n ot o n ly .

vi n dicated the anci en t V edic rites and fought against Bud

d h is m but he treated the Buddhists with sca n t co urtesy eve n
,

whe n they agreed with t h e orthodox doctri n e H e was .

s ucceeded about the close of the eighth ce n tury b y the still

 P U RA N IC AGE 69

more celebrated Sankara Acharya whose gr eat comm entary

-

on the V edan ta philosophy is consider ed authoritativ e i n I n dia

to the pr esent day And he upheld and preached the a n cient
.

doctrine of the U n iversal Soul agai n st more recent and

heterodox opinions .

But so far as the people were conc er n ed K umarila and ,

Sankara liv ed and worked i n vain The anci ent V edic rites .

could not be revived ; they had excluded the mass of the

peopl e ; a n d they perish ed under the attacks of the great leveller
Gautama the Buddha Th e people rejoiced in the n ew
.

form of Hinduism which admitted t h e people withi n its pale ,

which allowed them a share in its joyous cel ebrations its ,

i mage worship a n d its pop ular pilgri mages K umarila and

-

, .

Sankara triumphed against decli n ing Buddhism ; but their

works were as fruitl ess as the Institutes of M a n u against
the rising tid e of a new Hinduis m deeply tinctured with ,

popular rites and c elebrations borrowed fro m Buddhism .

Ca r d in al D o c trin es o f N e w an d Old H in d u is m .

— It should be remember ed that in cardinal doctrines N ew

Hinduism was not divergent from the anci en t religion of the
Upanishads Both recognise one God the All pervadi n g
.
,
-

Breath the U n iversal Soul Both maintain that the Un iverse

,
.

is an emanation from H im s u bs is ts in H im an d will resolve itself

, ,

into Him Both r ecognis e rewards and punish ments i n future

.

liv e s according to our deeds in this world And both i n sist .

on the final absorptio n of all souls i n the D eity after a n umber

of reincar n ation s .

Rites a n d P ra c tices o f Old a n d N e w H in d u is m

—
.

I t is i n rites and practic es a n d pop ular beliefs that moder n

Hi n duism is totally diverge n t from the ancient r eligion The .

V edic religion insisted o n sacrifices to the P O WER S o r NATU R E ;

modern Hinduism inculcates b elief in the threefold power
of th e S upreme Being viz Creation Prese rvatio n a n d D e
, .
, ,

structio n and this is know n as the Hindu Trinity under the

names of B R A H M A V I S H N U and S I VA The V edic hym n s
celebrated the deeds of the N ature gods —Indra Agni V aruna
.
, ,

, , ,

Surya a n d the rest ; mod ern Hi n duism m ultiplies the myths

,
70 T H E C IV I L I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

a n d lege n ds of these gods and goddesses un til they form a

vast a n d co m prehensive system of popular myt hology for the
peopl e The V edic religion insisted on sacrifices to the fire
.

as its form of worship ; modern Hinduism pays worshi p to

images a n d rejoices i n pompous celebrations a n d pilgrimages
,
.

P u ran as — The works which promulgate a n d eluc idate

‘

modern Hi n duis m and from which this last Age derives

,

its n ame are the eightee n volumi n ous P ar an a: said to

,

comprise about couplets A class of works k n ow n .

as the P ur an as was k n ow n i n the pre Buddhist Ages a n d -

co n sisted of chronicl es of olden ti m es But these have .

lo n g since be en r eplaced by the volu m inous works which we

have before us n ow and which are t h e growth of many ce n
,

t uries probably from the fifth to the fiftee n th

, They consist .

of en dl ess legends about ancient ki n gs and heroes scraps of ,

history or rather lists of kings of the Solar and L u n ar

dy n asti e s and of the M agadh a empire long chapters o n ,

cosmogony a n d theology descriptions of sacr ed sites and

,

places of pilgrimage and accounts of the gods and goddesses

,

of the modern Hindu pantheon Brahma V ish n u and S iva

.
, ,

are recog n ised as manifestations of the Supreme God and ,

s ectaria n con troversies about the two last n a m ed deities fill a -

larg e portio n of these moder n compilatio n s F or S iva a n d .

V ishnu beca m e the favourite deiti es of the lat er day Hi n dus ; -

sects of V ishnu worshippers a n d S iva worshippers multiplied

all over India ; an d g en erations of poets who added to the
P ar an a : from century to century worshipped the one or the
other as the Supreme God The co n sciousness of O n e
.

Supr em e Power which underli es Hi n duism was never e n tirely

absent eve n i n the popular mi n d a n d the worship of Siva or
,

V ishnu by the various co n te n ding sects of India was marked

by that fervent love a n d devotion to O n e personal G od which ,

is true Hindu M onotheis m This id ea do m inates popular

.

worship a n d has characteris ed every religious m ovem ent in

,

m oder n times as we shall s ee later on

D h a rm a S a s tra s —The ancient L aw Codes and the
.
,

Institutes of M anu were succeeded by a host of other works ,

 P U RA N I C AGE 71

mostly adapted from more a n ci en t cod es but so recast as to

,

suit the altered customs of the late r A ge Th es e w orks are .

know n as D har ma Sas tr a and m a n y of them hav e appare n tly

s,

b een altered i n r ec ent centuri es after t h e M ah o medan con

quest of India V edic rites and sacrifices have bee n replac ed
.

i n these works by m o dern for m s of worship and every distinct ,

trade or profession has crystallis ed into a distinct caste

H in d u A rch itec tu re an d S c u lp tu re —Th ere are
.

v ery few speci m ens of pure Buddhist architecture of a later

date than t h e fifth c entury while t h e earli est e xisting speci
,

mens of Hindu architecture date fro m the sixth century .

T h e history of Indian archit ecture thus confir m s the division

we have mad e betw een t h e Buddhist and P uranic Age s .

D r F ergusson d e scribes thr ee distinct styl e s of Hindu

.

architecture Th e N o th r n I n dian s tyl has so m e distinct

. r e e

a n d well defin ed featur es and t h e t em ples g enerally consist of

-

a high curvilin ear tower and a porch w ith a conical roof .

Th e num erous stone built t em pl e s o f B h uvan es war i n O rissa

-

, ,

are the b est and purest sp e cim e ns of this styl e and among ,

th em t h e Gr eat T emple of B h u van es war is t h e most imp os

ing Th e towe r is 1 8 0 feet high and th e e xterior is cov er ed
.
,

with elaborat e carving and sculptur es whi c h are esti mated to

hav e cost three ti mes as m uch as t h e erectio n of t h e building ,

its elf Infinite labour has been bestowed on e v ery d etail of

.

the carvi n g the sculptur e is of a high order and great

beauty of d esign and the e ffe ct of th e whol e is m arv ellously
beautiful .

N ot many m iles fro m B h uvan es war is the Black Pagoda ,

visibl e fro m the s ea by coasti n g steamers and being the porch

,

of a great templ e which itself is i n ruins The porch stands.

stupe ndo us and solitary in an op en spot str ewed with ruins

,

on all sides an d is a m ong t h e most m agnific ent edific e s of

,

t h e past that I ndia or any oth er country can boast o f Th e .

exterior is carv ed with infinite variety in all its twelve fac es ,

and t h e s culptur e work is of t h e be s t order that is to be s ee n

anywhere in India .

The date of the Blac k Pagoda is said to be the ninth

 TH E C IV I L I S AT I O N OF I N D IA
72

T HE G R EAT T EM P L E OF B H U V A N ES‘V A RA .
 P U RA N I C AGE 73

c en tury a n d whe n we co m pare that with the present Great

T empl e of Puri built in the twelfth century we mark at on ce
, ,

the decli n e of H ind u architectur e within this p eriod The .

Puri Temple perhaps the greatest place of pilgrimag e i n

,

N orther n India at the pres ent day has a tower 1 9 2 feet ,

high but both i n its outline a n d details shows a decline

,

i n art .

W h en we travel out of O rissa to the holy places o f

N o rther n India like B enares o r M athura we fi n d o n ly
, ,

moder n templ es constructed withi n the last two or three

,

hun dred years The whole of N orth ern India from t h e

.

Punjab to Bengal was un der M ah om edan rulers from the

twelfth to the eightee n th ce n tury and f ew good specime n s of
,

a n cient architecture have surviv ed .

The far famed temples of Ellora carv ed out of solid rock

-

, ,

a n d co n sidered o n e of the wond er s of the world are a good ,

specime n of the Southern I n dia s tyle O n e of them the n .

,

temple of Kailasa was erected in t h e eighth or n i n th ce n tury

, ,

a n d is imposi n g i n its solid grandeur A vast pit of 2 7 0 .

feet by I 5 0 feet is excavated in solid rock a n d i n the ce n tre ,

of it stand the temple with a high tower a large porch sup ,

ported by sixtee n colu m ns a detached porch a n d a gateway

, ,
.

All this is n ot built up but carv ed out of the solid rock

,

which has been cleared away around the edifices .

W hen we travel farther to the south we fi n d numerous

groups of great an d gorgeous temples but all of the m of com ,

p arat ively moder n dates havi n g bee n built within t h e last five
,

centuries To this class belo n g the great templ e s of Tanjor e

.

an d Ch illam b arum of M adura and Serin gh am of R ames

, ,

waram and Conjev era m and ev en of V ijayn agar Hindu

,
.

rul e was never compl etely e xtinguished i n Souther n I n dia ;

and the co n structio n of gr eat edifices was going on eve n to
the last ce n tury whe n the English and the F re n ch wer e
,

struggling for t he mastery of the K arn atic .

The third style is what may be call ed the D eccan s tyle the ,

t e mples havi n g a polygonal or star shaped base The Kaet -

.

I swara temple a n d t h e three groups of temples built by the

74 TH E C IV I LIS AT I ON OF I N D IA

B allala dynasty be twee n the eleve n th and thirteenth ce n tur ies

are the best specim ens of this style I t is in reference to o n e .

of these the H ullabid Temple that D r F ergusson makes

, , .

some excellent remarks on Greek and India n architecture ,

which we should place before our readers

All th pillars of th P art h n o n a ident ica l whil n o t w fa c t s of
e e e re , e o e
t h e I n di an t m pl a th es am ; v ry co nvolutio n of v ry scroll is
e re e e e e e e
di ff r n t N o t w c an opi s i n th whol b u ddi n g a al ik an d v ry
e e . o e e e re e, e e
p a rt xhibi ts a joyo us x uberan c of fan cy scor n i n g very m ch an ic a l
.

e e e , e e
r estr a i n t All t h at i s wild i n h u man fa i th or warm i n h um an f lin g
. ee
i s fo un d portr ay d o n th s walls ; but of p u i n t ll ct t h r is littl
e e e re e e e e e.
l ss t h an th r is of h um an f li n g i n th Parth n o n
e e e F or our ee e e .

p pos t h g a t va lu of th st udy of th s I n di an x a mpl s is th a t i t

ur e, e re e e e e e e
wid n s so i m m n s l y o ur basis for a rchit c tur a l c i ticis m
e e e I t is o n l y by e r .

be co m i n g fa m i l i ar with for m s so u tt rly dissi m ilar fro m thos w h av e e e e

hi th rto been co nv rs ant with th at w p erc ive h w na rrow is t h p
e e , e e o e up
v i w th a t is con t ent w ith
e for m or p a si n g fashio n By ris i n g
on e on e s .

t t his wid r r an g w sh a l l p r
o e i ve th a t archi t ct ur
e e a m an y sid d e ce e e 15 s -
e
as h um an natu r i t s lf an d l a r n h w f w f li n gs an d h w f w aspira
e e , e o e ee o e

t io n s of t h h um an h art an d brai n th r a th a t c ann ot be expr ssed

e e e e re e

by i t s m an s e .
1

t m
A s ro o y
n — This anci e nt sci e nce received great . en

c ouragem en t in the age of V ikramaditya and three of t h e ,

brightest n am es in Hindu astronomy belo n g to the sixth and

seve n th ce n turies A ryabh atta was bor n i n P atalip utra ( Patn a )
.

in 4 7 6 and wrote a work which is k n own by his n ame

, .

He maintains t h e theory of t h e revolution of the earth on its

ow n axis and explains t h e true cause of the solar and lun ar
,

eclipses W e find also i n his work the n ames of the twelve

.

sign s of t h e solar zod iac A n cie n t Hi n du astro n omers had .

marked the lu n ar zodiac — the twe n ty se ven constellatio n s -

alo n g the path of the m oon ; for th e solar zodiac they are
u n doubtedly ind ebt ed to W e ster n obs erv e rs .

V araba mih ira was bor n about A D 5 0 5 and was o n e of

-
. .
,

the N i n e Gems of the cour t of V ikramaditya He com .

piled a n d recast the five older Siddhan tas of which we have

made m e ntion i n the last chapter and he also wrote a n ency ,

clo e dic work k n ow n as B r iha t Sa n hita consisti n g of 106

p , ,

chapters Besides astronomy proper it trea ts of rains wi n ds

.
, , ,

1
I n dia n an d E as ter n A rch itectu r e .
 P U RA N I C A GE 75

K A ET I SW A A TEM E S
R PL , O UT H E RN I N D I A .
76 THE C I V IL IS AT I ON OF I N D IA
“

a n d earthquakes of architecture and te m ple b uildi n g of p re

,
-

cion s sto n es a n d a n imals a n d various other subjects .

T h e third great astro n omer of the age was Brahmagupta

who wrote i n A D 6 2 8 His work co n sists of twenty —
,

. . on e
.

chapters of which the first te n comprise his astronom ical

,

system The n ext te n are suppl em e n tary a n d t h e last

.
,

chapter is a treatise o n spherics

D ra m a P o e try an d F ic tion — Kalidasa one o f
.

, , ,
“ ” ’
the N in e Gems of V ikramadit ya s court has a world ,

wide r eputatio n ; a n d his i m mortal dra m a Sahun tala trans , ,

lated into En glish in the last ce n tury first attracted the atte n tion ,

of European scholars to the wealth and be auty of a n cient

Sa n scrit literature This tra n slatio n therefore made by Sir
.
,

W illiam Jo n es has a historical interest a n d marks t h e com

, ,

m en cem en t of Europea n research i n to I n dia n a n tiquities .

The play describes t h e love of a leg en dary pri n ce for a

forest maide n bor n of a n ymph and the fresh n ess
-

, ,

te n dern ess a n d pathos of the drama have seldom bee n

,

exc elled by a n y other creatio n of the h uma n imagin atio n .

The first meetin g of the prince a n d the simple forest girl

is well described love is follow ed by a secret mar riage ; and
whe n at last the girl leaves her rural home t o joi n her
co n sort the sc en e is i n describably pathetic
, .

K an n a.H ea r a ll y tr es of t his h allo w d fores t ; ye tr s i n wh ich

, e e e ee

t h sylvan godd esse s h ave th ir a bod ; h a r an d procla i m th at S ak un

e e e e
t a l a is go in g t o th p a la c of h w dd d lord — h wh dr an k n ot
e e er e e s e o ,

tho ugh thirsty be for you w r wat r d h wh o roppe d n ot t h rough

,
e e e e e s e c ,

a ff ctio n of yo u
e of yo ur fr sh l av s t ho ugh h wo uld h ave bee
, on e e e e . s e n

pl ase d with s uch a ornam nt for h locks ; h whos chi f d ligh t

e n e er s e e e e
wa i n t h s easo n wh n yo r br an ch s
s e Sp an gl d with flo wers
e u e ar e e
Ch f I v i ible W d ymp h
or u s o n M ay h
s way be att n d d with
oo -
n s . er e e

prosperity M ay propit io us br s spri n kl for h e d ligh t t h odori eez e e r e e

f ro us d ust of rich blosso m s ! M ay pools of cl ar wat r g n with
e e e , r ee
th e l av s of th lot os r fr sh h e as h wa lks ! A n d may sh a dy
e e e , e e r s e
br an ch s be h d f n c fro m t h scorchi n g s n beam s
e er e e e e u

S ah n n ta ta . Ah wh at is it th a t cli ngs t o t h skirts of my rob an d e e,

n
det ai s m e ?
“

I t is thy a dopt e d child t h e li tt l e fawn whos e m outh wh en

an n a . , , .

t h e sh arp poi n ts of t h e K u s a gr ass h a d wo un d e d it h a s be en so oft e n ,

s m eared by thy h an d with th e h eali n g oil of I n gu d i wh o h as been so

 P U R AN I C AGE 77
often f ed by th ee with a h an dfu l of Syam aka gr a ss an d n o w will n o t ,

le ave th e footst eps of his pro tec tr e ss .

S a h u n ta la Why dost thou weep ten d er fa wn for m e wh o m ust

. . , ,

leave o ur co m m o n dwelli n g pla ce ? As t ho u wast rear ed by m e wh e n -

tho u h a ds t lost thy mot he r wh o die d s oo n a ft e r thy bir th so will m y , ,

foster fath er ( K ar ma ) a tt en d th ee wh en we are s ep a1ated with an xio us

-

, ,

ca r e R et urn poor thi n g r etu r n we m us t p ar t

.
, , , .

[ S h e bu r s ts in to tea rs .

K an C o m e m ybe lo e d girl gi e
n a . p rti g em br c e t o m e , d
,
v , v a a n a an
t o t h y t e d er co m p nio s an n .

S a ku n ta la M st A n u s u ya u
d P riyam vad a 1etu rn to t h e h er m i ge
. an ta .

K an n a Th ey too m y child , m ias t be s i bly m rri ed ; d it

.
,
u ta a an
u n v
wo ld ot be prop er for th em t o isit t h e city bu t G au tam i will acco m
p an y th ee .

S h
a t l un[ m br a ci n g h im ! R m ov d fro m t h boso m of m y
a a e . e e e
fath r lik a youn g s an d l t re r nt fro m t h hill s of M a l y a h w
e , e a e, e e a , o
s h a ll I exist i n a str a g 11? n e 50
—S ir W f on es s .
'
tr a n s la tion .

Besides Sahan tala two other dra mas of K alidasa are still ,

extant viz his V ihr ama a d U vas i and his M alav iha an d
, .
,
n r

Agn imir a In descriptive an d narrativ e po et ry also he takes

.

t h e highest plac e among t h e po ets of this age His Cloud .

M e s enger is a descriptive po em uniq ue in i ts richness of

s ,

description and melody of verse His D y a ty of R aghu . n s

d escri be s the history of the kings of the Solar line And his .

B ir th of the War G od d escrib es the lov e of the god S iva for

t h e mountain maid en U m a .

K alidasa was succ eed ed by B h aravi who wrote a spirited ,

po e m on t h e K i ata an d A rju a the encou n ter of S iva dis

r n ,

guised as a for ester with Arjuna an episode from the ancie n t ,

I ndian Epic M aha b ha r ata ,

-
.

I n t h e sev enth c e ntury Siladit ya I I hims elf figures as a .

poet und er the name of Harsha and an elegant drama R at a

'

, , n

v ali is ascribed to him

, Three great works of fiction .

also belong to this age D andin wrote his A dv en tur es of the .

T n P r in ces
e Bana wrote his im m ortal K adamv ar i a n d
Suban dh u wrote his V as a v adatta The collectio n of tales .

known as P a n chatan tr a belongs t o an earli er c entury and ,

has bee n translated into e v e ry literary languag e of Asia and

Europe u n der the title of the fables of Pilpay .
78 THE C IV I LI S AT I O N OF I N D IA

The eighth ce n tury boasts of one great writer a rival of ,

Kalidasa himself Bhavabhuti as we have stated before was

.
, ,

bor n i n Berar a n d flourished i n the court of K an ouj a n d he

, ,

was the n ce ta ke n away to Kashmir by the warlike L alitaditya .

He has left us three dramas which if somewhat i n ferior to ,

K alidas a s plays i n grace and elegance of verse are perha ps

’
,

su perior to them in their depth of feeli n g His M alati an d .

M adhav a is a work of superior merit The E ar lyL if e of R ama

is less importan t ; but The L as t Tear s of R ama is of all his
works th e best k n own i n I n dia The plot is take n from the .

R a mayan a b ut th e p athos a n d beauty of the pi e ce are u n su r

,
’
passed b y anythi n g ever writte n ih India R ama s tender .

love for S ita a n d his bitter grief after her b a n ishme n t ru n

, ,

through the piece like a thread of the purest gold

R a ma . Be th es e a r m s thy pillo w ,

Thi ne ever si n ce t h e nu pt i a l k n ot un it e d us
, ,

Thi n e i n t h e d a ys of i n fan cy an d yo uth

, ,

I n lo wly thickets an d i n pri n cely p al a ces .

Thi ne ever thi ne

, .

S ita . True tr ue m y ever ki n d an d ch erish ed lord

, , .

[S leep s u

R a ma . at n
H er l est wa ki g words are words of lo e v ,

n u t u t a
A n d o gh of h er b t is m os d e r t o m e .

n a
H er pre se c e is m brosiat o m y sigh t
n a t a an n a
H er co t c fr gr n a
t s a d l h er fo d r m s
T wi n d ro un d m y n ck a a fa r rich r cl asp
e e re e

Th an cos tl i st g m s an d i n m y ho us e h r ign s
e e s e e
T h gua rdi an godd ess of m y fa m an d fortun
e e e
—H
.

. H . Wils on '
s tr a n s la tion .

One more drama k n ow n as The Toy Car t deserves m e n tio n

for its great power a n d its realistic description of a n cient
Ujjain The great Augustan era of Sa n scrit literature a n d
.

scie n ce closed with the eighth century and after that we find ,

n o great n ames duri n g ce n turies of inter n al dissensio n s a n d

troubles which followed The old and e ff ete dy n asties of
.

N orther n India disappear from the stage of history ; a n d i n

the midst of wars a n d r evolutio n s a n ew and vigorous race ,

the R ajputs b ecom e t he masters of India

,
.
 CHAPT E R V I I

Age of Rajp u t A s cen d en cy, A D . . 800 To 12 oo

D a rk Ages .
— N orther n India has scarcely a n y history
for so m e ce n turies after the br illiant age of Bhavabhuti a n d
Sankara Acharya W e have records of n o great ki n gs n o
-
.
,

great dynasties n o great empire N o notable works of art

,
.

or architectur e have come dow n to us N o great n ame .

belo n gi n g to sci enc e or literature has be e n handed dow n .

A thic k and imp en etrabl e dark n ess hangs ov er these ce n turies

i n N orther n I n dia
Th e Rajp u ts —But we dimly perceive the m ain course of
.

eve n ts The same fate overtook N orthern India that overtook

.

W ester n Europe a bout the same period The power of old .

a n d e ff ete nations was swept away youn g and vigorous races

,

stepped forward to take their place The R ajputs claimi n g .

,

descent from the B alabh i ki n gs of G ujrat overt urn ed ancie n t ,

kingdoms subjugated ancient races a n d filled a n cie n t thrones

, , ,

even as races of G er m ans issuing from their n orthern for ests

, ,

co n quer ed every kingdom in W ester n Europe from t h e e ff ete

R o m ans . I t was a gr eat political a n d racial revolution in
N orther n India as i n W ester n Europe— the decline of a n old
civilisatio n and the daw n of a n ew order of things .

The parall el goes somewhat farther The n ew masters .

of Europe had to co n te n d for supremacy with a n atio n

of conquerors whom the trumpet voice of M ahomed had
la un ched i n Asia Africa and E urope Spain succumbed
, , .

to the conquerors F ran ce was sav ed by Charl es M artel a n d

, ,

from the eleventh to the thirtee n th ce n turies the contest we n t

o n in Palestine The new m ast ers of N orther n I ndia had
.

to conte n d with the same great power ; M uhammad K asi m

i n vaded India at the ti m e whe n his coreligionists were ih
vading Spain and F ra n ce and P rithu R ai vainly struggled
79 F
80 TH E C I V IL I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

to save D elhi and N orther n I n dia from M uhammad Ghori

at the very time when Philip Augustus and R ichard the
L io n —hearted were vainly e n deavouring to wrest the Holy
L and from the great Saladin .

M u h a m m a d K a s im — The invasion of M uham mad

.

Kasim took place in 7 1 1 An Arab ship was seized by the

.

H i n du s at the seaport of D ewal a n d D ahir the R ajput ,

king of Si n dh refused restitution M uhammad Kasim was .

accordi n gly se n t agai n st him penetrated as far as Alor the

,

capital of Si n dh and killed D ahir i n a pitched battle M ultan

,
.

’
a n d the whole of D ahir s kingdom were co n quered but the ,

co n queror was recall ed soon after a n d the expeditio n was at ,

an e n d. The Mu salman s however co n tinued to hold sway

, ,

ov er som e parts of Si n dh .

Twelve Ex p edi tion s of M ah m u d of G h az n i

.

W e hear n othing more about Mah omedan i n vasio n s i n I n dia

for n early two hundred years after the time of Kasim I n .

t h e begi nn i n g of the eleve n th ce n tury however a greater , ,

i n vader appeared o n the scene The co n quests of M ahmud .

of Ghaz n i are ge n erally know n as his Twelve Expeditio n s ,

though he appears to have pe n etrated into I n dia mor e tha n

twelve times Some of these Twelve Ex peditio n s require
.

a bri ef m en tion .

T he first expeditio n was in 10 0 1 against the brave J aip al ,

who was b eate n n ear Peshawar a n d take n priso n er M ah .

m ud the n pe n etrated beyond the Sutlej a n d o n his r eturn to ,

Ghaz n i released J aip al on receipt of a large ransom Th e .

brave R ajput was however disgraced in th e eyes of his

, ,

countrymen by his defeat and captivity ; he made over his

kingdo m to his son A n an gap al mounted the fu n eral pyre, ,

an d perish ed i n the flames .

I n 1 8 0 8 M ahmud undertook his fourth expeditio n .

A n an gap al was prepared for t h e attack a n d had re

ceived help from the H in du kin gs of Ujjain Gwalior '

, ,

K an ouj Kalinjar D elhi and A jm ir

, , , A vast army was .

thus collected and Hindu femal es says the Mah omedan

,
“ ”
,

historia n F eris hta sold their jewels and melted dow n their
,
 AGE OF R AJ P U T A S C E N D E N C Y 81

or n ame n ts ( which they s ent fro m distant parts ) to fur n ish

”
resources for the war The patriotic war failed against the
.

discipli n e of M ahmud s troops ; the Hindus were defeat ed ;

’

and M ah m ud o n ce mor e pe n etrated into the Punjab and

plun dered the sacred fort of Nagarkot .

The sixth expedition was in 1 0 1 1 a n d was a n e xpeditio n ,

of plunder against the fa mous and holy tem ple of Thaneswar .

The images were broke n and th e tem pl e plund ered a n d a ,

vast nu m ber of men a n d wo m en were carri ed away as slaves .

”
Ghazni appeared says F eris h t a “ lik e an India n city n o
, , ,

soldi er of the camp bei n g without w ealth or without many

slaves .

I n the n i n th expedition und ertak e n in 1 0 1 7 M ahmud for

, ,

the first time pe n etrated as far as t h e Ganges He sudde n ly .

appeared before K an ouj and R ajyap al k in g of K an ouj was

,

take n u n awares and submitted to the conqueror Mahmud .

the n proceeded to M athura the sacred city of N orther n India

, ,

and was struck with the splendour of the place “ There .

”
are here he wrote to his governor of Ghaz n i
, a thousand ,

edifices as fi rm as the faith of the faithful most of them of ,

m arble besides innumerabl e temples ; n or is it lik ely this city

,

has attained its pr ese n t co n dition but at the expens e of m any

m illions of dinars n or could such a n other be co n structed
,
”
under a p eriod of two centuries It speaks little for the .

g e n erosity of the co n queror that he pillaged this sple n did city

for twenty days a n d we n t away with an imm ense booty
,
.

I n 1 0 2 4 M ahmud u n dertook his twelfth and last expeditio n

against A n h alwara or Patta n the capital of Gujrat The , .

object appare n tly was to plunder t h e fa mous temple of So

m an at h of its e n ormous hoarded w ealth M ahmud defeated
'
.

t h e ki n g of A n h alwara in a w ell cont ested battle took t h e -

Well defended fort tem pl e of Som an ath broke the image a n d

-

, ,
”
plundered th e tr easure Th e treasure fou n d i n Soman at h
.
,

says F eris h t a was m ore than any royal treasury co n tai n ed

,
”
before .

The last years of M ah m ud were spent in co n quering

Persia and he di ed i n 1 0 3 0 He was a great ge n eral and
, .
82 T H E C IV I LI S AT I O N OF I N D IA

conqueror but had n ot the genius for foundi n g a lasting

,

empire His exp editions served n o civilised p urpose did n ot

.
,

spread his own faith and did n ot conduce to the establishm en t

,

of a stable empire They form a sickening record of the

.

plu n der of rich temples and town s the massacre of b rave ,

garriso n s a n d the e n slavi n g of u n o ff endi n g me n a n d wome n

,

by the hun dred thous and Cupidity was the pri n cipal motive.

of his co n quests and has been condemned i n im m ortal verse

,

by F erdusi the greatest of Persia n poets who liv ed d uri n g

'

, ,

the time of M ahmud .

N o r th ern I n d ia in th e Ele ven th Cen tu ry —A l

berun i a n ative of Khiva was a n other conte m porary of
, ,

M ahmud and was brought by M ahmud to Ghaz n i He studied

, .

the lear n i n g a n d the scie n ces of the Hi n dus a n d has left a n ,

acco un t of N orthern I n dia i n the el eve n th ce n tury which is

v aluable . The whole of N orther n I ndia was divid ed in to sm all
R ajput ki n gdoms and pri n cipalities which formed a stro n g co n
federatio n of Hi n du n atio n s R ajyapala ki n g of K an ouj was .

the ce n tral ruler a n d his vast dominion s included Be n gal i n

,

the east I n the e xtreme n orth Kashmir was a n in depen

.

dent ki n gdom a n d this a n cie n t Hi n d u state retai n ed its

,

i n depe n de n ce till it was co n quered by Akbar the Great i n

the sixte en t h ce n tury Peshawar was under J aip al a n d
.

A n an gap al as we have seen befor e a n d Sindh was ruled by

, ,

a n umber of M oslem chiefs Gujrat was gover n ed by the .

Chalukya R ajputs whose rule was scarcely i n terrupted by

,

M ahmud s i n vasio n of Soman ath

’
M alwa was under a n other .

R ajput race a n d B h ojadeva who ruled from 9 9 7 to 1 0 5 3

, , ,

was a n e n lighte n ed patro n of l etters a n d r evived the memories ,

of V ikramaditya and of Siladitya Everywhere the dark .

ages were at a n e n d R ajput rule was firmly established a n d

, ,

Hi n du lear n i n g was reviv ing u n der the patro n age of the R ajput
masters of N orther n I n dia
—
.

Th e D ecca n Af ter th e decli n e of the great An dhra

.

n atio n t h e Chalukya R ajputs r uled the D ecca n from the fifth

,

to the twelfth centu ry The wester n bra n ch of this royal

.

house held sway over the M ahratta cou n try a n d had its ,
 RA J P U I A S C E N D E N CY 83
‘ ‘

A GE OF

capital at Kalya n J aya Sin ha the found er is said to have

.
, ,

descended from the B alabh i dynasty of Gujrat ; and one of

his successors P ulakes in I I h eld his own against Siladit ya
, .
,

I I the Em p eror of N orth ern I ndia in the seventh cen t ury

.
,
.

Th e powerful dy n asty co n tinu ed its rul e with so m e interrup

tions until I I 8 9 .

The eastern branch of this Chalukya hous e held sway over

t h e eastern seaboard fro m the m ouths of the Krish n a to
O rissa and had its capital at R ajama n dri
,
V ishnu V ard .

han a found ed t h e hous e early in the s ev enth century and his ,

descendants h eld rul e w ith some interruptions u n til the

, ,

kingdo m passed by marriage in the elev enth century to

R aj e ndra Chola then master of Southern I ndia
, .

S ou th e rn l n d ia —India to t h e south of the Krishna

.

riv er was from anci ent ti m es t h e s eat of thr ee siste r kingdoms ,

viz Chola Chera and Pandya Th e Chola kingdom was

.
, , .

t h e eastern seaboard north and south of the Kav eri river

, ,

and had its capital in the classic tow n of Kanchi n ow call ed ,

Conjevera m The Chera kingdom was t h e west er n seaboard

.
,

including modern Travancore The P andya ki n gdom was in .

the extreme south and included the districts now known as

,

M adura and Tinn e v elly The P an dyas were the m ost anci en t
.

of t h e three ; th e y are r eferr ed to in the i n scriptions of Asoka

in the third c entury b efore Christ and they carri ed o n a brisk

trade with the R omans imm ediately before and after the com
men cem en t of the Christian era The Cholas however rose .
, ,

i n pow er later on and we have seen that R aje n dra C hola was
,

the master of all Southern I n di a in the eleve n th century .

As elsewh er e t h e R ajputs then came and conquered The

,
.

Bellala R ajputs found ed a powerful kingdom on the rui n s of

the thr ee sister kingdoms in the eleventh c en tury and their ,

power was suprem e in Southern India until it was subverted

by the Mah omedan s i n 1 3 1 0 I n Eastern D eccan the .

Kakati R ajputs rose in t h e elev en th century and co n tinued to ,

rule till they w ere crushed by the M ah o medan s in 1 3 2 3 .

O ris s a .
— Th e fa m ous K esari or L io n dynasty rul ed i n
O rissa from the fift h to the tw elfth century and t h e wond er ,
84 T H E C IV I L IS AT I ON OF I N D IA

ful specimens of Hindu architecture in B h uvan eswar and

K a n arak of which we have spok en i n the last chapte r owe
, ,

their origi n to this great dyn asty Their capital was at .

B hu van es war a n d the n at Jajpur ; and in the te n th ce n tu r y

,

they founded Cuttack This dynasty was succeed ed by the .

Ga n ga or Gangetic line which ruled from the twelfth to the ,

sixteenth ce n tury and the prese n t Great Temple of Puri was

,

built by a prince of this dy n asty F ive kings of a n ew .

dynasty reign ed i n the sixteenth century after which t h e ,

cou n try was co n quered by the M ah om edan s i n I 5 6 0

B en ga l —Bengal like O rissa was draw n withi n the pal e
.

.
, ,

of Aryan civilisatio n by t h e conquests of Asoka i n the third

c e ntury before Christ a n d i n th e centuries after the Christian
,

era was the seat of five flourishing and populous kingdoms .

The n orth south east and west portio n s w ere know n res p ec
, , ,

t ivel as Pu n dra T am rali ta Samat at a and Kar n a Suvarn a

y p , , , ,

while Assam was k n ow n as K a m arupa .

I n the n inth century the R ajputs fou n ded the Pala dy n asty
of Be n gal and their possessions e xte n d ed as far as K an o uj
,

when M ahmud i n vaded that town But as the Palas mov ed .

westwards the dynasty of the Se n as replaced them i n the

,

east .

O n e of these Senas known as A disura is said to have , ,

brought learned Brahmans a n d Kayasthas fro m K an ouj to

Be n gal ; a n d an other of them B allala Sena is said to have , ,

classified those castes i n to Kulins or pure a n d M auliks ,

or mix ed The last of the Se n a ki n gs was ruli n g in

.

N adiya when Bengal was conquered by the Mah omedan s

in 1 2 0 4.

Litera tu r e an d S cien ce .
— The foregoing brief
accou n t of the diff ere n t states which flourished i n I n dia
i m mediately before the Mah omedan conquest will e n able
us to take a bird s eye view of I n dia under the R ajputs
’
-
.

T he country had settled dow n after dynastic and racial

wars and the di ff erent states for m ed a great confederation of
,

Hindu natio n s which could co mbine against a foreig n invad er

,

whe n there was occasion L iterature and scie n ce revived .

 A GE OF R AJ P U T A S C E N D E N C Y 85

und er this n ew order of things even as literature a n d sci ence ,

reviv ed i n W estern Europe under its new Germa n masters

from the twelfth c entury .

The poet M agha flourished in the eleventh c en tury in the

court of king Bhoja of Malwa of whom we have spok e n above , ,

and compos ed a poe m call ed Si up ala B adha which is widely s -

read in I n dia to the pr es ent day It is an episode fro m the .

old epic M aha bhar ata a n d describes the slaying of Sisup ala
,
-

by Krishna Anoth er poem N ais hadha which is fou n ded o n

.
, ,

another episode of the sa m e epic was composed by Sri Harsha , ,

probably of Benares or Bengal in the twelfth century Two , .

m eritorious dramas much read up to the pres e nt day the

, ,

M udr a R ahs has a and t h e V en i San har o Were also composed ,

i n this age So madeva of Kashmir compiled from a n ci ent

.

records his delightfii l and i n valuable collection of tal es k n own

as K atha Sar it Sagar a the ocea n of the riv ers of tales and
- -

the H itop ades a was compiled from the stori es of the old er
Pa n chatan tra spok en of i n the last chapter An d lastly
, .
,

J ayadeva of Bengal sa n g the loves of Krish n a and R adha in

his well known Gita Gov i da the most melodious lyric ev er
- -
n ,

written in t h e Sa n scrit lan guage The whole poem is an .

all egory m eant to depict the love of living beings for the
Supreme B ei n g but the all egory is overlaid a n d hidden by
,

rich and vivid description Th e pleasures of the se n ses — o f .

smell sight and touch— are thus described i n the loves of

, ,

milkmaids for Krishna

O n e with st ar blosso m ed ch am p a c
-
wr e at h d
e , woos h im to r st his
e
h ea d ,

O n th e d ar k pillo w of h er br ea s t so ten d erly outsprea d

A n d o er his bro w with rose s b l o wn s h e fan s a fr a gr an ce r a r e
'

Th a t fa lls o n th e en ch an t ed s en s e lik e r a i n in t hirsty a ir ;

W hile th e co m p an y of d am s el s wave m an y an odorous spr a y ,

A n d Krish n a l aughi n g t oyi n g sighs t h e soft Spri n g awa y

, , .

A n oth er g a z i n g i n his fa ce si ts wis t fully a p ar t , ,

S e a rchi n g it wi t h thos e loo k s of love th a t le a p fro m h ear t t o h ea r t ;

H er e y es —afi re w ith shy de sire veile d by th e ir l a sh es b l a ck ,

S p e a k so t h at Krish na c ann ot choos e bu t s en d th e m e ss a ge b a ck

I n th e co m p an y of d a m sel s whos e brigh t eyes i n t h e ri n g
S hi n e ro un d h im with soft m ean i n gs i n th e m erry ligh t of spri n g .
86 T H E C IV ILIS AT I O N OF I N D IA

Th e third of th at d a li n g b an d of d w llers i n th wood

on e zz e e
Body an d boso m p an ti n g wi th t h puls e of yo uthful blood e
L an s o v r h im a s i n his a a ligh tso m t hi n g to sp ak
e e , e r e e ,

A n d t h n wi th l a f soft lip i m pri n ts a kiss b lo w his ch k ;

e e -

e ee
A kiss th at t hrills an d Krish na tur n s at th silke to uch e n
To gi ve i t b a ck —Ah R a dh a forg t ti n g th too m uch
,

—S i
, , e ee .

E dw in A r n old
'
r s tr a n s la t ion .

In S cie n ce we have o n e bright name in the twelfth ce n

tury that of the re n ow n ed Bhaskara Acharya He com
,
-
.

let ed his great astro n omical work the Siddhan ta Sir oman i
p
-

, ,

i n 1 1 5 0 The preliminary portio n s of the work o n algeb ra a n d

.

arithmetic have bee n tra n slated into En glish by Colebrooke .

Religio u s B elief s — S co ts of S i va an d Vis h n u.

—Hi n du religion i n its new or P uranic form was favoured
, ,

by the R ajput masters of I n dia and spread itself over the

land a n d Buddhism died a natural death except in some
,

isolated spots O f the Puranic Tri n ity S iva and V ishn u

.
,

became popular with worshippers a n d rival sects pa ying , ,

special homage to the o n e or the other deity gradually multi ,

plied in I n dia The literature a n d architecture of the sixth

.
,

seventh and eighth centuries seem to i n dicate the predomi n a n ce

,

of the faith of S iva while the literature a n d architecture of

,
;

succeedi n g centuries seem to indicate the rising popularity of

the faith of V ishnu Kalidasa and B h aravi had su n g of S iva
.

in the sixth century ; M agha and J ayadeva sa n g of V ish n u

in the eleve n th and twelfth The L io n dy n asty had built .

temples to S iva at B huvan eswar i n the seve n th century ; the

Gangetic dynasty dedicated them to V ish n u at Puri in the
twelfth .The a n cient Epics a n d the Puranas themselves
passed through the hands of V aishn ava editors a n d the cult of ,

V ish n u is their prevailing complexio n i n their present form .

R ama the h e ro of the R a mayan a Krish n a o n e of the ,

heroes of the M aha bhar a ta an d ev e n Buddha himself who-

,

had received popular worship for a thousa n d years were all ,

co n sidered i n carnatio n s of V ishnu ; an d thus the popular mind

was co n ce n trated more a n d more o n V ishnu worship I t was -
.
,
’
however V ishnu s incarn atio n as Krishna that became
, ,

the most favourite object of worship Krish n a cult had pre .

-
 AGE OF R AJ P U T A S C E N D E N C Y 87

vailed for m a n y centuri es among di ffer en t s ects i n I n dia k n own ,

as t h e B h agavat as or P an ch arat ras but it was after t h e decline

,

of Buddhism that the c ult increased in popularity The .

popular mind n eed ed an object of worship n earer to the h eart ,

and clear er to the understanding than th e Univ ersal Soul of

,

the Upa n ishads a n d Krishna suppli ed this place which

Buddha had supplied for ten centuries The tales and .

leg ends of Krish n a supplanted the birth stories of Buddha ; -

sites of Buddhist pilgri m ages became co n verted i n to site s of

V aishnava pilgrimages and even Buddhist m on astic life ,

which had b ee n so strong an ag en t in th e propagation of the

faith was adopted to som e extent by the follow ers of Krish n a
, .

The millions of I n dia k n ew littl e of the philosophical doctri n es

of the Upa n ishads or the decayi n g superstitio n s of Bud
dh is m ; to the m Krishna worship came as a popular mo n o
-

theism d ecked i n popular lege n ds and tales W hile they

.

believed i n man y gods an d goddesses th ey still vaguely felt

,

that they were all but one Power and that Pow er appeared
,

on earth as Krishna to ov erthrow the wrong doer an d to -

e stablish righteousness . R eligious thinkers i n the s e ve n th a n d

eighth ce n turies like K umarila and Sankara had stood up
f o r V edic rite and doctrine ; but R aman uja the great
religious preacher of the twelfth ce n tury stood up for popular
monoth eism — for the religion of O n e God and that God ,

was call ed by the nam e of V ishnu or Krishna The move .

me n t started by R aman uja did n ot end with him or with th e

loss of Hindu i n depend enc e T he r eligious Hindu mi n d
.

still struggled through the lo n g c en turies of M ah o medan

rule towards a si mple a n d popular form of monotheism .

Amidst the dissensions of rival sects and i n spite of belief i n

,

m an y gods and the practice of ma n y rites and ceremo n ies ,

we still find the millions of I ndia holding to t h e cult of

Krish n a as a simple mo n otheism which they un derstood ;
a n d we fi n d religious refor m ers i n succeedi n g ce n turies
followi n g i n the footsteps of R am an uja a n d preachi n g the
faith of one God u n der the na me of V ishnu or Krish n a
, .

M o d em Lan gu ages — Such is the spirit of the moder n

.
88 TH E C IV IL I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

H in du r eligio n of t h e m illion and it is pr eached and pro

,

claimed in modern la n guages T h e old Sanscrit was a

.

spok e n tongu e down to about 8 0 0 B C and was th en . .

,

softened i n to th e Pali langu ag e in which Buddhism was pro

claimed T h e Pali languag e had broken up into t h e P rakrits
.

’
or the people s dial ects wh en the new form of Hi n duism
arose in the fifth or sixth century after C hrist A n d the .

great political and racial revolutio n of t h e ninth a n d tenth

centuri es which led to the asc en dency of the R ajputs a n d
,

spread the cults of Siva and V ishnu m ark ed a further change ,

in the spoken ton gue of I ndia and the P rakrits were replac ed
,

by the m od er n languages of I ndia Hindi in one form or .

a n oth er b ecam e the la n guage of N orth er n I ndia Ben gali and

M ah arat i continued to be spoken in t h e east and the west ;
while n on Aryan languag es lik e the Ta m il a n d Telegu p re
-

vailed i n the south .

M ah o m eda n Con q u es t o f N or th ern ln dia — I n .

the ce n tury following the death of M ah m ud Ghazni was ,

destroyed by a princ e of th e n ew dynasty of Ghor G h ya .

s u ddin of this house b e ca m e king of Ghor in 1 1

5 7 and his ,

brother Sh ah bh iddan M uhammad Ghori was the M oslem

, ,

conqueror of N orther n India .

In his first great e ncount er with th e Hindus M uha m mad ,

Ghori was not succ e ssful He had m ade an expedition into

.

India and had taken the town of B itun da when he heard that
, ,

P rith u R ai ki n g of D elhi and A jmir was marchi n g towards

that town with a larg e ar m y M uhamm ad Ghori returned .

to the r eli ef of t h e town and m et t h e Hindu ar m y at T irou ri

,

on the Saraswati river A great battl e was fought the

.
,

M ah o medan s w ere signally defeated and M uha m mad him ,

s elf was wound ed a n d with di fficulty carried o ff by a faithful

follower .

I n 1 1 9 3 M uha m mad Ghori r eturned to I n dia with a vast

ar m y of horse co m posed of T urks a n d Afghans
, ,

t h e bravest of his subjects P rit h u R ai too had receiv ed

.

r einforceme n ts from n eighbouring Hindu pri n ces a n d waited ,

with a large army on the sce n e of his former victory .

 R AJ P U I A S C E N D E N CY
‘ ‘

AGE OF 89

M uha mm ad att empted to surpris e the Hindu ar m y by cross

ing th e strea m before dawn and suddenly attacking the troops ,

but the Hindu cavalry kept t h e M osl em s in ch e ck until t h e

whole army fell into order Th e battl e rag ed t h e whol e day
.
,

and at sunset M uha mm ad Ghori put hi ms elf at th e h ead of

of his brav est hors emen covered with steel ar m our , ,

and dashed into t h e Hindu ranks The Hi n du forc e was .

“ ”
thrown into disord er and the prodigious army
, says ,

F eris h ta “ onc e shak en like a great building tottered to

, ,

its fall and was lost i n its o wn ruins P rit h u R ai was .

captured and kill ed i n cold blood .

D elhi and A jmir were thus conquer ed in 1 1 9 3 I n the .

followin g year M uhammad Ghori r eturn ed to I ndia and

.
,

defe ated J ay Chandra king of K an ouj and B enares

,
.

His former slave K utb ud din who was l eft as his d eputy
- -

, ,

co n qu ered Gujrat ; and his r enown ed lieutenant Bakhtiyar

K hilji conquered O udh B ehar a n d B en gal by 1 2 0 4
, ,
.

Two y ears after this M uh amm ad Ghori was assassinated

whe n h e was encamped on the I ndus and K utb ud din ,
- -

b ecame the first indep end ent M ah omedan king of D elhi and
of N orthern I ndia .

CHA P T E R V I I I

A ge of 1 2 06 r o
th e A f gh a n Ru le , 1
5 26
Th e S la ve D yn as ty, I 206 TO 12
90 .
—K ut b ud din
- -

b eca m e the i n depende n t sovereig n of N orth ern India in 1 2 0 6 ,

and as he was a slave in early life the dynasty h e founded is ,

know n as the Slave dynasty He died in 1 2 1 0 and his.

,

n ame is pr eserv ed by the magnificent K uth M i n ar a lofty and

.
-
,

tapering shaft of red sandstone encru sted with chapters fro m

the Kora n which still towers ov er the ruins of old D elhi
, .

After the short r eign of his eld est son Aram A ltams h , ,

who had been a slave under K utb ascended the thro n e and ,

proved a vigorous rul e r It was during his administration

.
90 THE C IV IL I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

that the locust hordes of the M ogh als swept over Asia and
pe n etrated into Europe The terrible Ch en gis K ha n did
.

n ot how ever cross the Indus a n d I n dia escaped t h e u n iversal

, , ,

cala m i t y for a time.

The M ah omedan rulers of S i n dh and Be n gal had assumed

K UTB -
MI N AR ,
115 1 111
.

i n depende n ce but Altams h reduced them to subjectio n

, .

The Hindus of M alwa still struggled for indepe n de n ce ,

but A ltam sh reduced Gwalior a n d Ujjain and demolished ,

the famous temples and statues of that ancient capital of

V ikramadit ya The e m pire of A ltams h was thus extended
.

over the whole of N orthern India before his death in 1 2 3 6 .

 A GE OF THE A F G H A N R U LE 91

He was succeeded by his daughter R az iya B e gam—the

o n ly female sovereig n who ever sat on th e M ah omedan
thro n e of D elhi She was l earned i n dustrious a n d ener
.
, ,

getic ; but the favo ur she showed to a n Abyssi n ia n slave

o ff e n d ed her g enerals a n d n obl es and she was deposed a n d ,

put to death in 1 2 3 9 .

Two w eak a n d worthless successors fi ll ed t h e thro n e of

D elhi until 12 4 6 when N asir ud din the youngest so n
,
- -

of A ltamsh ascended the thro n e The M ogh als were now

, .

i n possession of the fairest provinces o n the I n dus a n d N asir ,

ud din s mi n iste r Balban we n t to t h e Punjab to protect that

’
-
, ,

province He also fought with the Hi n du R ajas to the south

.

of the Jum n a a n d once m ore brought M alwa under subjec

,

tion defeati n g the R ajputs at M ewat i n a great battle

,
.

Balba n succeeded N asir ud din and ruled fro m 1 2 6 5 to - -

12 8 7 . He was vigorous and pro m pt but severe and mer ,

ciless . The for ests of M ewat were still full of the sturdy
Jadu n R ajputs a n d Balba n is said to have put
, of
them to the sword to bring the place u n d er subjection The .

V iceroy of Be n gal who had failed to crush a rebellio n was

executed and Balba n himself proceeded to that provi n ce a n d
,

suppr essed the rising O n the wester n fro n tier the Mogh als
.

agai n i n vaded India but were repelled by B alban s so n who

,
’
,

died o n the field Balba n died i n 1 2 8 7 a n d the short reig n

.
,

of a weak a n d dissolute successor closed the dy n asty three

years later .

Kh i j l i D yn a s ty 1 2
9 0 T O 1
3 2 0 — The empire of the
, .

Slave dy n asty varied in its extent from time to tim e accord ,

ing to the w eakn ess or the vigour of the em peror but unde r
A ltams h a n d Balba n it virtually extend ed over the whol e of
N orth er n India The s econd or K hil ji dynasty exte n d ed
.

the M ah o m edan e m pire into the D ecca n .

Jalal ud din th e founder of the Khilji dy n asty still

- -

, ,

fought with t h e sturdy Hindus of M al wa His n eph ew .

Ala ud di n the govern or of K arra plundered t he Buddhist

- -

, ,

mo n astery of Bhilsa pillaged B un delkhun d a n d then con , ,

ceived the great idea of p e netrating into the D ecca n A ft er .

92 TH E C IV IL I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

a march of 7 0 0 miles through the forests and mountains o f

t h e V indhya ra n ge he suddenly appeared b efore the Hindu
,

town of D eogiri He pillag ed the town defeated the Hindu

.
,

arm y a n d retired from the scene after levying a large ransom

, .

Treacherous and ruthless as he was vigorous Ala ud din ,

- -

i n vited his uncle the emperor to Karra m urd ered the old ,

man and asce n ded the thro n e in 1 2 9 5

, .

Th e Afghan power in India reach ed its zenith und er Ala

u d din K hil i The Hindus had recovered their in de en
-

j .
p
dence i n Gujrat ; but Karun R ai the Hi n du king fled
’
before Ala ud di n s forces and his wife the famous and
- -

,
’
beauteous Kamala D evi was take n i n to Ala ud di n s harem - -
.

A n h alwara was tak en Cambay was plun dered an d t h e whol e

, ,

of Gujrat was reconquer ed from the Hi n dus in 1 2 9 7 .

The M o gh als again poured i n to India but wer e d efeated ,

first at L ahore and then at the very gates of D elhi A .

third invasion was beaten off in 1 3 0 5 .

Ala ud di n made vigorous endeavours to crush the R aj

- -

puts who still maintain ed th eir ind ependence in R ajputa n a ,

and w ere n ever brought u n der M ah omedan rule H e took .

R in tamp u r from the Jaipur R ajputs i n 1 3 00 a n d captured ,

C hitor from the Sis odia R ajputs in 1 3 0 3 ; a n d his general

defeated the R aja of M al w a and r educed Ujjain M andu , ,

D har and Chanderi

, .

The conquest of the D ecca n was however th e m ost , ,

’
m em orable event of Ala ud di n s reig n His general
- -
.

M alik Kafur penetrated through Be n gal i n to W arangal ,

the capital of the Hi n du kingdom of Telin gan a in 1 3 0 3 ,

.

Thre e years after the same general m arch ed through M alwa

into the M ahratta cou n try took D eo giri and reduced the
, ,

Hindu king R am D eo to be a tributary u n de r D elhi .

Kafur pe n etrated into the K arn at ic a n d built a m osque on ,

the extreme southe rn poi n t of I ndia .

But the design of the co n quest of all India was n ot desti n ed

to succeed Gujrat rose in rebellion the R ajputs recovered
.
,

C hitor and Harpal D eo t h e son of R am D eo stirred up

,

t h e D ecca n to arms an d expelled the M ah o m edan garriso n s .

 AGE OF TH E A F G H A N R U LE 93

O n receiving these accounts , says F eris h t a, the ki n g bit “

”
his o wn fl esh i n fury His rage aggravated his ill n ess , a n d
.

he died i n 1 3 1 5 .

The remainin g five years of t h e rule of this dynasty were

disfigu red by cri mes cruelties and vice and the dynasty ca me
, , ,

to a n e n d i n 1 3 2 0 .

Tug h la k Dy n a t
s y 1 3 2 0 T O 1 1
4 4
— Ghiyas ud di n
,
.
- -

t h e founder of this hous e was the so n of a Turki slave by a

H in du mother of the l at tribe His son J una K ha n co n .

quered W arangal a n d the ruling dynasty of the Kakati

,

R ajputs cam e to an e n d .

J u n a Khan succeeded his father un der t h e title of M u

ha mmad in 1 3 2 5 He was an accomplished a n d l earned
.

prince studi ed astro n o m y wrote po etry and knew logic a n d

, , ,

Greek philosophy but his e cc en tricities verged on madness

, .

His r eign was o n e long r evolt of the provin ces a n d by the ,

ti me of his death the greatn ess of the empire of D elhi had

passed away .

M uham m ad s m ad scheme to co n quer China by se n ding

’

forces through t h e Himalayas e n ded i n disaster W ith a .

view to reconquer Souther n India he twice dragged the

populatio n of D elhi across the V in dh yas to D eogiri which ,

h e called D aulatabad but t h e e xpeditions ended in fami n e

,

and ruin And in order to r epl e nish his treas ury he issued
.

copper coins at a high imaginary value ; but for eign mer

chants refii s ed t h e currency trad e ca m e to a standstill and , ,

he had to rec e iv e bac k his depreciated coins in tax es His .

exorbitant tax e s and cruelties bro ught ruin and disaster .

The vast fabric of the Afghan empire i n I ndia broke to

pi eces un d er his rule Be n gal r evolted a n d was form ed i n to
.
,

an independent M ah o medan kingdom i n 1 3 40 Bukka R ai .

,

t h e Hindu king of t h e K arn at ic built a new capital at ,

V ijain agar and founded t h e gr e at kingdo m known by that

,

na m e i n 1 3 44 Hassa n Ga n gu found ed an indep endent

.

M aho med an kingdom in the D eccan in 1 3 4 7 and his ,

dynasty is known as the Bahmani dy n asty Ther e were .

i nsurrections in Gujrat M alwa and S i ndh ; and while stil l

, ,
94 T H E C IV I L IS AT I ON OF I N D IA

tryi n g to quell these various insurrectio n s M uhammad died i n

1
351 .

was during the r e ig n of M ahmud the last ki n g of this

It ,

dy n asty that the terrible Timur pe n etrated into I n di a cap

, ,

t ured D elhi a n d m assacred an d pillaged the citize n s i n 1 3 9 8

, .

L ade n with booty he r etir ed by way of M irut and Hardwar

, ,

and the n proce ed ed on his famous expedition agai n st B ajaz at .

S a iya d D yn as ty 1 4 1 4 TO 1 4 5 0 Timur had ap

,
.
-

pointed Saiyad Khizr Khan as governor of M ulta n and

L ahore and after the extinction o f the Tugh lak hous e
, ,

Khizr K ha n and his three successors ruled for thirty six -

years virtually as emperors of D elhi .

L o di D yn as ty 14 5 0 TO 1 5 2 6 — B eh lul L odi the n

,
.

founded a n ew dynasty a n d added the Pu njab and J uan p ur

,

to D elhi His son S ika n dar rea n nex ed Behar ; b ut S ik

.

’
an dar s son I brahi m was a w eak and worthless pri n ce The .

easter n portions of the e m pire threw o ff the yoke of D elhi ,

an d the gover n or of the Punjab i n vited the great Babar

of Kabul to co n q uer I n dia Babar came a n d defeated
.

the I n dia n army i n the great battle of Pa n ipat in 1 5 2 6 .

I brahim was kill ed a n d Babar occupied D elhi and Agra

, ,

a n d thu s fou n d ed the M oghal empire in I n dia .

S p rea d o f M a h o m eda n R o w en — The great poli

tical result of the three ce n turies of Afgha n rule in I n dia was
the spread of the M ah omedan power over a great part of
that co n ti n e n t The co n quests of vigorous rulers like K utb
.

ud di n A t ams h and Balba n spread that power over a grea t

-

, ,

part of N orthern India from the Indus to the Brahmaputra ;

and Ala ud di n pe n etrated beyo n d the V i n dhya M ou n tai n s an d
- -
,

establish ed M osle m supremacy i n the D ecca n a n d the M ahratta

cou n t ry A n d although from the middle of the fourteenth
.

ce n tury the house of D elhi b ega n to decli n e it is n ecessary ,

to remember that this decline did n ot i n a n y way a ff ect the

asce n dency of th e M ah omedan power O n the co n trary
.
,

as the dominion of D elhi was gradually co n tracted inde ,

p en de n t M ah o medan ki n gdo m s rose in the remote provi n c e s

and the rise of these i n depe n de n t M ah omedan ki n gdoms
 AGE OF TH E A F G H A N R U LE 95

m eant a further consolidatio n of the M ahomedan power in

I ndia .

B engal became a n i n depen d ent M ah omedan kingdom i n

1 3 4 0 a n d retai n ed its i n dep end e nce for ov er two ce n turies
, ,

u n til it was once more a nn exed to the empir e of D elhi by

Akbar the Great The provinc e of Gujrat i n the west also
.

beca m e an independent M ah o medan kingdom in 1 3 9 1 and ,

remained ind ep e ndent until t h e tim e of Akbar I n M alwa .

the R ajputs had m ad e rep eated a n d d etermined e ff orts to

maintai n their i n dep end enc e but had bee n crushed ; a n d ,

wh en the power of D elhi declin ed M alwa beca me a n inde

p endent Mah o medan ki n gdom S indh was a n independe n t
,

M ah omedan state a n d even J n anpur including t h e cou n try ,

of Be n ares became a n i n d epend e nt Mah omedan state i n

,

1
394
In the D ecca n a n d the M ahratta country also a n i n de ,

pe n dent M ah o medan ki n gdom arose as the power of the

house of D elhi disappeared The great Bah m a n i dy n asty .

founded its rule i n the D ecca n i n 1 3 4 7 and r eprese n ted the ,

central Mah o medan power in the south as the house of D elhi ,

was the ce n tral M ahom edan power in the n orth After a .

pro sp erous rule of n early a century and a half the dynasty

decli n ed i n power a n d its vast te rritories were formed i n to
,

fi ve separate states viz Ahmadnagar , . Bijapur

Golco n da Berar a n d Bidar
But this disintegratio n of the Bahmani kingdom
i n dicated the decline of that house n ot of the M o h amedan ,

power O n the co n trary the es tablishme n t of t h e sm aller

.
,

states spread a n d consolidated that power over the whole of

the D ecca n .

I n Souther n I n dia i e south of the K rish n a river the

,
. .
,

power of Hindu rulers was never e ff ectually broke n and th e ,

Hindus r etain ed the ir independ ence until the British co n quest

in t h e last c en tury T h e Hindu kingdo m of V ijain agar
.
,

fou n ded i n 1 3 44 was overthrown i n 1 5 6 5 by the combined

,

M ah o medan rulers of the D eccan in the battle of Talikota ,

but local Hindu chiefs continu ed to rule in Souther n I n dia .

G
96 T H E C IV I L I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

T he a n cie n t k i n gdom of Pa n dya with its capital at M adura

, ,

boasts of a lo n g list of Hi n du kings a n d dy n asties from the

fourth century before Christ to the eightee n th ce n tury after
Christ . T he Chera ki n gdom boasts of fifty ki n gs ; a n d the
gr eat Cholas who were at one time all powerful i n Souther n
,
-

India e n umerate sixty six besides collateral dy n asties

,
-

, .

These facts will e nable us to grasp the broad results of the

Age of the Afghan rule i n I n dia If our attentio n is n ot .

confi n ed merely to th e fortu n es of th e house of D elhi we ,

shall fi n d that the three ce n turies of the A fgha n rule mea n t

the steady expa n sio n of M ah omedan power i n I n dia D uri n g .

the first century a n d a h alf this expa n sio n was due to the
vigour of the D elhi r ulers who broke the pow er of the
,

Hindus n ot o n ly on the I n dus a n d the Ganges but also i n ,

r em ote provinces like Gujrat and M alwa Be n gal a n d the ,

D ecca n . A n d duri n g the last ce n tury a n d a half the M aho

meda n expansion was due to the establishm ent of i n d ependent
M ah omedan ki n gdoms in those places where the Hindu power
had bee n b roke n a n d crushed It was by this double pro
.

cess t h at th e ascend en cy of th e Mah o medan power was estab

lis h ed i n I n dia .

T here were however three well defin ed zon es i n which

, ,
-

the Hi n dus still retai n ed their independence ( 1 ) the sub

Himalaya n States from Kashmir to Assam were protected
from M ah omedan i n vasions by their great mou n tai n barriers
( )
2 i n the ce n tral zone of I n dia from R ajputa n
, a through ,

the wilds of Cen tral I n dia to O rissa o n the easter n sea the
, ,

Hi n dus maintained their indep endence by their valour or by ,

r easo n of the n atural defences of the states ( 3 ) Souther n

India or India south of the Krishna river remained inde
, ,

pendent u n der its Hi n du chiefs or N ayaks in conseque n ce ,

of its remote n ess from D elhi a n d eve n from the D ecca n

,

M ah om edan states .

In tern al A d m in is tra tion — Such are the broad poli

.

tical r esults of the Afgha n rule of 3 2 0 years i n I n dia fro m ,

1 2 0 6 to 1 2 6 But it is n ecess ary to go b elow the surface

5 .

of these political results a n d to discover how they aff ected

,
 AG E OF TH E A F G H A N R U LE 97

the people for the history of the peopl e a n d n ot of the ,

royal dy n asti es is the history of I ndia The wars and

, .

crimes of the D elhi ki n gs o fte n mislead the stude n t of history ,

and give him a n unfavourable idea of the A fghan rule in

I ndia A sober and impartial exa m inatio n of the condition
.

of the pe ople during this period disp els many mis con cep
tio n s and enables h im to for m a truer judgment a n d a juster
,

est1mate .

The great red eem i n g feature of the Af gha n rule i n I n dia

was that it did not disturb the i n ter n al administrative arrang e
m ents ; it did n ot i n terfere w ith the people and the ir
constituted authorities I n Bengal t h e great m ass of the
.
,

agricultural populatio n lived unde r th e ir h ereditary lan dlords

or Z e m indars who were ar med with pow ers to pres erve the
,

peac e and punish crim e and the Af ghan rul ers w ere too
,

wise or too indol e nt to interfere with this arrangeme n t .

Great slices of t h e country were carved out for Afgha n

J aigirdars or military chi efs but these men k n ew littl e of
,

the fiscal arrangements of th e cou n try a n d i n most cases they ,

were co n tent to draw their reve n ues from the Z emindars ,

l eavi n g the relatio n s b etwee n the Z emindars a n d the people

u ndisturbed Mah om edan K azis a n d Kotwals ( judges and
.

policem en ) were appoi n ted i n large town s but nine tenths ,

-

of the populatio n lived i n villages and saw little and knew

littl e of these authorities a n d t h e Mah om edan conquest of
,

B engal scarc ely a ffected t he conditions of their life Agri .

culture prospered in B en gal the re n tal co n tinued to be th e

,

same as before the co n quest of the Afgha n s a n d the peaceful ,

populatio n of Be n gal villages a n d tow n s were e n gaged i n

those prosp erous industries which suppli ed t h e m ark ets of
Asia and of Europe with their manufacture s and the product
of their looms .

The eco n omical conditio n of the villages i n N orther n I ndia

was di ff ere n t from that of Be n gal I n stead of living u n der
.

hereditary Z emindars they lived under the village co m mu n ity

,
-

system Each villag e was an organised unit mai n taining

.
,

order i n the village adjudging all disputes settlin g the distri

, ,
98 T H E C IV I LI S AT I ON OF I N D IA

butio n of the arable la n d , and collecti n g a n d payi n g its quota

of revenue to the State Into this system of village self
.

gover n m e n t the M ah omedan rulers a n d governors did n ot

co n sider it their i n terest to e n croach D ynasties succeeded .

dy n asties o n the thro n e of D elhi wars swept by the fenced ,

a n d defen ded villag es but the agriculturists co n tinued their

,

useful labour from century to ce n tury little caring who ,

sat on the thro n e of D elhi or o n the provi n cial M us n ud

,
.

O ccasio n ally if the cou n tryside was harri ed by a foolish king

or chief the villagers som etimes l eft the ir ho m es with their
,

wome n an d childr en property and plough cattle and they

, ,

retur n ed and settled dow n i n their homes whe n the storm was
over But such harassme n t of the agricultural people was
.

n e ither freque n t n or co n tinuous and throughout N orthern ,

I ndia the hardy an d industrious villagers were generally

left alo n e by their restless a n d u n quiet rulers a n d plied ,

their peaceful agricultu ral i n dustry und er their village

community system which was old even i n the day s of
M an u . The follies a n d crimes of ki n gs which fill so large ,

a space i n historical works did n ot gen erally touch the well

,

being of the masses ; wars and dissensions amon g rival chiefs

ge n erally le ft them at peace and acts of oppressio n a ff ecti n g
the agricultural population were not frequent because they ,

were not co n ducive to the i n terests of the rulers themselves .

O n e more r edee m i n g feature of the Afgha n rule was that

although the rulers were div ided from the mass of the people
by their religio n they adopted India as their country a n d had
,

n o interests outside India W he n M ahmud of Ghaz n i made

.

his raids i n to India he carried o ff the treasures of temples a n d

,

palaces as well as thousands of e n slav ed me n and wome n from

,

I n dia to enrich and populate his m ountain hom e The Afgha n

,
.

rulers from the ti m e of K u tb ud din had no s uch obj ect

- -
,

and had n o home outside India India paid no tribute to a .

foreign country a n d supported n o foreig n rul ers

, Her .

reve n ues wer e not spent outs ide her n atural fronti ers a n d ,

her trade and manufacture s were n ot injuriously aff ected by

the trade a n d ma n ufactures of any foreig n coun try However .
 AGE OF THE A F G H AN R U LE 99

crude the notio n s of some of the e m perors may have bee n ,

th ey gen erally u n derstood that their ow n i nterests were

identical wi t h those of their subj ects a n d that their rev en ues
,

proc eed ed fro m the prosp erity of the p eaceful and i n dustrial
p eople of India F eris h ta tells us that t h e reign of Ala
.
,

u d di n
-

, early in th e fourteenth century witness ed a ge n eral ,

i n crease of wealth which ma n ifested itself i n private and public

buildings throughout the empire And to wards the clos e of
.

the sam e c e ntury the enlightened F iroz Shah constructed

irrigation works Sarais hospitals and bridges and cut the
, , , ,

great J um na Canal which spread a m argin of fertility on

both sides of the river M any oth ers o f the Afghan rul ers
.
'

prom oted such works for the b enefit of agriculture which

conduced to t h e interest and glory of the ruling houses .

CHAPT E R I!

Co n d ition of th e P eop le un d er t h e A fgh a n R u le

Th ree Centu ries o f th e A f gh an R u le — Co m

parisons are ofte n instituted between the co n dition of the
peopl e of I n dia and the people of Europe during di ff er en t
p eriods of modern history Such a co m parison would not be
.

to the disadvantag e of I n dia for the three c enturi es of the

Afghan rul e i n India correspo n di n g to the F eudal A ge m
Europe — from the ti m e of F rederick Barbarossa and Philip
Augu stus to that of Colu mbus and M artin L uther The .

wars of I n dia were l ess harassing less frequent and caused

, ,

less misery to the people tha n t h e wars which desolated eve ry

,

country in W ester n Europe The oppression of M usal m a n

.

gov ernors and J aigirdars was less hurtful to the i n dustries a n d

agriculture of India tha n the oppr ession of baro n s a n d feudal
chiefs who dwelt in th eir castl es and robb ed villages and tow n s .

Trade and manufactures flourished i n India as they flourished

nowhere i n Europe except in Italy and the N etherla n ds ; and
the religious reforms a n d intellectual movements amon g the
100 TH E C I V I L I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

people of India were carried o n more peacefully and with less ,

persecutio n and cruel r epression than in Europ e , .

R ge li i o u s M o ve m en ts — I ndeed if we turn to the

religious movem ents of t h e Hindus under the Afgha n rule ,

we shall fi n d how little the conquest of the throne of D elhi

and of provi n cial thrones by the M us alman s really aff ected
the peac eful avocations and pursuits the thought a n d t h e ,

life of the people W e have referred in a previous chap

.

ter to the hankering of the Hindu mind towards a personal

God which led to the spe cial worship of Siva a n d V ish n u
, ,

and which was t h e cause of the ris e of ma n y s ects all through

India F rom the tenth century down wards the sects wor
.

shippi n g V ish n u o r his incar n atio n Krishna seem to have

, ,

increas ed in num ber and influe n ce and m uch of the literature ,

of the eleventh and twelfth centuri es be ars the impress of

V ais h n an a i n fluence .

m — R
R a an u j a j who flo urished in South ern
aman u a ,

I ndia i n the twelfth ce n tury is the first of a long lin e of the

,

V ais h n an a teach ers of m ediu val I n dia He proclai m ed the .

u n ity of God und er the n a m e of V ishnu and he p ro ,

clai m ed th e love of God as the way to salvatio n Th e .

ki n g of the Cholas see med to be inclined towards the

faith of S iva a n d R aman uja had to fly from his territory
,

to M ysore a n d co n verted the ruler of that country to his

,

faith and doctrine He received co n verts fro m ev ery class

.

of people and is s aid to have established seve n hundred

,

mo n asteries b efore his death Buddhism was virtually ex

.

ti n ct i n I n dia but i n this new form of Hinduism we fi n d

,

how much influe n ce Buddhism had i n m odif yi n g the a n cient

c ult of V edic rites an d sacrifices to a cult for the m asses .

R a m a n a n d a L— F ifth in t h e apos tolic successio n from

R am an uja was R ama n a n da who in t h e thirteenth or four
,

t een t h c e ntury spread his faith and doctri n e i n N orthern

I n dia . He made Be n ares his headq uarters but travell ed ,

t hrough India far a n d wide to preach the religio n of O n e

God u n der the title of V ishnu R aman uja had appealed to

.

t h e higher castes and had written i n the Sa n scrit la n gu age .

 P E O P LE U N D E R A F G H A N R U LE 10 1

R aman anda appealed to the people a n d preach ed i n Hindi ,

the language of the people of N orther n I ndia R eligious .

movem ents hav e i n India as elsewh ere promoted literary

culture a n d the develop ment of languag e s a n d the Hi n di ,

language was h elped and e n riched by the m ovem en t of R ama

n a n da Thus about the very time whe n t h e great Ala ud
.
-

di n was e stablishi n g the M usalma n power i n N orther n

India and the D eccan we find a greater ma n than
,

Ala ud di n preaching the lov e of O n e God am ong t h e

- -

millions of N orthern I ndia drawing clos er the Hindus of all

,

s ects a n d all castes by his doctrin e an d e n richi n g the lan ,

guage a n d literature of N orthern I n dia by his life work -

.

The historia n of India tur n s with a sens e of relief from the

an n als of wars and political eve n ts to the silent work of such
a man a ffecti n g the liv es and thoughts of millio n s of peac eful
,

men and wo m en e ngag ed in trade industries a n d agric ultur e

, , .

K a bir —K abir a disciple of R a m ananda appeal ed to th e

.
, ,

Hi n dus and M ah omedan s alike and pr ea ched the purity of

,

life a n d a perfect faith i n God The God of the Hi n dus .

,

h e said was the same as the God of the M ah o m edan s be h e

, ,

R
invok ed as ama or Ali “ W hat avails it to wash your
.

mouth cou n t your beads bathe i n holy streams a n d bow i n

, , ,

temples if whilst you mutter yo ur prayers or go o n pilgri m

, ,
” “ I f the C reator
ag es dec eitfulness is i n your hearts ?
,
”
dwells in taber n acles whose dwelli n g is t h e universe
,
?

The city of th e Hindu God is in the East ( B enares ) and ,

the city of t h e M usal m an God is in t h e W est ( M ecca ) but ,

s earch yo ur hearts and there you will find the God both of
,
”
Hindus and M us alman s K abir s teachings known as
.
’
,

K ahir Cha ur a are preserved i n Be n are s but his follow ers

, ,

are numerous in t h e D eccan Central India , and Gujrat, .

N an a k — N anak preached t h e sa m e popular monotheism

in the Pu n jab ; and the Gra n th of N a n ak is w ell known ,

because the s ect of t h e Sikhs he foun ded rose to political im

portance at a later period N a n ak was bor n i n 1 4 6 9 and he
.
,

invited Hi n dus a n d Mus alm an s alike to be come his followers

an d to worship t h e O n e God of the universe F or a long .
10 2 TH E C IV IL I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

ti m e his followers were a peac eful sect until the persecution s ,

of t h e last e m perors of D elhi turn ed th em into the bravest

m ilitary sect of m od e r n I ndia .

Ch a ita n ya —I n B engal t h e worsh ip of V ish n u or

.

Krishna inspir ed the earli est poetry and songs extant in the
vernacular languag e and Chaitanya who was born in N adiya
, ,

i n 1 4 8 6 pr eached popular monotheism and the worship of O n e

,

God under the n am e of V ishnu or K rish n a H e too invited .

, ,

M us alman s as well as Hindus to join his sect but his follow ,

ing was al m ost e ntir ely Hindu At the present day it com .

pris e s n early t h e whol e of the Hindu populatio n of Bengal ,

e xc epting t h e higher castes who are faithful to the cult of

,

S iva or rather his fe m ale count erpart S akti D urga or K ali

, , , ,
.

D a d u — L as tly D adu a r eligious r eform er who was bo rn

. , ,

in Ah m adabad in 1 5 44 l eft b ehi n d him a body of sacred

,

poetry extending to lines F ifty disciples spread his.

teachings all through R ajputan a .

L itera ry M o vem en ts —S o u th em In dia — L i terary .

cult ure went ha n d in hand with th ese religious m ovements

all over India during th e A ge of the Afghan rule South ern .

I ndia boasts of four literary la n guages viz t h e Ta m il and , .

the T el egu the K anarese and the M alayalam ; but a m ong

,

thes e t h e Tamil is the best known for its ancient literature .

Buddh is m found a conveni ent v ehicle in the la n guage of

S outh ern India as of N orthern India and there is a great ,

b ody of Buddhist or Jaina literatur e i n Tam il dating from

the ninth to the thi rteenth century The Chin tama m a
'

.
,

ro m antic epic of lines by an unknow n po et is the ,

best specime n of this class W h en the worship of S iva and

.

V ishnu slowly suppla n ted Buddhism i n the south literatu r e ,

reflected the cha n ge The R amayan a was adapted into t h e

.

Tamil la n guag e about A D 1 10 0 ; a vast n umber of Hymns

. .

to S iva wer e co m posed between the twelfth and fiftee n th

centuri es and a Great Book of four thous and Hym n s to
,

V ishnu also grew up i n the sa me age .

T o Southern India also belo n gs the credit of having pro

duced the most re n ow n ed Sa n scrit scholar a n d comme n tator of
 P EO P L E U N DER AF G HAN R U LE 10 3

the M iddle Ag es or th e Age of the Afgha n R ule as we

,

have called the period Sayana or M adh ava the minister of

.
,

the founder of the Hindu kingdom of V ijain agar

co m piled his re nown ed com m entari es o n the V edas and other
sacred works which have hand ed do wn to m odern I ndia t he
,

traditio n al interpretatio n of the past and are still considered

,

authoritativ e all ove r India N o single work co m posed i n

.

I n dia withi n the last thousand years has do n e so much to

pres erv e a n d ha n d down to the moder n Hi n dus the a n cie n t
learni n g of their fathers as the renow n ed com mentaries of
S aya n a F oremost in inaugurating moder n religious reforms
.
,

foremost i n the productio n of m odern lit eratures South ern , ,

I ndia also stands forem ost in the great work of preservi n g

and interpreting to us our anci ent and sacred literatur e .

N o r th ern I n dia — Hindi is the vernacular of N orthern

I ndia a n d Hi n di literature begins with t h e epic of Chand
, ,

the contemporary of the last Hi n du ki n g of D elhi The .

religious mov ements of R amananda a n d Kabir followed and ,

led to the for m ation of a vast m ass of sacred Hindi literat ure .

R ajputana boasts of heroic ballads and poetry connected with

the m artial d eeds of its feudal chiefs .

Th e D ecca n — I n t h e D eccan the earliest M ahratta

poets dating from the thirteenth centu ry were all religious
, ,

poets a n d were no doubt i n spir ed by those religious move

,

m ents which a ffected the whole of I ndia The character .

of t h e poetry is much th e same as i n other parts of I n dia .

B en gaL— I n B engal too the earliest poets who wrote

, ,

i n the ver n acular a n d whose compositions are extant wrote

, ,

on Krishna and his lov es all egoric ally represe n ti n g the love
,

of a personal D eity for all b eings J ayadeva had set the

.

example i n the twelfth ce n tury by his immortal Sanscrit

lyric the Gita Ga vin da and i n the fourte enth c entury
,
f

B idyap at i of Behar a n d Ch an didas of B e ngal follow ed in

his footsteps and compos ed touching songs which are still
,

su n g and read by their country m en The following metrical

.

translation of o n e of the songs of Ch an didas the e arliest ,

poet of Be n gal whose com positions are extant i n the ver

 104 THE C I V I L I S AT I O Nmom 0 1:

h ac ular langu ag e will indicate how the idea of the love and
,

faith of all li ving beings for the D eity is thinly disgu ised in
the lov e of a wom a n for her lov e r R adha speaks with all .

the passionate love of a woman all the fervent faith of a ,

worshipper
O h w can words m y thou gh t s p t
o or rai
Th lo n gi n g an d t h i nw rd s t ri f
e e a e
I n l if i n d a th i n a ft r births
e, e , e -
,

B tho u t h M st r of m y Lif
e e a e e
F or t thy f t m y h ea rt is ti d
o ee e ,

Thy m rcy an d thy lov I cr av

e e e,
I off r ll m y lif an d soul
e a , e ,

To b t hy worshipp r an d sl av
e e e
And I h q u stio n d i f o n a rth
ave e e e ,

I n n th r world i n u pp r sky
e e -

, e ,

Is th r a tr u an d t n d r so ul
e e e e e ,

R g rds m with
e a pityin g y e a e e
W ho na m s m y n m i n lovi ng voic
e a e e,
I n t h r world
n e arth or sky
e -

, e , ,

To who m will R a dh a t ur n for a id ,

To who m O K ish n s av to t h ? , r a e ee
O n ith r b n k of str am of lif
e e a e e,
I n G okul an d i n ski s a bov e e,
Thy lot us f t a lon can s av ee e e,
A n d t o t hos f t I t urn i n l ov e ee e
R j ct m n o t for I m w a k
e e e , a e ,

0 do n ot t ur n thy fa c a wa y e ,

F or sav t h M ast r of m y Lif

, e e e e,
Poor R a dh a h n o oth r w y as e a
I f for a m o m n t th I m iss e ee ,

A sti ll an d d a th lik tr an c I w e -
e e o n ,

H old f s t to Krish na si n gs t h b rd
a , e a ,

An d w r h im lik a pr cio u s sto n

ea e e e

I n the fifteenth c en tury the great Sa n scrit epics t h e ,

R a mayan a and th e M ab a b /J ar ata wer e cond e nsed into -

B engali v ers e and these translatio n s have app eal ed to the

,

m illion in all succeedi n g time A n d th e religious refor m er .

Chaitanya who pr each ed the faith of V ishnu early in the

,

sixteenth cen t ury gav e a further impetus to the cultu re o f

,

Bengali literatur e .

Thus und er t h e rule of t h e Afgha n em perors we see a n

,

activity i n thought and action as varied and as many sided -

as life i ts elf Th e d eeds of emperors and military co m

.

m a n d ers s ee m to us of small importan c e whe n placed by the

 P EO P LE U N D ER AF G HAN RULE 10 5

side of those livi n g currents of thought and r eligion and

literature of agriculture trade and vari ed industries which
, , , ,

occ upi ed the n atio n Th e i m pr ession that we receive fro m

.

a careful survey of all th es e facts is n ot of a country con

s tan tl
y desolated by war and tyranny but of a nation which , ,

u n d er its wise or foolish kings peac eably pursu ed its agricul,

tural i n dustry prospered in trade and m anufactu re cultivated

, ,

poetry and arts and dared to think for its elf and to struggle
,

for religious reform .

F oreign Tra vellers in th e F if te en th Cen tu ry .

T h e te stimo n y of foreign travellers who visited I ndia during

this age co n firms the i m pr ession N ot many of them have .

l eft records of their trav els and m uch of what is left co n cer n s
,

the strange custo m s and m ann ers t h e tem ples and images , ,

t h e religious rites and cel ebrations of what was then con ,

s idered th e la n d of m arvels But n ev ertheless their .

, ,

accounts of the cou n try and occasi o nally of towns and

,

industri es throw some light o n the condition of the peopl e

, .

N ico la Con ti — O n e of the earliest European trav ell e rs

.

to I ndia who has l eft r ecords of his travels was N icolo Conti ,

a V e netian He visited I ndia early in the fiftee n th century

.
,

and V ijain agar then t h e Hindu capital of Souther n India

, ,

struc k him by its wealth and grandeur H e d escribes the city .

as sixty m il es in circuit and c ontaining a hundred thousand

,

m en abl e to bear arms C onti subsequently visited B en gal and

.
,

was pleased with its richness and beauty He ca m e to a city .

which he calls Cern ovem ( Savarn agram i n East B engal ) ,

where the riv er was said to be thirte en miles broad ( prob

ably in t h e rainy season ) Th e banks wer e covered with.

citi es and b eautiful garde n s He asc end ed th e Ganges till

.

he came to a famous and powerful city which he calls M aur

azia ( M onghyr ) abounding in gold silver and pearls
, , , .

A bd u l R iz a k — A M ah om edan traveller who visit ed ,

I n dia i n the middle of the fiftee nth century has also left so m e ,

interesting accounts Shah R okh the successor of Ti mur on

.
,

the thron e of P ersia se n t Abdul R izak to India desiring

, ,

him to report on the coasts and th e country Abdul R izak .

,
10 6 TH E C IV I LIS AT I ON OF I N D IA

like Co n ti is eloquent in his d escription of V ijain agar The

, .

city was surround ed by seve n walls forming the same n umber ,

of e n closures within each other Two of the outer e n closures .

co n tai n ed fields a n d garde n s but the four i n ner ones consisted

,
’
of houses shops a n d palaces Around the king s palace were
, , .

four extensive bazaars on the right of the palace was a gr eat

,

cou n cil hall supported by forty colum ns a n d on the left was ,

the treasury At Calicut Abdul R izak wit n essed a great festi

.

val at which a thousa n d elepha n ts were collected by the prince

, .

B a r th em a — Similar accou n ts are left to u s by B arth ema

.
,

who visited India about the close of the fifteenth ce n tury .

At Ca m bay in Gujrat he came across the Jai n s who lived ,

there i n large n umbers They were me n says the traveller.

, ,

who ate n othi n g that had blood an d kill ed nothi n g that had ,

life ; who were neither M oslem s nor Hindus and would be ,

saved if they w ere baptized o n account of the many good ,

works they performed The king of V ijain agar appeared to the

.

traveller the greatest mo n arch that he had ever heard of a n d ,

his capital had the finest air a n d the most b eautiful situatio n
that was ever seen Calicut was a cosmopolitan port con
.
,

tai n i n g people from Arabia Egypt Persia I n dia Burma , , , , ,

Sumatra a n d the I n dia n isla n ds a n d its trade was i n the

, ,

hands of the M oslems who n umbered fifteen thousa n d Bar

, .

thema also visited the east coast of India and Be n gal a n d ,

the n sailed for Burma Sumatra a n d Bor n eo , , .

C HAPT ER !

A ge of th e M ogh a l Ru le, 1
5 26 TO 17 07

B a ba r , I
5 26 TO 15 3 0 .
— Babar the sixth i n desce n t
,

from the great Tartar conqueror Timur was born i n 1 4 8 2 , ,

a n d was after various adventures expelled from F ergh an a

and Samarkh an d and seized the kingdom of K abul in 1 5 0 4
,
.

Twe n ty two years after this he wo n the first battle of Pani

-

pat a n d co n quered from the Afgha n s the thron e of D elhi

,
.
 AGE OF THE M O G H AL R U LE 10 7

The R ajputs proud of their unco n quered i n depe nde n c e

, ,

were n ow his great rivals a n d R ana Sa n ga of M ewar ,

adva n ced with a great army to co n test the thro n e of D elhi .

The R ajputs however were defeated i n the great battle of

, ,

F atehpur S ikri and Babar took the forts of Chanderi and

,

R in tam ber He also subjugated Behar before he died i n 1 5 3 0

. .

H u m ayu n an d th e S ur Dyn as ty ,
1
530 TO 1 5 56 .

O u th e d eath of Babar his son Hum ayun succe eded him ,

’
in India whil e Humayun s broth e r Kamra n ascended the
,

throne of Kabul and I ndia and Kabul thus be came s eparate

,

ki n gdoms at th e very co mm enc ement of the M oghal rul e .

Hum ayu n had a ch equered career He attempted to con .

quer Gujrat from Bahadur Shah a n d J uan p ar and Behar ,

fro m Sher Khan H e was defeated by the latte r in 1 5 3 9

.

and 1 5 40 a n d was compelled to leave D elhi and s ee k for

,

shelter i n the court of P ersia It was during this tryi n g and .

u n fortun ate jour n ey out of I n dia that his quee n gave birth to
the great Akbar i n 1 5 4 2 .

Sher K ha n thus became emperor i n 1 5 40 u n der the

title of Sher Shah fou n ded the Sur dy n asty a n d thus o n ce
, ,

m ore brought N orther n I n dia u n der the Afgha n r ule for a

time He co n quered the Pu n jab from Kamra n suppressed
.
,

a rebellio n in Bengal a n d subjugated M alwa He also de

, .

feated the M arwar R ajputs took Chitor from the M ewar ,

R ajputs and died i n 1 5 4 5

, He was a stro n g and able ruler
.
,

i n troduc ed great reform s i n th e civil gover n me n t and con ,

structed t h e Grand T ru nk R oad fro m Be n gal to the Pu n jab ,

w hich remai n s to this day a monu m ent of his far sight ed -

wisdom .

’
Sher Shah s line held the throne for el e ven years more
but gradually declined i n power and the provinces i n cluding , ,

the P unjab M alwa and D elhi revolted Hu m ayun saw his

, , , .

opportunity and re entered Hindustan ; and his gallant boy

-

Akbar with the g en eral Baira m in command defeated the

, ,

Afghan army in the seco n d battl e of Panipat in 1 5 5 6 I ndia .

was thus r econquered by the M ogh als a n d Humayun dyi n g ,

shortly aft er young Akbar succeeded i n the same year

, .
10 8 TH E C I V IL I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

A kba r th e G rea t, 5 6 TO 16 0
15 5
—Akbar was t h e .

real builder of t h e M oghal e m pire in India He was the .

greatest sovereig n of India sinc e the ti m e of V ikramaditya of

Ujjai n who prec ed ed him by a thousand years He was the
, .

co n tem porary of so m e of the greatest m on archs of Europe

Henry IV of F rance ! ueen Elizabeth of England and
.
, ,

Philip I I of Spain And h e has had n o successor in India

. .

u
p to the present day who has equall ed h im in all the V i rtues
of a great and gifted ruler — m ilitary genius a n d courage
and deter m ination in the field benevolence a n d trust i n
,

the people in civil administration a broad m inded sympathy

,
-

and a ge n uine confi dence in the m which evok ed gratitude

and fi delity and unfaltering support M ilitary prowess and .

victori es in the field are poor claims to the title of greatness

co m pared to that lofti n ess of soul that capacity to trust a n d
,

to evoke trust that gen erous and catholic sy m pathy which

, ,

enabled Akbar to w eld a great a n d durable em pire out of the

poor fragments of military conquests l eft to him by his father
and his gra n dfather .

W ithi n four y ears after succeedi n g to the thro n e Akbar

had freed himself of his tutelage under Bairam a n d assum ed ,

the direct ma n age ment of a ff airs Bairam Kha n revolted

.

and was defeated a n d died shortly after

,
.

Between 1 5 6 0 and 1 5 6 7 Akbar was co n sta n tly e n gaged

in quelling disorders and i n settling th e country He sup .

pressed the rebellio n s o f his ow n gen erals in M alwa O udh , ,

a n d Allahabad ; he subjugated Behar repell ed the invasion ,

of the Punjab by his brother Hakim a n d extended his ,

conq uests to Go n dwa n a i n the south A strange romance .

hangs over the conquest of Gondwana which was then ruled ,

by D argavati a Hindu pri n cess and one of the most wo n

, ,

derful characters in Indian history Sh e was a n able admin i

.

s t rat o r and delighted in m anly sports and ma n ly ex e rcises .

R ui n s of a hill fort which she defended against A kb

’
ar s

forces are still poi n ted out n ear J ubbulp u r a n d her name is ,

still remembered i n the Cen tral Provi n ces .

The great R ajput chi efs were wo n over by a policy of

 AGE OF TH E M OG H AL RULE 109

conciliatio n and trust The R aja of Jaipur gave his daughter

.

i n marriage with Akbar The R aja of Jodhpur gave h is .

granddaughter to the son of Akbar The chiefs of Jaipur .

and Jodhpur were treated with high ho n our and placed i n

high comma n ds and were a m ong the most faithful supporter s
,

of the throne Th e M ewar R ajputs however rej ected all

.
, ,

allia n ce with a M ah omedan house and the heroic Pratap ,

S inh retreated to the mountains after t h e capture of Chitor by

Akbar and remained unconquered until his d eath After his
, .

death t h e M ewar R ajputs founded a n ew capital at Udaipur

which is at the present day one of th e loveliest cities in India .

W ith the help of his R ajput fri ends and supporters Akbar
red uced the independent M ah o medan kingdo m s of N orther n
India G ujrat was conq uered in 1 5 7 2 —7 3 with the h elp of
.

R aja Bhagwa n Singh of Jaipur and his adopted so n the

“

cel ebrated Man Si n gh Bengal was once more u n ited to the

.

e m pire i n 1 6 —8 0 by A kb ar s Hindu ge n eral T o dar M all

’

5 7 , .

K abul came under the r ul e of Akbar o n t h e death of his

brother Hakim a n d R aja M an S ingh the m ost powerful
, ,

of A kbar s ge n erals was se n t as governor of that place

’
, .

An d lastly the a n cie n t Hindu kingdom of Kashmir which

, ,

had maintained its indepe n de n ce behind its strong moun tai n

barrier was at last brought under M ah omedan rule i n
,

1 86 S indh was conquered m Ka n dahar fell i n to

5 .

’
1 92
5 ,

Akbar 3 hands i n 1 5 9 4 and thus his great empi 1e won by ,

vigour and consolidated by a policy of wisdom conciliation

, , ,

a n d trust e xte nded from the Brah maputra to the mountai n s

,

of Kabul a n d Ka n dahar .

But Akbar not only built up a n d co n solidated the Moghal

power in N orther n India he exte n ded that power to the ,

D eccan F or a lo n g ti me Cha n d Sulta n a t h e ! u een R egent

.
,
-

of Ahmadnagar a n d a heroic character in Indian history ,

defended th e independence of that state Akbar n ow a n old .

,

m an of fifty seven p e rsonally led his army in 1 5 9 9 the heroic

-

, ,

Chand Sultana was kill ed by her m utinous troops a n d Ah ,

madn agar was taken But the state was not finally subju
.

’
g ated till th e reign of Shah Jchan Akbar 3 real conquests i n
1 10 TH E C IV I L I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

the D ecca n were virtually limited to Khandesh . He died i n

16 0 5
—The greatn ess of
.

A kba r Civil A d m in is tra tio n

’
s
the sovereig n who built up th e M oghal e m pire i n India is

A K BA I US TO MB AT SEKA N D R A .

manifest i n his system of civil admi n istratio n He divided .

his great a n d populous empir e into fi ftee n Subahs or pro

vi n ces viz D elhi Agra Kabul L ahore M ulta n G ujrat
, .
, , , , , ,

M alwa A jm ir O udh Allahabad Behar B en gal Kha n desh

, , , , , , ,

Berar a n d Ahmadn agar A V iceroy was appoi n ted i n each

,
.

province a n d u n der him were th e D iwa n or r eve n ue offi cer

,
-

a n d the F oujdar or military commander Kazis or law .

o ffi cers a n d Kotwals or police o fficers were appointed i n

,
-

town s for the administratio n of justice an d the mainte n a n ce of

order ; but i n the i n terior of the coun try the a ff airs of the
people were happily left to their own ancient ins titutio n s the ,

village co m munities in N orthern I n dia and th e co n stituted ,

authority of Z emindars i n B engal All through the five cen .

t uries of the M ah o medan rul e in I ndia from 1 2 0 6 to 1 7 0 7 , ,

t h e self governing i n stit utio n s of the people were left u m

-
 AGE OF TH E MO G H A L RULE 111

touched And th ey answered their purpose i n keepi n g order

.

i n the cou n try in settling disputes and distur b a n ces in

, ,

punishi n g crimes a n d o ff e n ces and i n protecti n g the lives a n d

,

property of the people M or e tha n this they served as a

.
,

scree n betwee n the people a n d the rapacity of the rulers ; a n d

the follies a n d cruelties of emperors and viceroys of which ,

we hear so much in history did n ot touch the lives o f ,

the p eac eful agricultural a n d i n dustrial populatio n of I n dia ,

living u n der the shelter of their time honoured institutio n s -

.

The on e imperial measure which touched the lives of the

millio n was the land r evenu e system The Hindu general .

T odar M all was also A kbar s F ina n ce M inister a n d was

’
,

the greatest fina n cier that I ndia has kno w n in moder n tim es .

A survey of th e vast empire was made land was measur ed , ,

the produce of every acre was settl ed and the Gover n me n t ,

demand was fixed at o n e third of the esti m ated gross pro

-

duce This dema n d is double the rate sanctio n ed by the

.

Hi n du laws ; but it should be remembered that A kbar s ’

de m and was meant to be a n ideal demand a n d could n ever ,

have been strictly enforced from year to year The esti .

mated land reve n ue in N orthern India i a excluding K abul , . .

a n d the D ecca n was about a hundred millio n rupees or ten

, ,

millio n pounds sterli n g .

J a h an gir 16 0 T O 1 6 2 7 — Jahan gir who succeeded

5,
.
,
’
his father was a w eak prince without his father s great
,

abiliti es ; and for a long ti me his celebrated ! uee n Nur ,

J ahan ru l ed the empire

, N ur Jaha n was the daughter of a
.

Persian and as a girl often used to come to A kbar s harem

,
’

with her mother J aha n gir saw her and was attracted by
.

her beauty but Akbar refused his consent to his o ff er to

,

m arry her and the girl was married to one Sher Afghan
,

who was sent away to Bengal where a jaigir was bestowed ,

o n him .W hen Jaha n gir becam e e m p eror he still remem

bered the girl who had fascinat ed him in his youth Sh er .

Afghan was killed and N ur Jahan was taken to D elhi where

,

after a ti m e Jahangir m arried her i n 1 6 1 1 .

I n M ewar the h e roic Pratap Sinh was d ead an d h is 3 011 ,

H
1 12 TH E C IV IL I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

no m inally sub m itted to the new emperor I n the D eccan .

,

Ahmad n agar shook o ff the M oghal yoke a n d b ecame o n ce ,

more free u n der M alik Am b ar I n the west Ka n dahar was .

,

co n quered from Jaha n gir s troops by the Persia n s ’

.

The assumptio n of all powers by ! uee n N ur Jaha n created

a strong oppositio n ; the emperor s so n a n d his ge n eral M aha ’

bat K ha n rose agai n st him a n d in the midst of troubles a n d

,

wars the emperor died i n 1 6 2 7 S ir Thomas R oe a n En glish .

,
"
ambassador visited J aha n gi r s court i n 1 6 1 5 .
,

1 6 2 7 T O 1 6 8 — J ahangir s eldest son

’
S h ah J a h a n 5 ,
.

hurried from the D ecca n a n d proclai m ed himself emperor

,

i n 1 6 2 8 ; and he made his throne safe by the inhuma n

m urder of his brother and all memb ers of the house of
Akbar who could possibly aspire to it .

’
Shah Jaba n s reign is m arked by one loss and one im
portan t additio n to the M oghal e m pir e Kandahar and a .

great part of the Kabul t erritory were finally lost to I n dia .

O n the other hand the state of Ahmad n agar was n ow

,

fi n ally added and the other t wo Mah omedan stat es i n the

,

D eccan Bijapur a n d Golconda were forced to pay tri b ute

, ,

to D elhi .

M ah omedan architectur e in I ndia reach ed its zenith in the

reig n of Shah Jaha n The J umma M a jid and the D iw an
. r

i Kb a r of D elhi and the M od M a jzd and the Taj M ahal

'

, r

of Agra are like drea m s in marble and strike ev ery moder n

, ,

traveller with admiration .

The cru elty a n d crime by which Shah Jaha n had cl eared his
way to the thron e brought their punishment i n his old age .

His four so n s r ebelled against h im and t h e youngest and ,

ablest of them Aurangz eb deposed him and asce n ded th e

, , ,

throne i n 1 6 5 8 Aurangzeb then ex ecuted two of his

.

brothers and the third died miserably a fugitive in A rracan

, ,
.

A u ra n gz eb 1 6 5 8 T O 1 7 0 7 — The M oghal attacks o n

,
.

the independence of the southern M ah o medan states Ah ,

madn agar Bijapur a n d Golconda were acts of doubtful

, , ,

wisdom Those states uph eld the M ah o medan power in th e

.

south a n d the weakening of those states weakened the M aho

,
 A GE OF TH E M O G H AL R U LE 1 13

meda n rule which could n ot be uph eld in the D eccan from

,

D elhi. The Mahrattas rose in power as the Mah omedan

states decli n ed
.

I N T ER I O R OF TA ! MA H A L ,
A A
GR .

Th e name of Sivaj1 stands high est a m ong the great Hi n du

names of moder n tim e s as the nam e of Akbar stands highest
amon g the M ah omedan Akbar built up the M oghal e m pir e
.
1 14 TH E C IV I L IS AT I ON OF I N D IA

i n the sixteenth ce n tury S ivaji built up the Mahratta empire

i n th e seve n tee n th At a n early age Sivaji took adva n tage of
.
,

the weakness of the southern M ah omedan states to carry o n

his pl undering expedition s far a n d wide He took a large .

number of hill fort s carried o n a desultory war with Bijapur

, ,

and at last co n cluded a tr eaty with that state i n 1 66 2 by ,

which he was left i n poss essio n of the e n tire terri tory from P una
to the Krish n a river I n the n ext year he took Pu n a from
.

A u ran gz ebs g eneral and i n 1 66 4 he ope nly asserted his

’
,

indepe n de n ce and assumed the title of R aja

, .

Au ra n gzeb n ow had recourse to his Hindu ge n erals He .

first se n t J aswant Sinh of Jodhpur and then the abler Jai ,

S inh of Jaipur against the M ahratta chief

, S ivaji was .

unable to resist the i m perial ge n eral He submitted to Jai .

Sinh givi n g up som e of his territory and consenting to

,

retain the others as a ja igir from the emperor He was .

eve n induc ed to visit D elhi a n d a g enerous tr eatment o n this

,

occasio n would have secur ed h im as a friend of the M oghal

throne for life The faithless Aurangzeb impriso n ed him but
.
,

the deep witted M ahratta escaped and retu rned to his country
-
,

i n 1 6 6 6 breathing vengeance against th e M oghal power

, .

Jai S inh died on his way to D elhi Jas wa n t Si n h could .

eff ect n othing and made a treaty with S ivaji ack n owl edging
,

him as R aja M ahabat Kha n who was then s ent with

.
,

troops by Aura n gzeb was not more successful and

, ,

a large M oghal force was defeated by Sivaji in battle In .

1 6 7 4 S ivaji again crowned hims elf as ind epend ent king .

I n the following year S ivaji crossed the N arbada and for ,

the first time carried his ravages n orth of that river I n 1 6 7 6 .

he crossed the K rishna to the south and passed close by ,

M adras where the E nglish were ab out to build a fort call ed

,
’
F ort St D avid. Sivaji s vast territory exte n ded from the
.

N arbada in the north to beyo n d th e Krish n a in t h e south ,

and he di ed in t h e height of his power and glory in 1 6 8 0 .

W ithin the period of a lifetime he had raised t he Mahrattas

to the rank of a great political po we r in India .

A u ran gz ebs bigot ry and i n tolerance co m pleted the rui n

’
 AGE OF TH E MO G H A L R U LE 1 15

of the M oghal empir e He forbad e all oste n tatious display

.

of Hindu worship prohibited Hi n du religio us f airs a n d

, ,

d estroy ed m an y famous Hindu temples He imposed a .

tax call ed ji iya on all non M us alman s a n d passed a sense

z -
,

less law that n o Hindu should rid e a litter or an Arab horse

without permission H e comm enced a cruel war agai n st
.

the R ajputs o n trivial grounds and for ever alie n ated that ,

faithful n atio n fro m th e house of D elhi by d evastating their

territory bur n ing th eir villages cutting dow n fruit trees a n d
, ,
-

carryi n g away th eir women and children After the death of .

Sivaji he cross ed t h e N arbada for the conquest of the D eccan .

As the M ahrattas were n ow a great political power it would ,

have bee n wis e i n Aurangzeb to have left alo n e and ev en ,

strengthened t h e feudatory Mah o medan states of Bijapur

,

and Golconda But the u n generous a n d n arrow m ind of

.

Aurangz eb was i n capable of such a wise policy he han ,

k ered to d em olish and lev el down every sembla n ce of auth o

rity exc ept his ow n He took Bijapur in 1 6 8 6 a n d Gol
.
,

conda in 1 6 8 7 a nd thus the last remai n s of the i n dep e ndent

,

Bahmani kingdom founded i n 1 3 4 7 ca m e to a n end in th e

, ,

D e ccan aft er 4 40 years .

Aura n gzeb n ow turned all his r esources to crush the

M ahrattas a n d failed
, The M ahrattas avoided a pitched
.

battle a n d their fleet horsem en spread o n every side and

,

swept o ver the D eccan while Aura n gzeb was fruitl essly ,
“ ”
besiegi n g obscure forts By hard fighti n g . says th e ,

Mah o meda historian

n K hafi Khan ,
“ by the expenditur e ,

of the vast treasur e accu mulated by Shah J ahan and by th e ,

sacrifice of ma n y thousands of men h e ( Aurangz eb ) had ,

p enetrated i n to their wr etched country had subdued their ,

lofty forts and had driven them from hous e and hom e ; still
,

the daring of the M ahrattas increased and they p en etrated ,

into the old territori es of the i m perial throne plu n deri n g an d ,

”
destroyi n g wherever th ey went .

Enfeebled and e xhaus ted by this system of warfare for

nearly twenty years agai n st a n intangible foe the gra n d army ,
‘

of Aurangz eb which had i n vaded the D eccan with a n oste n

,
1 16 T H E C IV I L IS AT I O N OF I N D IA

tat ious display of wealth and prowess n ever se en before i n th e

south retreated i n disgrace a n d disorder a m idst the shouts
,

and insults and incessant firing of t h e M ahrattas who pressed

b ehind Aura n gzeb at last reach ed Ah mad n agar a n d died i n
.

170
7 amidst the ruin of a great em pire caused by his i n tol era n ce
,

a n d his bigotry within the period of his ow n lifetime .

The character of Akbar the Great who built up the M oghal

empire has ofte n b een con trasted with that of Auran gzeb
who ruin ed it a n d the study is n ot p ro fitless Both Akbar
, .

and Aurangzeb poss essed extraordinary qualiti es which com

mand the adm iration of me n Both were disti n gu ished for .

bravery i n war for determi n ation of purpose for celerity and

, ,

vigour of action Both possessed dilige n ce a n d a capacity

.

for work which astonished their contemporaries Both were .

e n dow ed wit h a rare intellig en ce a strong judgment and a , ,

kee n insight i n to huma n character But to these qualities .

Akbar added a large h earted sympathy a wis e toleration a -

, ,

g e n erous trust and confide n ce i n his subj ects which helped ,

him to fou n d and weld together a great empire out of poor

fragme n ts Aura n gzeb on the other ha n d was disti n gu ished
.
, ,

by a cold duplicity a deep seated distrust of all me n a n in

,
-

tolera n t u n generous and unsympath etic policy towards his

,

subjects which first ali en ated the R ajputs then demolished

, ,

the Mah o medan states of the D ecca n a n d ultimately wreck ed ,

the great empire which his great gra n dfather had built up -
.

CHAPT E R ! I

Con d ition of th e P eop le un d er th e M ogh al R u le

OF all the valuable records which hav e bee n left to us of
’
Akbar s enlightened ad m inistratio n i n I ndia the most val uabl e ,

is the A in i A é bar i} a descriptive and statistical accou n t of

- -

1 Tr an sl a t d fro m t h P rsi an by Prof ssor B l h m an d C olo n l ’

e e e e oc an e

J arr tt an d p u blish ed by th Asi a tic S oci t y of B n g al I h ave r lied

e , e e e . e
o n t his schol arly an d acc ur at tr an sl at io n an d n ot o n M r G l ad wi n s
e , .
'

old er versio n .
P EO P LE U N D E R M OG H A L R ULE

A K BA R S EM P IR E
’

(5 I
P R O V N C ES

ge t h e r th
to W i

K A S H MIR , S IN DH 8 c K A N DA H A R

A . O .
1 18 TH E C IV I LI S AT I ON OF I N D IA

his great empire T h e work b egins with a n account of the

.

’
e m peror s hous ehold and giv es us valuabl e inform ation a bout
,

t h e various i n dustri es and oc cupations of t h e people The .

most valuable portion of t h e work how ev er is the statistical , ,

account of th e fifteen Subahs into which t h e empire was

divided ( b efore K ashmir Si n dh a n d K andahar w ere con , ,

quered and included in it ) a n d it gives us a g en eral idea of ,

the conditio n of the people in the sixtee n th ce n t ury .

O f the fiftee n Subahs or provinc es into which the empir e

was divided Kabul was outsid e the natural fro n tiers of I ndia
, ,

while K ha n desh Berar and Ahmadnagar were but i m pe r

, ,

f ectly conquered The remaini n g eleven Subahs com

.

pris ed v irtually the whole of N orther n India and the ,

followi n g accou n t of thes e eleven Subahs is cond ens ed from

the A in i— Aé b ar i -
.

Th e S u ba k of B en ga l h d we t y fo u r Sarka rs or districts a t n The -

v nu
r e e e was r p ees u or e rly m ill io na
d h lf po ds a n an a a un
n n a
st erli g Th e Ze m i d rs wer e m ostly K yasths by cas te T h e pro
. a .

vin cial troops a sort of m i l i i a

, t un an
d er th e jaigird ar s d z em i d rs n a ,

wer e ava an
c lry d n an an
i f try besid es e le ph ts g s un and , , ,

a
bo ts a a
T h e S r k r of G hor gh
. a at na
(m od er n D i jp u r an a u
d R n gp r )
p rod u c ed silk a a
T h e S rk r of S o
. na a n
rg o ( m od er n a a
D cc ) prod c ed u
fi n e m u sli n n n
C hitt ago g was an exc ell e t port
. and was th e r esort of ,

Christi an m erch ant

s a a a a n n u
T h e S rk r of S tg o ( m od er H gli) h d t wo
. a
t u n u a a a n
ports r esort ed o by E rop ea s C tt ck h d sto e fort P u ri bo aste d . ,

a t
of t h e gr e t em pl e of j g a anna an a
th an
d B l asore d j alas o re were ,

i m port ant a n
pl c es i Oriss a a
R i ce was th e st ple food of t h e p eop l e i
. n
u a
th e S b h of B e g l n a an a
d h r vests were b d t a un an
, .

Tbe S u b f a vn
a k o B eh a r h d s e e Sarkars or dist ric t s v nu
Th e re e e was .

u
r p ees 5 , a t v a a n un
or li tl e o er h lf m illio po ds st erli g Th e n .

ta
m i l i i was ava an
c lry d n ant a
i f ry , besides bo ts Agr i .

u u a a u va n
c l t u r e flo rish e d in high degr ee esp eci lly th e c lti tio of ric e ,
.

u a n u an
P l s e was e t e by th e poor ; s gar c e was b d t P a un an atnawas an
-
.

i m port ant a ua n
city R ajgar h d a q rry of sto e res em bli g m rbl e
. n a .

n n a n n a
M o ghyr was d efe de d by stro g sto e w l l fro m t h e G g es to t h e an
n v u u n
hills I C h am p ar 1m etch e s gr ew w itho t plo ghi g Tirh u t was
. an .

an n n u nn
ci e t pla ce of H i d lear i g an d R oht s was a an na
i m pr eg bl e hil l
,

fort .

Tb S b / f A ll h b d h a d t
e u a z o S ka or d istricts
a a a Th r v nu en ar rs . e e e e
w as up sr ee 69 5 or o v r h alf a m illio n po un ds st rli n g Th
, e e . e

local m ili t i a wa cava lry an d

s i nf an try b sid s l ph an ts , e e e e .

A l l a h a b a d wa _a s cr d pl a c of pilgri m a g an d B na s wa a l arg
s a e e e, e re s e

ci ty an d th m os t s acr d to wn of th e H i n dus
e e d th chi f s at of an e e e
H i ndu l ar i n g e Jn an p ur wa a l arg cit y an d K ali nj ar wa an an ci n t
n . s e ,
s e
 P E O P LE U N D ER M O G H AL R U LE 1 19

n u
H i d bill for Agric t
u lt ur flourish d i n th Subah ; b aut iful cloths
. e e e e
wer e wo e v n a na an d c rp ts at J an p ur
t B e r es , a e n .

Th e S u ba h of Ou dh h a d fi Sa k or districts Its r v nu wa ve r ars . e e e s

rup s ee or a bo ut h a lf a m illio n po un ds st rli n g Th loc a l e . e
m ili t i w a 7 6 4 c ava lry an d
as i n fan try besid s l ph an t s Agri
0 , e e e .

c ult ur fl i h d an d ric w gr o w
e ou r s O udh wa
e , of t h l arg st e as n . s on e e e

citi s of I n di a a d t h an ci t c a pit al of t h h ro of th R m y
e , n e en e e e a a an a .

B ar a ich wa a l arg t o wn with a m i n t for copp r coi ag i n its v ici n ity

s e , e n e .

T h p opl of t h H i m ala y a r gio n s d sc n d d to t h

e e e e pl a i n s with n e e e e e
th ir m rch an dis of go l d copp r l a d m us k ho n y gi n g r wooll
e e e , e , e , ,
e , e , en
st u ffs h awk s an d fa l con s c a rryi n g th m
, th b a cks of m an d , e on e en
po n i s an d go ats an d xch an g d th m for c l oths s a lt or na m n ts
e , e e e , ,
e ,

gl ass an d arth nwar of th p l a i n s L k w w s l arg to wn a m ids t

e e e e . u no a a e
d l ightfu l s urroun di n gs
e .

Th S b h f A g
e u h a d thirt en S k or dis tricts Th r ev nu
a o ra e ar a rs . e e e

wa ru pe s
s e or so m ewh a t un d r a m illio n an d a h a lf e
poun ds st rli n g Th m ilit i a wa
e cava lry an d
. i n fantry
e s ,

besid s l ph an ts Th cli m at e wa good a gric ul t ur flourish d fr ui ts

e e e . e s ,
e e ,

an d flow rs m l o n s an d gr a p s w r bun d ant Agr wa t h c a pi t a l

e , e e e e a . a s e
of A kb m pir H i M aj s ty h a s bu ilt a fort of d sto n
’

ar s e e . th s e re e, e
lik of which tr av ll rs h av n v r r cord d I t co n t a i n s m or th an
e e e e e e e e . e
fi v h un dr d b u ildi n gs of m a so n r y a ft er th
e e b autiful d sign s of , e e e

B n ga l an d G uj r at which m a st rly sculpt ors an d cunn i n g artist s of

e , e
for m h av fa shio n d a s archit ctur al m od ls
e P al a c s w r also bu i l t
e e e . e e e
by Akb a r at S ikri an d i n both t h pl a c s c arp t s an d fi , stu ffs w r e e e ne e e
wov n an d nu m ro us h an dicr a fts m n h ad co n st an t occu p at io n
e , e F i ne e .

big m an go s gr w i n th v ici ity s ug ar of xtr m e whit en ss w

e e e n , e e e as
m anu fa ct ur d an d i n digo of th fi n st q ua lity wa obta i n d
e , M a th ur a e e s e .

wa a s acr d pla c of t h H i n d us an d co nta i n d fi

s e e t em pl s ; whil e e n e e e
Ka n ouj w an an ci n t H i n du c api t l G walior was an i m pr g
as e a . e
nabl hill fort Alwar produc d gl ass an d wooll c arp ts an d P th
e , e en e , era
an d oth r pl c s h d copp r m i n s
e a e a e -
e .

Th S b h f D lh i co n t a i n d ight Sa k
e u a o or districts Th
e e e r ars . e re
venu wa ru p se s a bo ut a m illio n an d a h a lf po un ds
ee or
st rli n g Th m ili i a forc wa
e . e c ava lry an d t i n fan try e s .

M u ch of th e l n d of t h Su ba h wa li abl to i nun d tio n

a Th h a rv sts
e s e a . e e
w r good an d t h fr ui ts of I r a T ur an an d H i n dus tan w r "
e e , e n , ,
e e

gro wn h r D lhi wa a pl c of gr at an tiq u i t y

e e . e d for a l o n g ti m
s a e e ,
an e
th e c a pit al of th M h m d m pe rors Th r w r m i n s of go l d
e a o e an e . e e e e e ,

si lv r iro n an d copp r i n K u m a o n a w ll a m usk d r an d th y k

e , , e , s e s -
ee e a
co w h a wk s an d fa lco n s silk an d ho n y
, H is r w fo un d d by th , e . a as e e
E m p ror F iro wh bro u ght t h w t rs of t h J um n a t it by a c ut t i n g
e z , o e a e e o .

S hi d w
ar n a pl a c of n ot an d Th n s wa r wa an an ci nt H i n du
as e e, a e s e
pla c of s an ct ity clos by th fi ld of K uru K h t wh r th w
e , e e e -
s e ra e e e ar
of th M h bh t is s id t h av b en fo ught
e a a -
ara a a o e e .

Th S h h qf L h
e u h a d fi v D o abs or t r a cts of co untry be t w n th
a a or e e ee e
ri v rs Th r v nu w ru p s
e . e e e or un d r a m illio n an d a
e as ee e
h a lf po un ds st rli n g Th m iliti forc wa e c avalry an d
. e a e s
i n fan t y Th pro vi n c wa pop ulo us an d f rt i l an d th irrig atio n wa
r . e e s e e, e s
chi fly fro m w ll s Th wi nt r was s v r r th an i n an y ot h r p art of
e e . e e e e e e
12 0 T H E C IV I L IS AT I O N OF I N D IA

I n di a Th e h an dicr a ftsm en were s kilful an d gold an d silver were

.
,

obt a i n ed by was hi n g t h e soil i n so m e pl a c es L a hor e was a l ar ge city .

,

an d was s tr en gt h ened by Akbar by for t ificatio n s an d beau t ifi ed by ,

s u rro un di n g gard en s N agarkot was a fort an d a H i n d u pl ac e of

.

pilgrim a ge Rock s alt was fo un d i n th e Til a r an ge

.
-
.

Th e S u bah of M u lta n h a d a r evenu e of ru pee s or less th an

fo ur h un dre d tho us an d po un ds st erli n g Th e m iliti a co n sist ed of .

c avalry an d i n fantry Th e cli ma t e was like t h a t of L ahor e

.

S ub a h b ut t h e r a i n fa ll was le ss an d t h e h eat e xc essi ve

, M u lt an was
, .

an an ci ent ci ty an d h ad a brick fort ; an d Bh a kk a r h a d anoth er for

,

t r ess. Fro m Bh a kk ar str etch ed th e vas t d es er t over which th e si m oom

blew d uri n g th e thr ee m o nths of t h e hot weat her Th e I n dus ch an ged .

i t s ch annel fro m ti m e to t i m e an d cult i vat io n an d v ill ages followed

,

i t s co urs e .

Th e S u b a h o Aj w ir h a d s even Sarkars or dis tric t s Th e reve nue

f .

was ru p ee s or n ear ly three q ua rt ers of a m illio n po un ds -

s terli n g Th e m iliti a force was

. ca va lry an d i n fantry .

T h e 5 0 11 was s an dy wa t er was obt a i na b l e at gr ea t d e pth an d t h e

, ,

crops were depen dent o n r a i n Jawa r was th e m os t a bun d an t crop . ,

an d th e p eople d welt i n tent sh a p ed b am boo h u ts Th e Suba h was-

.

for m ed of th e R ajp ut S t at es of M ewar M ar war an d H arowte ( Ko t a , ,

an d B un di ) which wer e v irtually un d er th eir o wn R aj p ut chi efs wh o

, ,

o wned al legi an c e t o Akb ar .

Th e S u bah o! G uj r a t h a d n i n e Sarkars or districts Th e r evenu e .

was ru p ees or o ver a m illio n poun ds s terli n g Th e loca l .

m ili t i a was c avalry an d i n fantry Th e soil was s an dy . ,

an d j awar an d B aj r a were th e pri n cip a l food of t h e p eopl e W h eat .

was i m por ted fro m Ajm ir an d M alwa an d ric e fro m th e D e cc an , .

From th e s ea port of P a t tan t o Barod a t h e country was full of m an go

groves yi eldi n g excellent fru it F igs an d m usk m elo ns fr ui ts an d
, .
-

flo wers gr ew i n pl ent y P a i nters en gr avers an d o th er h an dicr a fts

.
, ,

m en were num ero u s Th ey i n la id m oth er o f p e arl with skill produ ce d

.
- -

stuffs worke d wi th gold thr ea d an d velvets an d bro ca des an d a lso , ,

i m itated s tuf fs fro m Persi a Turk ey an d Europ e Th ey also forged

, ,
.

exc ell ent s words an d d a ggers an d arro ws an d c arri ed o n a brisk tr a d e ,

i n j ewellery an d silver Ah m a d ab a d t h e ca pit a l of t h e pro vi n ce at th e

.
,

t i m e of Akbar was a n oble an d prosp ero us city with two forts an d

,

a tho us an d m osq ues C am b a y was a flo urishi n g s ea port with fi n e

.

b uildi n gs freq uented by m erch ant s of m an y nat ion s J h alwar was

, .

for m erly a s epar ate pri n cip ali ty an d was i n h abited by th e Jh a l a ,

R aj p u ts P att an exporte d fi n e co tto n cloths Ch am p an ir was a

. .

hist oric hill for t an d a bo un ded i n fr uit s Su r at was a c el ebr a te d .

s ea port n ear t h e m ou ths of t h e Tap t i an d th e Pars ees s ettle d i n t his ,

district "
Thr ough th e wide t ol er an ce of h is M aj est y every s ect enjoys
.

freedo m Thro ugh t h e n egligen ce of m i n isters of Sta te an d th e co m

.

m an d e rs of fro nt i e r provin ces m an y of t h ese Sarkars are i n th e pos

,

s essio n of European nat io ns .

"

The S u ba h of M a lw a h a d twelve Sarkars or district s Th e revenue .

wa s ru pees or o ver h a lf a m illio n poun ds s terli n g Th e .

m ili ti a was c ava lry an d i n fan try besides el eph an ts Th e , .

 P EO P L E U N D E R M O G H AL R U LE 12 1

l vatio n of th e pro v i n ce was so m ewh at above th at of th e oth er pro

e e
vi nces an d th e cli m ate tem per ate W illow grew wild o n th e ban ks of
, .

ri vers an d hy a ci nths an d flowers of m an y h ues i n th e sh a d e of tr ees

,
.

L a kes an d gr een m ea ds wer e freq uent an d st ately p a l a ces an d fa ir

,

country ho m es br eath e t al es of fa irylan d Bo th t h e h arves ts wer e

.

abun d ant an d th e country gr ew wh eat poppy s u gar c an e m an goes

, , ,
-

, ,

m elo n s an d gr a p es
, . C lot h of t h e fi n es t t ext ure was woven U jj a i n .

wa s a l a rge an d an ci en t ci t y an d r eg a rd ed a s a s acr ed pl a c e by th e
,

H i n d us an d t h er e wer e 3 60 H i n d u tem p l e s i n t h e n eighbo ur hood

,
.

C h an d eri h a d a sto n e for t an d sto n e hous es D h ar was th e .

an cient c a pit a l of Bhoj a .

Lan d Re ven u e o f N o r th ern In dia — The abov e

brief accoun t gives us a fair id ea of t h e condition of N orthern
India under the e n lighten ed rule of Akbar The land re .

v enu e of the eleve n provi n ces of N orth ern India was esti
mated at o n e third of the produc e ; but this ideal rate was
-

not strictly e n forced and in som e provi n c es we are told

, , ,

n o m easureme n t of the land was mad e The total estimated .

land reve n ue of A kbar s eleven Subahs of N orthern India was

’

approximately te n million pounds sterling 1 .

J a igird a rs a n d Z em in da rs — The entire land of the

country belonged in theory to th e sov ereign a n d the emperor
, , ,

Ru p ees

I 3 .6 5 6 .2 5 7

557
376

Of th es e eleven Sub ahs th e first eigh t rou ghly corre spo n d with th e
,

prov i n ces of Ben ga l N orth Wes t Oudh an d t h e Punj ab a s n o w

,
-

, , ,

co n st ituted un d er th e Bri t ish r ule Th e esti mat ed l an d r evenue of

.

thes e e ight Sub ahs a bo ut 1 5 8 0 was r u pees while th e l an d

revenue ac tua lly rea lis ed i n 1 8 9 5 —9 6 fro m th e four British prov i n c es
roughly correspo n di n g to th em i n ar ea was r up ees I t will
a pp ear fro m th ese figur es th at A kbar s lan d a ssess m ent was m oder ate
’

co m p ared wi th th e a ss ess m ent of th e soil at th e pr es ent t i m e .

122 TH E C IV I LI S AT I ON OF I N D IA

could parcel out fief s or J aigirs to his meritorious o ffi cers or

to favourites M ilitary a n d civil o ffi cers were ofte n remu n e
.

rated by such J aigirs instead of pay but as the J aigirs were

inherited from father to son th e cr eatio n of every Jaigir was
,

a perma n ent loss of la n d r ev enue to the state Akbar set .

his face against the creation of J aigirs a n d adopted the rule

,

of paying his o ffi cers i n m oney ; but this healthy rule was

not follo wed by w eaker sovereig n s and J aigirdars multipli ed
,

all over I n dia W ithin their ow n estates the J aigirdars and

.

Zemindars w er e practically supr eme i n matters of crimi n al

a n d civil ad m inistratio n a n d th e pres ervatio n of order A n d .

not unoften J aigirdars and Ze m indars fought with each

other like the barons and lords in Europe in the M iddl e
,

Ages .

Tra d e a n d Ta x es — The i n ter n al trade of the cou n try

.

was much hampered by vexatious tolls and taxes Akbar .

was opposed to these e xactions and swept away m ost of

the m An d we are informed by t h e Mah omedan historia n
.

K h afi Khan that Aurangzeb also abolished some eighty of

,

th em on one occasio n of scarcity B ut i m perial mandates

.

could not always be e n fo rced withi n the domains of J aigirdars

and Z emindars and t h e exactions of the men in power n o
doubt harassed trade and industry i n India as elsewhere 1n ,

the world i n this age In spite of such impedime n ts h o w

.
,

e ver manufacture a n d trade flourished in India ; and up to

,

the close of the M usalma n rule i n India and i n deed up to t h e

,

commenceme n t of the n in etee n th ce n tury I ndia n manu ,

factures filled the markets of Europe a n d the products of ,

the I n dia n loom were valued all ov er the civilised world

—
.

R g
e li io u s M o ve m e n ts Th e religious teachings of
.

R aman uja and R amananda of Kabir and Chaitanya of

, ,

N a n ak and D adu w ere n ot lost in India The vast myth o

.

logy and polyth eistic faith of the people and their n umber ,

less templ es rites and pilgrimages did not stifle i n the

, , ,

h eart of the Hi n du populatio n the en n obli n g idea of O n e

God . The rivalries betwee n the sects of Siva and
the sects of V ish n u were like many of the disputes i n
,
 P E O P LE U N D E R MO G H A L R U LE 12 3

mediaz val Europe , ss entially disputes for a n ame ; and while

e

the upper classes in India ge n erally worshipped the D eity

u n der the n ame of Siva or Sakti the humbler classes tur n ed,

to V ishnu or Krish n a as the O n e God of the u n iverse ma n i ,

festi n g himself i n various forms and receivi n g worship u n der

,

various n ames As i n a n cient I n dia so i n moder n I n dia

.
, ,

the actual practice of a polytheistic worship existed side by .

side with a n ever abse n t co n ceptio n of the O n e God of the

-

u n iverse And so de eply was this co n victio n felt by the

.

religious reformers of India that th ey did n ot hesitate to

,

identify that God of the Hindus with the God of the M a

h omedan s —o f all humanity .

A kba r s D i vin e Fa i th — A kbar s enlightened and

’ ’
.

sympathetic soul caught t h e spirit of these teachings ; and

devout M us alman s censure him for adopti n g and proclaim
ing a faith which was an eclectic form of pure Theism .

“ ”
His D ivine F aith was based on n atural theology and ,

co m prised the best practices of all cr eeds He worshipped .

t h e su n as r epr esenting the soul of the univ ers e and was ,

hi m self the head of his n ew church An eclectic faith like .

this does n ot however convi n ce and p ersuade the people

, , ,

and the D ivi n e F aith of Abkar died with him .

R g
e li io u s L i t e ra t u re in B en ga l — Side by side with .

such religious move ments the epoch m aking rule of Akbar

,
-

promoted intell ectual m ovements in every province of India .

In Bengal the religious reform of Chaita n ya led to the

production of a vast amount of V aishnava literature The .

six gr eat V aishnava Acharyas have left volum inous works ,

mostly in Sanscrit an d th erefore of inferior m erit But the

, .

accounts of the life and d eeds of the reform er record ed in ,

t h e vernacular by his loving and faithful disciples are still ,

r ead with veneration and are amo n g the classical works of

,

B engali literatur e .

S ch o o l o f L ogic in B en gal — Alo n g with this .

religious movement progress was made in philosophy and

,
’
in law R agh un ath s n ame stands alone in Bengal as t he
.

fo un der of a school of logic It h as mai n tained its repu

.
12 4 T H E C IV I L I S AT IO N or mom
t at io n i n India through three ce n turies and flourishes to the ,

prese n t day R aghu n ath learnt his lessons from the last of
.

a lo n g li n e of teachers who had preserved a n d ha n ded dow n

,

this bra n ch of ancie n t learn ing for two thousan d years from
father to son and from teacher to pupil as lear n ing is pre ,

served a n d ha n ded down in I n dia alone It is said that .

R aghu n ath defeated his teacher in controv e rsy a n d came ,

a n d foun ded his ow n school i n N adiya L ogic is still .

taught i n the old traditio n al way i n this humble village ,

n estled u n der shady trees o n a bra n ch of the Ga n ges a n d ,

stude n ts still come from distant parts of I n dia to live with

their teachers i n their humble huts to serve them as their ,

menials a n d to acquire from them y ear by year the ancient

,

heritage of the Hindus It is an interesti n g relic of the past

.

which has survived dy n asties a n d empires

I n s titu tes o f La w in B en gal —
.
.

W hile Chaitanya .

preached a religio n of love to the peopl e and R aghunath ,

taught anci ent philosophy to the learned R aghunanda n com ,

piled a body of I nstitute s for t h e rites and ceremonials o f

moder n Hi n dus The work is a mo n ument of his industry
.

and lear n i n g but we miss i n it the broad views and high

,

se ntim en ts of older codes while it is marked by many of ,

the hurtful restrictions of moder n tim e s .

P o e try in B en gal — Early in the sevente e n th ce n tury

.

M uku n da R am produced t h e first great and origin al works

which are e xtant in Bengali poetry His predecessors h ad .

l eft a profusion of m elodious songs about Krishna a n d had ,

also enriched the language by versions of the M aha bharata -

and the R amayan a M ukun da R am co n c eived the bolder

.

idea of composi n g original narrative poetry based on the ,

religious traditions a n d legends of the cou n try and two of ,

these poems hav e been left to us O n e is of a hu n ter who .

cleared a forest and built a tow n by t h e favour of the goddess

Sakti U ma or Chandi and the oth e r is of a mercha n t who
, ,

sailed to Ceylo n and was shipwrecked a n d kept i mprisoned

, ,

u n til his son we n t and rescued him by fav our of the same
goddess There is llittle i n Bengali literature more true
.
_
 P E O P LE U N D E R MO G H A L R U LE 12 5

and n atural more ge n ui n e and life like tha n the poetry of

,
-

Muku n da R am .

Mukun da R am had a successor in the eighteenth ce n tury ,

the celebrated Bharat Cha n dra He describes the co n quest .

of Be n gal by M an Si n h the ge n eral of Akbar and i n ci ,

de n tally narrates many stories redoun ding to the glory of the

goddess Sakti He is a more skilful master of verse tha n
.

M ukunda R am a n d his chisell ed li n e s and polished phrases

,

hav e greatly enriched the language But in truth a n d pathos .

and real poetry he is very far i n ferior to his great master .

L itera tu r e o f th e N or th Wes t — Sm D as of M athura

!

bega n a n ew epoch in the N orth W est by his well k n own - -

Sur Saga r in the sixteenth century and he was followed by

K es h av D as the autho r of B ha hta ma/a
, Bihari L al of -
.

Amba r composed in the following cen tury his famous Satrai

which is still read and appreciated all over N orther n I ndia .

But the greatest work in the Hindi la n guage is the t ran s la

tion or rather adaptation of the R amayan a by Tulsi D as
, ,

— a work which has fi x ed the language and is k n own to ,

high a n d low rich and poor a mong the p eopl e of N orthern

, ,

India .

L itera tu re o f th e M a h ra ttas — "

Sridha1 s tra n slatio n .

or adaptatio n of the great Sa n scrit epics the M aha hhar ata ,

-

and the R amayan a into the M ahratta language i n th e six

,

t een t h century ope n s a new epoch i n the history of M ahratta

literatur e An d i n the following century flourished T ukaram
.
,

probably the gr eatest of th e M ahratta poets T ukaram was .

born in 1 6 0 8 and is said to ha ve bee n u nhappy in his marri ed

,

life He left home a n d took sh elter i n a templ e of V itop a

.
,

ge n erally k n own as a form of Krishna He spent days in .

meditation and a n ew light daw n ed upo n him

, A hhangar .

or hymns flowed spontaneously from his lips and thousa n ds ,

of all sects and castes ca me to liste n to these religious songs ,

which are current in the D eccan to the present day A .

successor of Tukaram i n the follow ing c e ntury was Mayur

Panth whose copious songs are still popular
Tam il L itera tu re —The ancient a n d copio us produc
.
,
12 6 THE C IV I L I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

tio n s of the poets of Southern India i n the literary T amil

la n guage have bee n n oticed in a previous chapter A n ew .

school of Tamil poetry known as the Sittar school was de

velo ed i n the seve n t eenth century The poets accepted
p .

S iva as their deity and adopted that n a m e for the worship

,

of O n e God r ejecting everythi n g which was i n co n siste n t

,

with mo n oth eism The spirit and tenets of this pur e mo n o

.

theism will appear from t h e following m etrical versio n of a

Tamil poem from a lit eral prose rendering give n by Bishop
Caldwell
Tru G d is e th e V d a s tan ds a lo n
o o n e, e e,
O G u r u r ul s
ne cleansi n g rit w w
e , on e e e o n ,

O sky a bo v for morta l m

ne birth
e, en o n e ,

O si n l ss way t o wa l k upo n this a th

ne e e r
Th y wh i n varyi n g V d as s k for ligh t
e o e ee ,

I n varyin g Sas tr s an d i n v r yi n g ri t a a e,
A n d to th ir m an y gods th eir pr ay rs t ll
e e e ,

C o n d m n d th y d i an d s k t h fir s of h ll
e e e e, ee e e e

E u rop ean Tra vellers in I n dia in th e S e ven

t een th Cen tu ry—M an riq u e — Early i n the seve n tee n th .

century Sebastian M anrique with three other friars of th e

O rder of St Augu stin were se n t to supply the m is
.

sions i n Be n gal and M a n rique visited this and many

,

other par ts of I ndia in the course of thirteen years He .

speaks of D acca as the great emporium of the commerce of

Be n gal freque nted by every nation and co n taining a p op u
, ,

lation of two hu n dred thous and He describes the gr eat .

fertility of the country and sp eaks of the m ag n ificent fabrics of

,

cotto n produced in Bengal and exported to all the countries

of th e East He describe s the Punjab from L ahore to
.

M ultan as a country a bounding i n wheat rice vegetables , , ,

a n d cotto n with nu merous villages a n d excell ent i nn s M ul

,
.

ta n was a co n siderable city carry in g o n an exten sive trade ,

and was the re n dezvous of the carava n s from Persia Khoras an ,

and other western countries The country round Tatta was .

of exubera n t abundance in wheat rice and cotton which last , , ,

e m ployed two thousand looms Silk a n d th e ma n ufacture of .

the S i n dh leather were also flourishi n g industri es

-
.
 P E O P LE U N D ER MO G H A L R U L E 12 7

H a wkin s an d R o e — Hawki n s a n d Sir Thomas Roe

.

the En glish ambassador visited I n dia early i n the seve n

teen th ce n tury They have left us a n accou n t of the gra n
.

deur of the royal camp a n d the caprices of the emperor

Jaha n gir but do n ot give us much valuable i n formatio n
,

about the co n ditio n of the people a n d their agriculture trade , ,

and i n dustries A n other En glishman W illiam Bruton came

.
, ,

with five compa n io n s o n a missio n to the N awab of Cuttack

i n 1 6 3 2 a n d describes that tow n as a flourishing place with
, ,

much trade and many spacious streets Among the places .

he visited was the weaving town of Harharpur with its

busy populatio n of 3 00 0 weavers .

G raaf —N icholas Graaf a physicia n who we n t to see

.
,

the director of the D utch factory at H oogly i n 1 6 6 9 has ,

left us a n interesting accoun t R ajmahal the n the capital of

.
,

Bengal was beaut ified by temples a n d palaces ; and the

,

beauty of M onghyr with its towers a n d mi n arets and its

white walls greatly struc k the traveller Patn a was still more .

splendid than M onghyr and had a n im mense trad e ; a broad

street li n ed with shops ra n fro m one end of the tow n to the
other.

M an d els o — M an dels o a Ger m an traveller came to

.
, ,

W ester n India i n 1 6 3 9 He found Broach to be a p o p u

.

lous city filled with weavers and manufacturi n g th e finest ,

cotto n cloth i n the province of Gujrat Brodera was a n other .

large tow n of weavers and dyers a n d Ahmadabad the capital , ,

of Gujrat was seve n leagues i n circuit The streets were

, .

broad the mosques a n d edifices were imposing and the royal

, ,

market place was of vast extent a n d pla n ted out with trees
-
.

S kill ed weavers used Bengal a n d Chi n ese silk in their fabrics ,

and turn ed out gold a n d silver brocades a n d the Ban ia n s

m ade r em ittances to a n d from the remotest parts of Asia a n d
some parts of Europe Cambay was a larger city tha n Surat
.
,

and carri ed o n an extensive trade Agra was twice as larg e .

as Ispahan and the streets were han dsome and spacious and
, ,

were vaulted for over a quarter of a league for the co n venienc e

o f m erchants and citize n s who exposed goods for sale und er
12 8 T H E C IV ILIS AT I ON OF I N D IA

the cover The cou n try rou n d L ahore appeared to him

.
,

however the ric hest i n I n dia i n cor n a n d frui ts a n d the eye

, ,

stretched over a lo n g ran ge of beautiful garde n s exte n di n g

alo n g the R avi Before setti n g sail for Europe Man dels o
.
,

visited Souther n I ndia and his descriptio n of the Mah omedan

,

capital Bijapur is eloque n t He calls it o n e of the greatest .

cities i n Asia more tha n five leagues i n circ umfere n ce ; a n d

,

the king is said to have had me n a n d a thous a n d

pieces of ca nn o n .

Ta vern ier an d B ern ier — The F re n ch jeweller .

Taver n ier speaks of the diamo n d mi n es of I ndi a a n d the

peacock throne of D elhi B ut the prince of Europea n .

travellers i n I n dia i n the seve n tee n th ce n tury was a n other

F re n chma n Ber n ier ,His work has become classical a n d
.
,

is know n as well to En glishme n as to F re n chmen He .

describes with a graphic pe n both the gran deur and magn ifi

ce n ce of the M oghal court as well as its weak n ess its rapacity
, , ,

its oppressio n a n d its corruptio n An d here a n d there he

, .

gives us glimpses i n to the co n ditio n of the agricultural a n d

i n dustrial populatio n which make us wish that he had writte n
,

more of this subject and less of luxurious courts and corrupt

o fficials W he n Ber n ier writes of the oppressio n of the people
.

of India by rapaciou s gover n ors i n the seve n tee n th ce n tury ,

his descriptio n s recall to mind the grosser oppressio n i n Ber

’
n ier s ow n coun try i n the eightee n th century depicted by ,

Arthur Y oung Europe h as passed through more dis

.

astrous wars an d a more galli n g oppressio n of the poor by

the great tha n I n dia eve n dow n to the eightee n th century
, .

Europe i n the p rese n t day has bee n resc ued from that
oppressio n by th e expa n sio n of the represe n tative form of
governme n t the o n ly system wh ich ca n adequately safeguard
,

the interests of the people agai n st the p rivileges of the ruli n g

classes .

W e pass by Ber n ier s letter to the great Col bert concern

’

i n g the political system of Hi n dustan his letter to D e la ,

M othe about D elhi a n d A gra a n d his letters to others about ,

the ma n ners of the Hindus and about the march of A uran g ,

 P EO P LE U N D E R M O G H A L R U LE 12 9

ze b to K ashmir W e tur n to his accoun t of B engal con

.
,

t ain ed i n one of h is replies to M Theve n ot and which .

,

gives us a pleasi n g pictur e of agricultural life a n d i n dustry .

F rom the mouths of t h e Ganges up to R ajmahal th e

cou n try on both sides of th e river was i n tersected by in n umer
able channels lined with populous tow n s and villages and ,

with fi elds of rice sugar corn vegetables and mulberry

,
, , , ,

shrubs for r eari n g silk worms R ice and butter and di ff ere n t
-
.

kinds of vegetables formed the chief food of the common

p eople ,g eese and ducks wer e cheap goats a n d sheep were in ,

abundance a n d fish was found i n profusio n

, Sugar was .

largely produced and cotto n and silks were prod uced in

,

su ch quantities that Bernier calls Be n gal the storehouse of

those two articles of the world s mercha n dis e “ I hav e ’
.

been sometimes amazed at the vast qua n tity of cotto n cloths

of every sort fine a n d coarse white a n d coloured which the
, , ,

D utch alone export to di fferent places especially to Japan ,

a n d Europe The English the Portuguese and the n ativ e

.
, ,

merchan ts deal also in these articles to a considerable extent .

”
The same may be said of the silks and silk stu ffs of all sorts .

Bengal was also the pri n cipal emporiu m of saltpetre and lac ,

O pium wax civ et and long pepper w er e the principal articles

, , ,

of trade B ernier finishes his letter on B engal by an account

.

’ ”
of a n ine d ays voyage from Pipli to Hugli and my eyes , ,

he says “ seemed never sated with gaz in g o n th e delightful ’

,
”
country through which we passed .

These bri ef sum maries of the accounts of European trav ell ers
h elp us to form a tolerably correct idea of the material condi
tio n of the people of India under the M oghal rule It is .

n ecessary to form such an idea i n order to co m prehe n d the

tr ue history of the country a n d also to avoid the extreme ,

views which have sometimes been put forward about the

co n ditio n of the people of India under M ah omedan rule .

O n the oth er hand there was t h e oppressio n of t h e poor by

,

the stro n g ; and the rapacity corruption and th e tyranny o f , ,

me n i n power which fill so large a part of the world s history

,
’

in all cou n tries and all past ages were not checked i n I n dia ,
13 0 TH E C IV ILI S AT I ON OF I N D IA

by any popular charters of righ ts or constitution al r esistance .

O n the other ha n d we have a glowi n g accoun t of the industry

,

of the agricultural populatio n a n d the skill a n d i n ge n uity of

the ma n ufacturers which triumphed over every ob stacle
, ,

which covered India with large prosperous an d flourishi n g , ,

tow n s and which supplied the mark ets of half th e civilised

,

globe with her silk and cotto n fabrics The vi llage com .

m unity system protec ted the people fro m m uch harassme n t

by o ffi cials ; hereditary Zemindars and J aigirdars stood be
twee n their subjec ts a n d the ruli n g power and self interest ,
-

impelled them to curb their ow n exactio n s and n ot to r uin

i n dustries and agr icul t ur e W ise and strong rulers like Akbar
.

a n d Shah J aha n restrained the Subahdars and high o ffi cials ,

and wars were n ot as freque n t or as disastrous in India as in

Europe during the same age A n d lastly the rulers of the
.
,

land made India their home ; they levied n o tribute a n d had

no interests outs id e India .

E u rop ean S e ttlem en ts in In dia —T h e P o r tu

gu es e .
— V asco da Gama discovered the passag e to I ndia
rou n d the Cape of Good Hope i n 1 4 9 8 and then ceforth the ,

trade and the mariti me suprem acy of V enice decli n ed and th at ,

of Portugal rose The daring genius of Albuquerque estab

.

lis h ed t h e supremacy of the Portuguese through all t h e I n dian

Seas He s eized Goa i n 1 5 10 a n d sailin g rou n d Ceylon he
.
,

captur ed M alacca and ope n ed a trade with Siam and the Spice
’

Islands R etur n ing westward he took O rmuz in the Persian

.

Gulf the proudest seaport i n Asia a n d died i n 1 5 1 5 N ot

, ,
.

man y years after the Portuguese opened a trade with Be n gal

,

and established themselves in Hugli and about the same time

th ey obtai n ed possessio n of D iu i n the west from th e gover n or
of Gujrat The eastern e m pire of Portug al was in th e
.

height of its power duri n g the six teenth ce n tur y F rom the .

Cape of Good Hope to the fro n tiers of Chi n a an extent of ,

1 miles of sea coast all the most importa n t trade marts

-

were i n th e possession of the Portugu ese Mozambique i n .

A frica M us cat i n Arabia O rmuz i n Persia D iu Goa Cochi n

, , , , , ,

and oth er places i n W ester n I n dia M adras Mas alipatam an d , , ,

 P EO P LE U N D E R M O G H A L R U LE 13 1

Be n gal Settleme n ts i n the Easter n Coast M alacca a n d the , ,

S pice Isla n ds i n the Easter n Archipelago all belo n ged to ,

th em But as the D utch rose i n power in the seve n teenth

.

ce n tury the power a n d possessio n s of Portugal declin ed

Th e D u tch —Af ter a prolo n ged war of independenc e
.

Holla n d shook o ff the yoke of Spai n i n the latter part of the

sixtee n th ce n tury a n d in 1 6 0 2 the D utch East India Co m
,

pany was formed I n 1 6 19 the D utch fou n ded Batavia in

.

Java a n d compell ed the En glish after the massacre of A m

,

boy n a in 1 6 2 3 to lea ve the Easter n Archipelago N ot ma n y .

years after they occupi ed F ormosa a n d co n quer ed M alacca

,

from the Portugu es e ; and i n 16 5 1 they fou n ded a colo n y at

the Cape of Good Hope I n the n ext year they established
.

a factory o n the M adras coast of I ndia and i n 1 6 5 8 th ey

,

captured the last stro n ghold of th e Portuguese in Ceylon .

By 16 7 0 they had expelled the Portuguese from the M alabar

and Coroman del coasts and during the close of the sev en
,

t een th ce n tury the D utch were the greatest Europea n power

i n Asia .

Th e F r en ch an d th e En glis h — In the eighteenth

.

century the power and influen ce of Holla n d decli n ed a n d the ,

F rench and the English struggl ed for mastery in th e East .

The F r ench East I n dia Compa n y was formed i n 1 6 0 4 and ,

F r en ch factories were established in S urat i n 1 6 6 4 i n Pon ,

dich erry i n 1 6 7 3 and in Cha n dranagar i n 1 6 8 8

, The .

English East India Compa n y was form ed i n 1 6 0 0 a n d ,

they bought a site in M adras i n 16 3 9 obtai n ed the island of

,

Bombay from Portugal i n 1 6 6 1 and removed from Hugli

,

i n 1 6 8 6 to Calcutta wh ere th ey purchased three villages in

,

1 7 00 . The history of the struggle which began between

En gla n d and F rance within half a ce n tury from this date
for mastery i n I n dia is a portio n of the history of British
I n dia .
13 2 T H E C IV I LI S AT ION OF I N D IA

C HAPT ER ! II

A ge of M a h ra tta A s cen d en cy ,
17 18 To 18 18

Th e La s t M ogh al E mp ero rs — The history of the

half ce n tury i m mediately a ft er the death of Aura n gze b is a
his tory of the rapid decline and exti n ctio n of the power of
th e house of Babar , known as the M oghal dy n asty Six .

feeble emperors filled the throne of D elhi betwee n 1 7 0 7

a n d 1 7 5 9 u n til in the latter y ear the last was m urdered
, .

His son Shah Alam wa n dered a bout in Be ngal a n d else

w here receiv ed a pe n sion from th e En glish but was never
, ,

virtually a n emperor M oghal supremacy terminated with

.

the death of Aura n gzeb ( or Alamgir I ) i n 1 7 0 7 a n d the .

,

very semblan ce of the Moghal rule disappeared with the

m urder of Alamgir II in 1 7 5 9 .

Th e N iz a m s o f th e D ecca n —The decli n e of the

.

ce n tral power led to the rise of di ff ere n t political forces in

di ff ere n t p arts of I n dia As af Jah the minister of o n e of
.
,

the weak s uccessors of Aura n gzeb was disgus ted with the
,

state of a ffairs i n D elh i and wi thdrew to the D ecca n in

,

17 2 3 . He there fou n ded the house of the N izams which

co n ti n ues to ru le the D ecca n to th e present day a n d the ,

N izam of Haidarabad is n ow t h e greatest M ah o medan poten

tate i n India u n der the Imperial power of En gla n d .

Th e N a wa bs o f 0 u dh — About t h e same time a n other

.

great Mah omedan ho use was founded i n N orthern I n dia out

of the rui n s of the M oghal empire Sadat Khan origi
.
,

n ally a mercha n t of Khorasa n rose to a military comma n d

,

a n d gradually established his power i n O udh His suc .

cesso rs co n ti n ued to rule as N awabs of O udh for over

a hu ndr ed years un til the British a nn exatio n of O udh i n
18 56.

Th e K in gd om M ys o re — I n the extreme south of

of
I n dia Hi n du chiefs had always retai n ed their i n de pe n de n ce
, ,
 AGE OF M A H RATTA A S C E N D E N CY 13 3

a n d M ysore was ruled by a Hindu R ajah about the middle

of the eighteenth century Haidar N aek a Mah omedan
.
,

comma n der under th e Hindu king gradually usurped all ,

p ower and became a formidable rival of the En glish in

Souther n I n dia from 1 7 6 7 The power of his house how
.
,

ever fell with his son Tipu Sulta n i n 1 7 9 9 a n d the king

, , , ,

dom of Mysore was restored by th e victorious En glish to

the old Hindu lin e which continues to rule it to the present
,

day Another Hi n du house co n ti n ues to rule i n Travan

.

core
Th e Rajp u ts —The R ajputs proud of their unconquered
.

. ,

i n depe n den ce soo n threw o ff the semblance of M oghal

,

supremacy after the death of Aurangzeb L ater o n i n th e .

,

e ightee n th centu ry a n d e arly i n the nineteenth c e ntury

,
they ,

were much harassed by the M ahrattas But when the British .

beca me masters of N orther n India they h elped this a n cient

and brave n atio n to preserve their virtual independe nce within
th eir respective states The houses of Udaipur Jodhpur
.
, ,

and Jaipur are the foremost amo n g the R ajput r uli n g houses
of the prese n t day .

Th e H im alayan S ta tes — Nepal and Bhuta n had

.

m aintained th e ir i n depe n de n ce throughout the periods of

Afgha n a n d Moghal r ule in D elhi a n d retain their inde ,

pen den ce to the pres ent day Kashmir was conquered by

.

Akbar the Great a n d passed u n der the rule of the Sikhs

,

e arly in this ce n tury At the time of the British a n nexatio n

.

of the Punjab i n 1 8 4 9 Kashmir was form ed into a n i n de

pendent state and co n ti n ues to be ruled by a Hindu ruler to
,

this day
Th e M a h ra ttas —
.

A m idst this gen eral disintegratio n of

.

the Moghal empire and the rise of n ew political powers in all

parts of India the leadi n g part was take n by the M ahrattas
,

and the l eadi n g story of the eighteenth ce n tury i n India is the

s tory of M ahratta supremacy The British won India not
.
,

from the M ughals but from the Hi n dus Before we appeared

,
.

as co n querors the Mughal empire had broken up O ur con

,
.

elusive wars were n either with the D elhi king n or wi t h t h e

13 4 TH E C IV I L I S AT I ON or mo m
revolted gover n ors but with two Hi n du confederacies the
, ,
” 1
M ahrattas a n d the S ikhs .

T e es w s
h P h a — The successors of S i vaj1 did not i n herit
.

his ge n ius a n d rapidly decli n ed i n power a n d the story of

, ,

the r i se a n d expa n s i o n of the M ahratta power from the be

gi nn ing of the eightee n th ce n tury ce n tres roun d the li n e of
Brahma n mi n isters called Peshwas I n 1 7 1 8 Balaji the
, .
,

first Peshwa marched an army to D elhi to support the faction

of the Saiyad b rothers the n all powerful in N orther n India -
,

a n d from that date until 1 8 1 8 whe n Baji R ao the last ,

Peshwa was deposed by the British the history of the ,

Peshwas 13 the leadi n g story of I n dia .

B alaji TO 1 7 2 0 —Balaji s march to D elhi was fru itful

’
.
,

of res ults a n d he o b tai n ed three separate gra n ts from D elhi

, .

The first gra n t was for the ehauth or o n e fourth share of th e -

whole reve n ue of the D ecca n a n d Souther n I n dia i n cl udi n g ,

Haidarab ad Bijapur the K arn atic Ta n jore Trichi n opoly

, , , ,

a n d Mysore The seco n d grant was for the rar derhmuhhi

.
,

or a rate of te n per ce n t over an d above the fourth share of

.

rev en ues i n the same provinc es A n d the third gra n t was .

the m un r aj or the e n tire sovereignty over Puna an d fifteen

-

other districts which were immediately u n der the M ahratta

,

rule These three gra n ts co n firmed the sovereign rights of

.

the M ahrattas over t heir ow n cou n try a n d their right to levy ,

contributio n s from all other states south of the N arbadda .

B aji Ra o 1 7 2 0 1 0 1 7 4 0 — Balaji di ed i n 1 7 2 0 and

,
.
,

was succeeded by his so n Baji R ao who held the post of

Peshwa for twe n ty years M ore ambitious tha n his father he
.

tur n ed his eyes to N orther n I n dia and referri n g to the weak ,

ness of the M oghal power i n D elhi said “ L et us strik e , ,

”
the withered trunk and the bra n ches will fall of thems elves
, .

He established his right to levy the cha uth and rar derhmuhbi
from Gujrat co n quered M alwa and Bu n delkha n d a n d ap
, ,

p eared before D elhi i n 1 7 3 7 R etur n i n g from the n orth h e

.

captured Bassei n from the Portuguese i n 1 7 3 9 a n d died in ,

the followi n g year .

1 Si W H unter s I d ia
r . E mp i
’
p 37 5
n n re . .
 M A H R A I TA A S C E N D E N CY
’ ‘

AGE or 13 5

F ive M a h ra tta P o wers —It should be noted that t h e

a n cestors of the three great Mahratta houses which still rul e
i n I n dia were humble oflicers under Baji R ao M alhar R ao .

H olkar was comma n der of a party of hors e and was the ,

ancestor of the prese n t ruling house of Indore R an aji Si n dia .

served Baji R ao i n a still humbler capacity , and was the

ancestor of the prese n t ruli n g house of Gwalior Pilaji G aek .

war also led troops u n der Baji R ao , a n d the ruling hous e of

Baroda traces its desce n t from him These three M ahratta
states ,—Baroda , Gwalior , a n d I n dore — still exist Another
.

.
,

Mahratta state which grew u p i n the eightee n th ce n tury ,

viz that of the B h on slas of N agpur is n ow exti n ct , th e ter

.
,

rit or
y bei n g a nn e xed by the British in 1 8
53 It is importa
. n t
to bear in m i n d the n ames of these fo ur M ahratta states of
the eighteen th c entury , as distinguished from the state of th e
P eshwa himself round about Poo n a Indor , Gwalior Baroda
.
, ,

N agpur a n d Poona were the capitals of t h e five M ahratta

,

powers , a n d the first three co n ti n ue to this day to be th e

seats of, ruli n g houses .

In va s ion o f In dia by N a d ir S h ah m I 7 3 9 — I t .

’
was duri n g the closi n g years of Baji R ao s life th at D elhi
was sacked by the terrible invader N adir Shah He was .

origi n ally a fre ebo oter , a n d lived to be the d eliverer of his

cou n try , Persia , from the power of A bdalis and G h iljis ,

R ussia n s a n d Turks . He was crow n ed king of Persia i n

1 7 6 ; two years after he co n quered Ka n dahar a n d Kabul ;
3
an d in 1 7
3 9 he adva n ced i n to India He defeated Asaf J ah
.

and Sadat Kha n , the stro n gest supporters of the totteri n g

house of D elhi ; he took D elhi and massacred an d robbe d
the people L ade n with a booty of several millio n s sterli n g
.

a n d several millions i n gold silver a n d jewellery the grim

, , ,

spoil er at last left I n dia .

B alaji B aji Ra o 1 7 4 0 TO 1 7 6 1 — B aj1 R ao s so n

’
.
, ,

Balaji Baji R ao , succeeded as P eshwa i n 1 7 40 The Mah .

rattas reached the ze n ith of their power during the admin is

t rat io n of Balaji Baji R ao R aghuji B h on s la of N agpur

swept dow n upon Be n gal and after r epeated expeditions
,
13 6 T H E C IV I LISA T IO N OF I N D IA

com pelled the N awab i n 1 7 5 1 to cede O rissa to the Mah

rat tas a n d to make a formal gra n t of the cha n t/
, J or quarter
reve nue of Be n gal a n d Behar I n N orther n I n dia too the.

Mahrattas made freque n t e xpeditio n s u n til the Peshwa oh ,

tain ed a promise of the chauth of the whole of the imperial

re ve n ues I n th eir ow n territories rou n d Poo n a N agp ur
.
, ,

and elsewhere the Mahrattas proved able admi n istrators a n d

, ,

the people e njoyed prosperity a n d peace But i n other parts .

of India which they harried with their light h orse their ,

expeditio n s caused suff eri n g a n d distress and th e ir n ame was ,

held i n terror by peaceful populatio n s e n gaged in trad e ,

industries a n d agriculture , .

’
The period of the third Peshwa s administratio n marks the
t ur n i n g poi n t i n the history of moder n India
-
I n th e .

n orth the last de f acto emperor of D elhi was murdered in

,

1 7 9 a n d all traces of the M oghal rule disappear ed I n th e

5 , .

south the lo n g struggle betwee n the English and the F re n ch

,

termi n ated in 1 7 6 1 in the establishme n t of British power i n

the K arn atic I n the east the dari n g ge n ius of Clive over
.
,

tur n ed the power of the last de f acto N awab i n 1 7 5 7 and ,

establish ed British power on a firm fou n datio n A wise .

o bserver could almost have forecast the future at this date ,

a n d foresee n the comi n g struggle between the Britis h a n d

the M ahrattas for the supreme power in I n dia
A h m a d S h a h —B a ttle of P an ip a t
.

1 7 6 1 — The ,
.

M ahratta p ower received a severe check i n the n orth i n 1 7 6 1 .

Ghazi ud din a so n of Asaf Jah of the D eccan tried to

- -

, ,

defe n d N orther n I n dia agai n st Ahmad Shah of Kabul who ,

had co n quered the Pu n jab G hazi ud di n called i n the

.
- -

Mahrattas to his aid a n d the M ahrattas came with

,

paid horse besides a vast body of followers Ahmad Shah

, .

adva n ced with a stro n g army of Afgha n s a n d

I n dia n s A pitched battle k n ow n as the third battle of
.
,

Pa n ipat was fought i n that histo ric field a n d the Mahrattas

, ,

were d efeated with great slaughter Th eir commander was .

slain Mah daji S india ( so n of R an aj1) was lamed for life a n d

, ,

Malhar R ao H olkar escaped by flight The Peshwa s power .

’
 AGE OF M A H R ATTA A S C E N D EN CY 13 7

i n N orther n I n dia termi n ated at this date but the power of ,

the Mahrattas was n ot crushed o n the co n trary S i n dia and ,

H olkar i n creased their resources a n d territory i n the ge n eral

co n fusio n whic h e n sued .

M a dh u Ra o an d N a rayan Ra o , 176 1 TO 17 7 2 .

Balaji Baji R ao never recov ered from the shock a n d died in ,

Poo n a shortly after the battle ; a n d his so n Madhu R ao

became the Peshwa The n ew Peshwa watched with co n cern
.

the rising power of Haidar Ali i n Mysore a n d in 1 7 6 4 he ,

en tered the K arn at ic with troops He defeated .

Haidar Ali a n d secured a short peace ; but Haidar Ali

i n v aded M ahratta possessio n s i n 1 7 7 0 and a fresh war brok e
,

out W ith all his skill ability and resources Haidar Ali
.
, , ,

foun d himself i n capable of co n te n di n g against the M ahrattas

a n d after a n oth er severe defeat co n cluded a humiliating peace ,

restori n g all M ahratta possessio n s a n d co n senti n g to pay an

,

a nn ual tribute The En glish had formed a n offen sive an d

.

defe n sive allia n ce with Haidar Ali but did n ot help him in ,

this war a n d Haidar n ever forgave them for the omission

, .

I n N orther n I n dia the power of t h e Peshwa was e x

,

t in guis h ed by the battle of Panipat in 1 7 6 1 but n ot the ,

power of the M ahratta n atio n Mahdaji Sindia who had

.
,

been worsted and lamed i n that disastrous battl e soo n re ,

cov ered his in fluen ce He drew the titular emperor from

.

Allahabad a n d placed him o n the throne of D elhi an d ,

remai n ed virtually the master of the surroun ding cou n try .

M alhar R ao H olkar who had saved himself by fl ight in th e

,
’
battle of Panipat died i n 1 7 6 7 His son s widow A h alya
, .
,

Bai carried o n the administration ofthe cou n try with a n ability

, ,

success a n d be n evolence towards her subjects which have made

,

her n ame a household word amo n g all Hindus to the present

day She transformed I n dore i n to a large and wealthy
.

capital she brought peace a n d prosperity to her state and

, ,

she sta n ds for all time as a promi n en t example of the genius ,

the wisdom a n d the admi n istrative ability of wome n in India

, .

I n the D ecca n too the Peshwa M adhu R ao u n der the in

, ,

spiratio n of the ve n erable R ama Sastri greatly improved th e ,

13 8 TH E C IV ILIS AT I ON OF I N D IA

civil administratio n of the cou n try R ama Sastri was a frie n d .

to the well disposed a n d a terror to the oppressor his habits

-

were simple his i n tegrity i n corruptible a n d the decisio n s

, ,

of his P an ch yets are co n sidered precede n ts i n I n dia Th e .

excelle n t civil admi n istratio n of the M ahrattas in their

ow n domin ion s l co n trasts favourably with the disorder
in other parts of I n dia .

R agh u n M a dh u R a o II
a th R ao an d
1 7 7 2 TO .
,

17
95 M adhu
.
-
R ao I
was s ucceeded by N araya n R ao who
.
,

was assassi n ated after a short reign R aghu n ath R ao , a .

brother of the third Peshwa , the n assu m ed the ra n k ; but

the widow of N araya n R ao gave birth to a posthumous child ,

know n as M adhu R ao I I , a n d a strong party supported his .

’
claim to his father s rank The disputes betwee n the party .

of M adhu R ao I I and of R ag hu n ath R ao led to fruitful

.

results R aghu n ath i n his despair tur n ed to the En glish for

.

help , and the En glish , who had become supreme i n Be n gal

a n d M adras wer e n ot loth to i n crease their power a n d pos
,

sessio n s o n the Bombay side by i n terfering i n the disse n sions

of the M ahrattas R aghu n ath R ao sig n ed the treaty of Surat
.

i n 1 7 7 5 agreeing to c ede Salsette a n d Bassei n to the English

,

i n consideration of being restored to Poo n a as Peshwa .

1 v nu t n
Th e r e e e coll e c io was i t h e h n
ds of o ffi cers c lled M amlat an a
a n ua t
d rs , wh o wer e e co r ge d o r eside i t h eir own distric s , d s p er n t an u
nt n a n ta v ut
i e ded th e d m i is r t io n of cri m i l d ci il j s ice H eredi ry na an ta .

a an t n
chie fs c lled D es h m u kh s d D es h p an days , were lef i th e e j oy me
, n nt
an v nu t n a a t
of th eir righ t s d r e e es E xcep i th e c pi t l o wn , th e p eo ple
.

a t a an nt n a v a
look ed ft er h eir o wn police rr gem e s i ll ill ges , d life d an an
t n a u na a
proper y wer e ge er lly s ec re Th e cri m i l l ws were m ild , b t o r
. ut
u t t
t re o extor co fessio was fr eq e t n n u n an u at n
d m t il io was o n e of th e ,

un n ta n n n v a
p ish me ts for cer i offe ces I ci il c s es t h e P an ch yets were th e
.

na t u v nu
ordi ry rib n als Th e r e e e of th e whol e M hr t em pir e
. a at a th e at
t a u a a va u
i m e of M dh R o s d e th was g ely p do w t h dred m ill io
'
ut n a a un n
u ut a ua v nu n u n
r pees ; b th e ct l r e e e , i cl di g th e jaigirs of H olkar d an
n a
S i di t h e B h o n s la of B er r ,
, a an a a
d th e G ek w r of G j r , d lso u at an a
n u n t ut an a t a ut v n
i cl di g rib es d con tribu t o n s c me o bo s e e ty two millio , n -

u t v nu un
r pees Of his s u m t h e r e e e der th e direc co rol of t h e
. t nt
a a ut n t n
P esh w was bo t we ty e igh m illio s Th e ordi ry r m y of t h e
-
na a .

a u n u n t
Pesh w , wi t ho t i cl di g hose of S i di n a an
d B olkar, th e G ek w r a a
an d th e B h o n s la, was good hors e Th e t o l M hr ta a atta a
rm y
i cl di g t hos e of th e di ffere s t es exceede d 100 ,ooo —(See G r
.

n u n nt at ant .

u s
D f f H is tory o
'

f th e M ah rattas , Ch p er xxiii )a t .
 AGE OF M A H R ATTA A S C EN D EN C Y 13 9

The result was wh at is k n ow n as the Fif ri M ahr atta War

i n British I n dia n h istory It is n ot withi n the scope of this
.

work to go i n to the eve n ts of that war it is e n ough to state

that the ge n ius of Na n a F urn avez the M ahratta mi n ister , ,

saved the i n terests of M adhu R ao I I and the treaty of .

,

Surat failed i n its mai n object R aghunath R ao was set

.

aside as a pe n sio n er ; but Salsette a n d Elepha n ta an d two

other islands were retained by the En glish by the treaty of
Salbai co n cl uded i n 1 7 8 2 .

In the meantime the English Governor Ge n eral W arren -

,

Hastings had got i n volved in a war with the great Haidar

,

Ali of Mysore a n d his son Tipu Sultan whic h was con cluded ,

by a treaty i n 1 7 8 4 Tipu Sultan however was n ot suff i

.
, ,

cien tl h umbled A seco n d war waged agai n st him by L ord

y .

Cor n wallis e n ded i n 1 7 9 2 in the loss of half his do m inio n s ;

and a third war carried o n by L ord W ellesley e n ded i n the
d eath of Tipu i n 1 7 9 9 and the restoratio n of Mysore to the
,

old Hi n du hous e These wars however belo n g to the his

.
, ,

tory of the ris e of British power i n I n dia a n d do not fall

'

wi thi n the scope of the prese n t work .

In the n orth the power of M ahdaj1 Sindia was supreme .

H e had a splendid body of i n fantry discipli n ed by a F re n ch

ofl icer D e B oign e a n d the titular emperor conferred o n him
,

the command of his army and entrusted the provi n ces of

,

D elhi a n d Agra to his ma n agement in 1 7 8 4 Golam Kadir .

,

a n otorious a n d cruel adventurer seized D elhi and d uring

, ,

his temporary occupatio n of that city put out the eyes of the
titular old emperor Shah Ala m and disho n oured a n d de ,

graded his fa m ily . But Golam Kadir was pursued and

killed M ahdaji regai n ed his ascende n cy a n d seated poor
, ,

Shah Alam agai n o n the thron e of his ancestors i n 1 7 8 9 .

The great Mahdaji Sindia died in 1 7 9 4 master of N orthern ,

India with the provinc es of D elhi and Agra u n d er his ad

m inistratio n and with a disciplined force of ov er
,

under D e B oign e i n vi n cible i n N orthern India He was

, .

succeeded by his adopted so n D aulat R ao Si n dia .

At Indore the gifted A h alya Bai closed her brillia n t

140 TH E C IV I L I S AT I O N OF I N D IA

admi n istratio n a n d died i n 1 7 9 5 Her comma n der in chief. - -

Tu kaji H olkar imitated th e p olicy of Si n dia a n d had a body ,

of troops discipli n ed by a F re n ch o flicer D udren ec , .

At N agpur Ragh uji B h on s la succeeded his father i n 1 7 8 8

, ,

a n d ruled over a large territory exte n ding to O rissa o n the

easter n coast At Baroda Govind R ao succeeded as G aek
.
,

war i n 1 7 9 3 after the death of his younger brother who had

u surped the rank .

B aji R a o II las t of th e P es h wa s , 1 7 9 5 r o 1 8 18 .
—The youn g Peshwa M adhu
. ,

R ao
I I was kept under re .

strai n t by h is mi n ister N ana F urn avez a n d committed suicide , ,

a n d was succeeded by Baji R ao I I son of R aghunath R ao . .

There were frequent disse n sio n s and wars amo n g the diff erent
powers a n d Baji R ao like his father sought the help of the
, , ,

Englis h . This gave an ope n i n g to the Gover n or General -

L ord W ellesley of which he was eager to avail himself ; and

,

the treaty of Bassein was signed o n the last day of 1 8 0 2 by ,

which Baji R ao conse n ted to keep a British “ subsidiary

force in his territory a n d ceded a territory for the mai n
,

ten an ce of that force The other M ahratta powers were take n

.

abac k by this i n troductio n of the British power a n d influe n c e

i n M ahratta territory and the result was what is k n own as
,

the Secon d M ahratta War i n British I n dia n history I n to the .

eve n ts of this memorable war it is not our purpose to e n ter .

Sir Arthur W ellesley afterwards D uke of W elli n gto n broke

, ,

the M ahratta power i n the D ecca n ; a n d Ge n eral L ake was

equally successful in N orther n I n dia a n d triumpha n tly entered,

D elhi i n 1 8 0 3 F rom this date the British became the

.

paramoun t power in N orther n I n dia and the titular emperor ,

of D elhi exchan ged the M ahrattas for the En glish as h is

masters and protectors O rissa was wrested from the N agpur
.

state by the British a n d Berar was similarly take n away from

,

that state a n d ceded to the N izam of Haidarabad Si n dia .

a n d H olkar the B h o n s la and the Gaekwar retai n ed their

, ,

p ossessio n s i n M alwa N agpur a n d Gujrat

, ; and the,Peshwa
still ruled at Poo n a with a British “ s ubsidiary force n ear
his ca p ital .
 AG E OF M A H RATTA AS C E N D E N C Y 14 1

A n other war k n ow n as th e Thir d M ahr atta War which

, ,

took place in 1 8 1 7 —1 8 swept away the Peshwa s rule Baji

,
’
.

R ao chafed u n der the co n ditio n s to which he h ad himself

co n se n ted by the treaty of Bassei n a n d at last rose agai n st ,

the En glish a n d the forces of N agpur a n d I n dore co operated

,
-
.

The war was soo n over the title of Peshwa was e xtinguished
by the Gover n or Ge n eral L ord Hasti n gs ; Baji R ao retired
-

as a British pensio n er a n d his territory was take n over by the

,

British a n d n ow forms the Bombay Preside n cy

,
.

Thirty five years later L ord D alhousie annexed the terri

-
,

tory of N agpur o n the death of the last B h on sla without a

n atural heir ; a n d he also took bac k Berar f rom the N izam
for the expe n ses of the British subsidiary force which the
N izam had u n dertake n to mai n tain Si n dia H olkar and the .
, ,

Gaekwar holding their possessio n s in M alwa a n d G ujrat are

, ,

n ow the o n ly M ahratta powers out of the great co n federacy

which i n the eightee n th ce n tu ry domi n ated I n dia from the
Jumna to the Krish n a river
Th e S ikh s of th e P u n ja b 1 7 6 3 TO 1 8 0 3 —W he n
.

.
,

the supremacy of the M ahrattas was swept away i n Hi n dus

tan ln 1 8 0 3 a n d i n the D eccan i n 1 8 1 8 the Sikhs t e
, ,

m ai n ed the o n ly great rivals of the British i n I ndia Gur u .

Govind who had formed the sect i n to a stro n g military

,

co n federacy died i n the year after A uran gz ebs death

,
’
.

D uring the n ext half ce n tury the Sikhs repeatedly rose agai n st
M oghal M ahratta a n d Afghan ravaged the coun try of their
, , ,

oppressors a n d were trai n ed into a hardy military life amidst

,

troubles persecutio n s a n d disasters Ahmad Shah who de

, , .
,

feated the M ahrattas at Pa n ipat i n 1 7 6 1 defeated the S ikhs ,

in a great battle i n th e following year ; but the Sikhs were

stirred up a n d n ot cast dow n by this great disaster I n 1 7 6 3 .

’
they defeated Ahmad Shah s gover n or i n the plai n s of Sar
hi n d and by the followi n g year they had made them
,

selves masters of the whole cou n try from the Jhelum to the
Jum n a Each chief a n d leader carved out a territory a n d a
.

group of villages for himself and traditio n still describes how ,

the victors of 1 7 6 3 rode day a n d n ight an d how each warrior ,

142 TH E C IV I L I S AT I ON OF I N D IA

would throw his belt a n d scabb ard his articles of dr ess a n d ,

acco utreme n t u n til he was almost n aked i n to successive vil

, ,
” 1
lages to mark them as his .

F o r forty years after the battle th is religious co n federacy ,

of feudal warriors remai n ed the paramou n t power i n the Pun

jab as M ah daji Sindia and his successor D aulat R ao Si n dia
,

were paramount i n Hindusta n D aulat R ao had appoi n ted .

his F re n ch o flicer Perron as his deputy for the admi n istratio n

, ,

of N orthern India in 1 7 9 7 a n d i n 1 7 9 9 R anjit Sinh had

,

made his mark among the Sikhs a n d had obtained the formal ,

cession of L ahore from the ki n g of Kabu l Perron and .

R a n jit Sinh then ca m e to a n agreement for the partitio n of

the cou n try south of L ahore but shortly after this the power
, ,

of Sin dia i n N orther n I n dia was a nn ihilated by the En glish

i n 1 8 03
R an ji t S in h 1 8 0 3 r o 1 8 3 9 —The power which had
.

, .

been exercised for forty years by the S ikh confederacy of

chiefs and warriors was now c entred i n the ha n ds of one
great ruler R anjit Sinh I n 1 8 0 6 R anjit S inh entered into
, .

a treaty of friendship with the En glish n ow m as ters of ,

N orther n I n dia A more importa n t tr eaty was n egotiated

.

shortly after by the British repr esentative Mr M etcalf e .

,

back ed by a British force a n d was sign ed i n 1 8 0 9

, Per .

” “ shall subsist between the

etual friendship it declares
p , ,

British Govern m ent and th e state of L ahore A n d it .

provided that the British Gover n me n t would have n o con

cern with the territories of R anjit S inh n orth of the Sutlej ,

and that R anjit Si n h would maintai n his possessio n s south of

that river but would n ot co mmit farther e n croachments
, .

Betwee n 1 8 1 8 an d 1 8 2 0 R anjit S inh wrested from the

Mah omedan s the provinc es of Kash m ir M ulta n and Pesha , ,

war a n d thus became the mas ter of the whole of the Punjab
,

as far as the mou n tains to the n orth a n d w est F re n ch .

g en erals V e n tura a n d Allard were appoi n ted to discipline his

, ,

troops and they were succeeded by Court and A vitable

, .

His gover n or Golab Si n h co n quered L adak in 1 8 3 5

, , ,

Cunn i n gh a m s H i t y f th S ikh C ha p t er iv
1 '
s or o e s, .
 AG E OF M A H R ATTA A S C E N D E N C Y 143

a n d the great L io n of the Punjab died i n 18

39 at th e age
of fif ty n ine
-
.

Ex tin tion of S ikh P o wer , 18 TO 184 — Th e

c 39 9 .

political confederacy of the S ikhs had bee n modified by the

ge n ius of R anjit Sinh into a stro n g personal gover n ment an d ,

the hordes of warlike horsemen who previously formed th e

military power of the S ikhs had bee n changed by him into a
discipli n ed army of fifty thousand soldiers and fifty thousand
well armed y eom anry and m ilitia W he n R anjit Sinh s re
-
.
’

straining hand was withdrawn the army became un co n troll

,

able in its pow er and political distractions follo wed The

,
.

result was two wars with the British power betwee n 1 8 4 5

and 1 8 4 9 i n which the S ikhs were crush ed and the Punjab
, ,

was annexed to the British territory by L ord D alhousie .

 I N D E!

A B D UL R i k 5 za , 10 h
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 I N D E! 14 s

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62
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146 TH E C I V IL I S AT IO N OF I N D IA

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T H E EN D

r t
P in ed by B A A
LL N T YN E ,
H A N SO N 67 ° Co .

Ed i n burgh 67 ° L o n do n
 J I IUI V

“
80 ““ IO AM
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‘

fl ai
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