Journal of Environmental Management 248 (2019) 109283

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Research article

Potentiality of sewage sludge-based organo-mineral fertilizer production in T

Poland considering nutrient value, heavy metal content and phytotoxicity
for rapeseed crops
Halyna Kominko*, Katarzyna Gorazda, Zbigniew Wzorek
Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, Cracow 31-155, Poland

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Sewage sludge is a valuable source of nutrients and organic matter, which are beneficial for plant growth. The
Sewage sludge use of sewage sludge for agricultural purposes can be limited by the potential content of heavy metals and toxic
Organo-mineral fertilizers organic compounds that pose a threat to the environment. The characterisation of sewage sludges from 11 Polish
Nutrient recycling wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in terms of their fertilizing properties and heavy metal contents are
Secondary raw materials
presented in the study. Based on the chemical composition of sewage sludge from the WWTP in Żywiec, the
compositions of organo-mineral fertilizers dedicated for rapeseed crop was developed. Alternative raw materials
such as poultry litter ash and biomass ash were considered as components for fertilizer production. The pro-
duction process of organo-mineral fertilizers included mixing sewage sludge with poultry litter ash/biomass ash
and mineral fertilizers and granulation with mineral acids. The final products contained 24–34% of total NPK
and fulfilled the requirements regarding heavy metal content according to Polish legislation. Using sewage
sludge for fertilizer production is a promising solution for sewage sludge management, allowing the recycling of
82–140 tonnes of phosphorus (as P2O5) and 42–73 tonnes of nitrogen (N) annually in the WWTP in Żywiec.

1. Introduction
Sewage sludge management is one of the most controversial issues
of modern wastewater treatment. Sewage sludge is rich in macro-
nutrients and, more importantly, organic matter, and it can be suc-
cessfully used to improve soil fertility (Roig et al., 2012; Urbaniak et al.,
2017) and to increase crop production (Latare et al., 2014; Sharma
et al., 2017). However, there is public concern caused by the possible
presence of pathogenic microorganisms (Bibby and Peccia, 2013; Ye
and Zhang, 2011), toxic organic compounds (Aparicio et al., 2009;
Clarke and Smith, 2011; Suciu et al., 2015), and heavy metals (Duan
et al., 2015; Hei et al., 2016; Tiruneh et al., 2014) in sewage sludge.
Therefore, dealing appropriately with sewage sludge in economically
justified and environmentally acceptable ways is a matter of increasing
importance (Ren et al., 2017).
Application of sewage sludge to soil has been practised worldwide
and much research has stated the positive influence of sewage sludge on
soil and crop production, including increasing the nutrient and organic
matter content of soil (Suhadolc et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2008), im-
proving soil structure and porosity, increasing cation exchange capacity
(Angın and Yaganoglu, 2011) and enzymatic function (Siebielec et al.,
2018). Agricultural use of sewage sludge is framed by the Sludge Di-
rective (European Commission, 1986), which determines permissible
concentrations of heavy metals in sewage sludge intended for soil ap-
plications to prevent environmental pollution and to ensure safety for
human health. Some member states (Austria, the Czech Republic, Fin-
land, Netherlands, Slovenia, and Sweden) have established more
stringent limits for heavy metal content than those in the Directive.
There is no uniform approach to monitoring organic pollutants in
sewage sludge. Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Denmark, and
Sweden have also adopted maximum values for organic contaminants
(polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), dioxins (PCDDs), di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalates (DEHPs), alkyl-
benzene sulphonates (LASs), nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylates
(NPEs), etc.) in sewage sludge for agricultural use, while the UK, Ca-
nada, and the USA believe that there is no need to control organic
pollutants because their concentrations are not high enough to pose
threats to human health (Mininni et al., 2015). Attention is also paid to
pathogenic microorganisms in the legislations of Denmark, Finland,
Poland, and Luxemburg (Latare et al., 2014).

*
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: halynakominko@chemia.pk.edu.pl, halynakominko@chemia.pk.edu.pl (H. Kominko), gorazda@chemia.pk.edu.pl (K. Gorazda),
wzor@chemia.pk.edu.pl (Z. Wzorek).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109283
Received 25 February 2019; Received in revised form 14 July 2019; Accepted 15 July 2019
0301-4797/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Kominko, et al.
Sewage sludge use for agricultural purposes is important in the case
of phosphorus recycling, which is known to be limited (Cordell et al.,
2009; Gorazda et al., 2017; van Dijk et al., 2016). Due to the scarcity of
phosphate rock and, consequently, the fluctuation in its price in recent
years (Mew, 2016), alternative sources of phosphorus, such as sewage
sludge, will gain increasing interest (Vogel et al., 2016). Furthermore,
Europe has scant deposits of phosphate rock, primary in Finland, and
depends strongly on its import (Reijnders, 2014). At the same time,
there is loss of phosphorus to the environment caused by the in-
appropriate use of mineral fertilizers, which results in eutrophication
and dead zones due to a lack of oxygen (Scholz et al., 2013). For this
reason, improvement in phosphorus management is of high priority. It
is estimated that approximately 60% of the phosphorus that goes to
wastewater treatment plants is incorporated into sewage sludge. In a
typical municipal WWTP with biological phosphorus removal and/or
precipitation, nearly 11% of phosphorus ends in primary sludge, and
28% and 50% in surplus sludge and sewage sludge after enhanced
biological phosphorus removal and precipitation respectively (Cornel
and Schaum, 2009). According to Yuan et al. (2012), phosphorus re-
cycled from domestic waste streams satisfies 15–20% of the world de-
mand for phosphate rock and reduces, to some degree, dependence on
mineral fertilizers.
However, sewage sludge disposal in agriculture can lead to an ac-
cumulation of heavy metals and organic contaminations in soil as a
result of its long-term application (Bettiol and Ghini, 2011; Kirchmann
et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2018). According to this, thermal treatment of
sewage sludge has become increasingly popular in some European
countries (Turunen et al., 2018).
Among the advantages of sewage sludge thermal utilisation, a sig-
nificant decrease in initial mass, decomposition of harmful compounds,
energy recovery (Pajak, 2013; Samolada and Zabaniotou, 2014), and a
final form of mineral ash that is beneficial for phosphorus recovery
(Atienza-Martínez et al., 2014; Donatello and Cheeseman, 2013) or as
an additive for construction materials (Smol et al., 2015), should be
mentioned. Nevertheless, incineration leads to concentrations of heavy
metals in ash that should be used in an appropriate way (Ottosen et al.,
2013) and it does not take into consideration the nutrient and fertilizing
potential of sewage sludge. In addition, thermal methods of sewage
sludge disposal are not in line with waste hierarchy and circular
economy policy (Gharfalkar et al., 2015). It should also be pointed out
that incineration is energy intensive and a high-cost process, profitable
only for large WWTPs (Świerczek et al., 2018).
It is known that the quality of sewage sludge is dependent on the
treatment technology, as well as on the share of industrial waste in the
total wastewater effluent (Eid et al., 2017). This parameter will be
decisive in choosing the final sewage sludge disposal pathway. Methods
for sewage sludge utilisation should be developed separately for each
WWTP to avoid detrimental environmental effects and the accumula-
tion of contaminants in line with sustainable development (Cieślik
et al., 2015; Kacprzak et al., 2017).
The production of municipal sludge in Poland in 2016 was 568.3
thousand tonnes of dry solids (d.s.), and the amount of sewage sludge
has increased 17% compared with 2005 (Central Statistical Office,
2017). The increasing production of sewage sludge is connected with
modernisation of existing wastewater treatment plans to adopt new
high-efficiency technologies, the expansion of the sewerage network,
and the construction of new wastewater treatment plants (Bień et al.,
2011). The most popular method of sewage sludge disposal in 2016 was
agricultural use (20%); nearly 4% of sewage sludge was applied in land
reclamation, 6% in the cultivation of plants intended for compost
production, 18% was thermally transformed, and 4% was landfilled
(Central Statistical Office, 2017). It should be noted that the amount of
landfilled sewage sludge has decreased significantly (31% in 2005). The
reverse situation has occurred in the case of thermal methods of sewage
sludge treatment (1% in 2005 and 18% in 2016). Recent years have
brought dynamic growth in thermal methods for sewage sludge disposal
2
Journal of Environmental Management 248 (2019) 109283
(Werle, 2015). In the case of agricultural use of sewage sludge, a slight
decrease is observed, which can be attributed to the growth in public
awareness of environmental issues and no social acceptance of this
disposal method (Smol et al., 2016). Moreover, some authors have
highlighted that sewage sludge use in agriculture is seasonal and there
is no area in Poland for this purpose (Bauman-Kaszubska and Sikorski,
2011; Wolski et al., 2011).
A serious problem for sewage sludge management in Poland is
sewage sludge accumulation at WWTPs, which in 2016 accounted for
221.2 thousand tonnes of sewage sludge expressed as dry solids. After
January 1, 2016, the landfilling of sewage sludge that has not been
processed properly is forbidden (Journal of Laws from 2015a, item
1277). In the 2016 National Waste Management Plan (Polish Official
Journal, 2016), there is no strategy for the utilisation of sewage sludge
that was landfilled and accumulated at the WWTPs before. The ne-
cessity to deal with sewage sludge according to waste hierarchy, which
includes reducing sewage sludge production (use of effective stabilisa-
tion and dewatering processes), organic recycling (use for compost,
phosphorus recovery) and energy recovery is emphasised.
Additionally, within the framework of the Water Directive (2000/
60/EC) and adopted policy of sustainable development, Poland has
adopted a ‘Program of actions aimed at reducing water pollution with
nitrates from agricultural sources and prevention of further pollution’
(Journal of Laws from 2018, item 1339). The Program introduces
changes in the field of nitrogen fertilisation, determines the permitted
date of use and dose of fertilizers that contain nitrogen, defines the
storage conditions for organic fertilizers, and establishes rules for fer-
tilizer use at or near surface waters and areas with a large slope. The
Program can affect sewage sludge management due to the fact that
sewage sludge is considered an organic fertilizer containing nitrogen
and can cause water pollution due to nitrogen compounds as a result of
its application to soil.
Intensive research and innovations in recent years have resulted in
the creation of a wide spectrum of technologies for phosphorus re-
covery from sewage sludge (Withers et al., 2015). Most are based on
precipitation/crystallisation processes from secondary treated effluent
or aqueous phases resulting in struvite or different forms of calcium
phosphate formation (Desmidt et al., 2015). Another possibility of
phosphorus recovery is the wet-chemical or thermal treatment of
sewage sludge and sewage sludge ash. The final product can be phos-
phoric acid, white phosphorus, or a substitute for phosphate rocks in
fertilizer production (Egle et al., 2015). However, such an approach
does not allow for the use of the organic matter contained in sewage
sludge. Additionally, the cost of phosphorus recovered from wastewater
streams is generally higher than the market price of phosphate ore or
fertilizers. Phosphorus recovery from the liquid phase and from sewage
sludge through wet-chemical process costs USD6.72–11.2/kg phos-
phorus and USD10.07–17.91/kg phosphorus, respectively (Ye et al.,
2017), and from triple superphosphate and phosphate ore the costs are
USD1.34–2.46/kg phosphorus and USD0.67–1.34/kg phosphorus
(Zhang et al., 2017). But when taking into account environmental
benefits and profits from the fertilizers produced, these technologies
can be economically viable (Mayer et al., 2016).
This paper examines the nutrient and organic matter recycling in
form of fertilizers based on sewage sludge. In this work, dried sewage
sludge from Polish WWTPs were analysed in terms of their fertilizing
properties and heavy metal content. The compositions of sewage
sludge-based fertilizers for rapeseed crop were developed and com-
pared with mineral, organic and sewage sludge-based fertilizers avail-
able on the Polish market. The content of heavy metals obtained, in
particular that of Cd, was discussed.
 H. Kominko, et al.

Table 1
Characterisation of polish WWTPs.
Wastewater Treatment Location Population Municipal Industrial Sewage sludge treatment Sewage sludge Final disposal method
Plant equivalent (PE) sewage,% sewage,% methods amount,t ds/year

Nowy Targ N 49°28′51.875” 110 778 53.5 46.5 Thickening, dewatering on 1620 R3 Recycling/reclamation of organic substances which are not used as solvents
E 20°2′43.67” centrifuges, anaerobic (including composting and other biological transformation processes)
digestion, drying R12 Exchange of waste for submission to any of the operations numbered R 1 to R
11
Szczecin-Zdroje N 53°22′48.746” 114 852 72.9 27.1 Mesophilic anaerobic digestion, 1083 D10 Incineration on land (635 t ds/year)
E 14°37′11.702” dewatering, drying Using for growing plants intended for the production of compost (448 t ds/year)
Szczecin-Pomorzany N 53°25′0.12” 375 701 81.9 18.1 Mesophilic anaerobic digestion, 4226 R10 Land treatment resulting in benefit to agriculture or ecological improvement
E 14°34′59.879” dewatering, drying (181 t ds/year)
D10 Incineration on land (4045 t ds/year)
Gdynia - Dębogórze N 54°29′47.811” 431 461 91.1 8.9 Mesophilic anaerobic digestion, 7337 D10 Incineration on land
E 18°30′38.53” dewatering, drying, fluidal Using for growing plants intended for the production of compost
combustion
Częstochowa N 50°49′5.586” 256 624 87.8 12.2 Thickening, dewatering, 2966 D10 Incineration on land (2726 t ds/year)
E 19°9′49.707” anaerobic digestion, R3 + R5 Recycling/reclamation of organic substances which are not used as
dewatering, thermal drying solvents (including composting and other biological transformation

3
processes) + Recycling/reclamation of other inorganic materials (240 t ds/year)
Ruda Śląska- N 50°19′5.443” 36 577 95.5 4.5 Anaerobic digestion, 866 D10 Incineration on land
Orzegów E 18°53′14.254” dewatering, drying R3 Recycling/reclamation of organic substances which are not used as solvents
(including composting and other biological transformation processes)
Myszków N 50°34′50.53” 25 392 69.5 31.5 Aerobic simultaneous 882 R3 Recycling/reclamation of organic substances which are not used as solvents
E 19°18′7.029” stabilisation, dewatering, solar (including composting and other biological transformation processes)
drying
Rzeszów N 50°2′7.508” 222 881 94.3 5.7 Mesophilic anaerobic digestion, 4083 Temporary storage on the WWTP site (108 t ds/year)
E 22°0′38.655” dewatering, liming, drying Using for growing plants not intended for consumption and for the production of
feed (3094 t ds/year)
R3 Recycling/reclamation of organic substances which are not used as solvents
(including composting and other biological transformation processes) (881.3 t ds/
year)
Skarżysko-Kamienna N 51°6′17.425” 59 500 93.2 6.8 Anaerobic digestion, 554 Sedimentary lagoons, hydrophilic use of sludge (554 t ds/year)
E 20°51′21.364” dewatering, solar drying
(currently do not use)
Żywiec N 49°41′41.294” 193 927 51.6 48.4 Mesophilic anaerobic digestion, 1693 D10 Incineration on land (1539 t ds/year)
E 19°11′41.271” dewatering, drying Using for growing plants intended for the production of compost (155 t ds/year)
Kędzierzyn-Koźle N 50°21′0” 72 057 85.4 14.6 Anaerobic digestion, 1440 Using in agriculture (1319 t ds/year)
E 18°11′59.999” dewatering, drying D10 Incineration on land (50 t ds/year)
Temporary storage on the WWTP site (71 t ds/year)
Journal of Environmental Management 248 (2019) 109283
H. Kominko, et al.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials used in the experiment
Dried sewage sludge was collected from 11 Polish WWTPs (in Nowy
Targ, Ruda Śląska, Częstochowa, Szczecin (2), Żywiec, Gdynia,
Myszków, Skarżysko-Kamienna, Rzeszów, and Kędzierzyn-Koźle). The
information about WWTPs, including population equivalent, waste-
water origin, sewage sludge treatment processes and final disposal
method of sewage sludge is presented in Table 1. All sewage sludge
underwent mechanical and biological treatment, then anaerobic di-
gestion and drying. WWTPs in Myszków, Rzeszów, and Skarżysko-Ka-
mienna have a solar dryer, whereas others are equipped with thermal
dryers.
Dried sewage sludge were stored in covered storage site for 3–8
months depending on WWTP, except of sewage sludge from the WWTP
in Gdynia, where it is incinerated. The period of sample collection was
March-October 2013. The samples of dried sewage sludge were col-
lected representatively from sewage sludge storage.
Sewage sludge was used as a basis for production of organo-mineral
fertilizers. The low content of nutrients in sewage sludge in comparison
with mineral fertilizers is one of the biggest drawbacks, which makes
the effect of sewage sludge application visible after the use of large
doses (Amann et al., 2018). Due to this fact, we considered the addition
of alternative sources of phosphorus and potassium in the form of
poultry litter ash and biomass ash and mineral fertilizers in order to
increase the nutrient content of organo-mineral fertilizers.
Poultry production is one of the biggest branches of the agri-food
industry, generating a significant amount of waste, which creates pro-
blems with its management. The alternative practice for poultry litter
disposal is incineration (Mierzwa-Hersztek et al., 2016). Poultry litter
ash is a valuable source of phosphorus (9.1–15.3% P2O5) and potassium
(7.9–16.9% K2O) (Bauer et al., 2019; Billen et al., 2015) and be suc-
cessfully used as raw material in fertilizer production. The poultry litter
ash used in the experiment originated from an industrial incinerator
plant. Poultry litter was incinerated in a rotary kiln at 650–850 °C.
Biomass combustion is applied worldwide in bioenergy. Despite the
value of nutrients in biomass ash, landfilling still plays a key role in its
management, generating significant costs. The composition of biomass
ash depends strongly on biomass type. For example, wood ash contains
2.3–13.4% P2O5 and 7.2–26.5% K2O (Insam and Knapp, 2011). Field
studies have shown beneficial effects of biomass ash use for agriculture
purposes. However, because of the high alkalinity of ash (pH ≈ 12),
direct application to the soil is not recommended (Brännvall et al.,
2015). Therefore, ash can be recycled as a component of fertilizers in
line with a ‘zero-waste’ objective. Biomass ash for fertilizer production
in the experiment was prepared in the laboratory. Flax straw was in-
cinerated in a muffle furnace for 3 h at 650 °C.
2.2. Organo-mineral fertilizer production
Based on chemical characterisation of analysed sewage sludge
(especially heavy metal and nutrient content) sewage sludge from the
WWTP in Żywiec was selected for organo-mineral fertilizer production.
In spite of research, results of which showed the positive impact of
sewage sludge application on the growth of tomatoes (Waqas et al.,
2015), spinach (Kumar et al., 2016), barley (Pasqualone et al., 2017),
corn (Grotto et al., 2015), and wheat (Koutroubas et al., 2014), sewage
sludge application to soil intended for crops to be consumed by humans
or animals is prohibited (Journal of Laws, 2015b, item 257). For this
reason, we propose the compositions of organo-mineral fertilizers based
on sewage sludge for rape crop. Rapeseed oil is used as a biocomponent
of fuels such as diesel. As a consequence of a European Directive im-
plementation with regards to increasing the share of biocomponents in
fuels, growth in rape production has been observed (Küüt et al., 2017).
Poland is one of the biggest producers and exporters of rape in Europe,
4
Journal of Environmental Management 248 (2019) 109283
producing more than 2 million tonnes of rape annually, which is 9% of
European rape production (Rosiak, 2014).
The fertilizer production process was carried out in a laboratory disk
granulator. First attempts were aimed at selection of the amount of each
component and development of granulation parameters. Sewage sludge
was milled, mixed with poultry litter ash/biomass ash and mineral
fertilizers, and loaded into the granulation disk. Dilute nitric/sulfuric
acids were added in portions to the granulator. The process was com-
pleted when whole mixture was granulated. The obtained granules
were dried at 70 ○C for 3 h.
In order to check the technology and the repeatability of results the
process of fertilizer production was performed on a semi-technical
scale. The disc granulator used in fertilizer production was equipped
with a liquid feeder and granule classifier. The granulation parameters
were follows: 1) diameter of granulation disk, 80 cm; 2) inclination
angle, 35°; and 3) rotation, 60 rpm. The fertilizer production process
was carried out as on the laboratory scale.
2.3. Analytical procedures
The moisture content of analysed materials was determined by
drying at 105 °C using a Mettler Toledo moisture analyser HG63. The
organic matter content of sewage sludge was determined by calcination
at 550 °C for 3 h according to the (Journal of Laws ,b, item 257).
The chemical composition of sewage sludge samples, poultry litter
ash and biomass ash were determined by the use of atomic absorption
spectroscopy (AAS) (AAnalyst 300, PerkinElmer) and inductively cou-
pled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) (Plasm 40,
PerkinElmer) after digestion in H2SO4 and aqua regia in the case of Ca
and Pb determination (Polish Committee of the Standardization, 2002;
modified PN-91/, 1991). The fertilizer digestion was conducted in aqua
regia and the solutions analysed with the above-mentioned techniques.
The total phosphorus content, as well as its bioavailability, was de-
termined using a spectrophotometric method according to EU (2003)
and PN-88/C-, 87015. The determination of nitrogen content was per-
formed using a 2400 CHN Elemental Analyser (PerkinElmer).
All analysis was carried out twice for each sample. The results of
analyses (including tables and figures) are given in % or mg/kg of dry
mass.
To examine the effects of sewage sludge-based fertilizers on the
early phase of rape germination, the Phytotoxkit test was used. The
tests were performed in transparent polystyrene test plates filled with
reference soil, and reference soil mixed with 0.2 g of selected fertilizer.
The rape seeds were incubated for 72 h at 25 °C and with no light ac-
cess. The test was performed in triplicate.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Material characteristics
3.1.1. Sewage sludge
The moisture content of analysed sewage sludge ranged from 4.79%
in the case of sewage sludge from the WWTP in Częstochowa to 51.6%
in that from the WWTP in Gdynia. The analysed sewage sludge con-
sisted of 54.38–78.42% organic matter. The results of the study are
presented in Table 2 and show significant differences in sewage sludge
composition. The phosphorus content (P2O5) of sewage sludge varied
from 3.51% in the case of sewage sludge from the WWTP in Nowy Targ
to 8.96% in that from the WWTP in Gdynia. The nitrogen content ac-
counted for 4.01–6.80%. Typically, sewage sludge is poor in potassium
(Grobelak et al., 2019), which was confirmed in this study. Sewage
sludge is a source of secondary nutrients and micro-nutrients, especially
Ca, Mg, S, Fe and Mn.
The considerable amount of nutrients in sewage sludge emphasises
the benefits of their agricultural use. Land application of sewage sludge
in Poland is regulated by (Journal of Laws from ,b, item 257). The
H. Kominko, et al. Journal of Environmental Management 248 (2019) 109283

Table 2
Characterisation of sewage sludge from Polish WWTPs (numbers in bold indicate the highest value).
Primary nutrients Secondary nutrients Micronutrients

Moisture Organic N P2O5 K2O MgO CaO Na2O SO3 Fe Mo Mn Co B

content matter
% mg/kg
Nowy Targ 13.3 78.42 6.80 3.51 0.633 0.534 2.39 0.297 1.58 1.28 0.166 200 3.49 21.9
± 0.3 ± 0.04 ± 0.04 ± 0.02 ± 0.032 ± 0.02 ± 0.02 ± 0.015 ± 0.08 ± 0.02 ± 0.006 ± 10 ± 0.17 ± 1.1
Szczecin-Zdroje 8.37 67.09 4.01 7.44 0.240 0.985 6.06 0.118 4.51 2.88 2.26 227 5.65 79.6
± 0.23 ± 0.04 ± 0.12 ± 0.11 ± 0.012 ± 0.01 ± 0.06 ± 0.006 ± 0.23 ± 0.04 ± 0.11 ± 11 ± 0.28 ± 4.0
Szczecin 3.39 62.86 4.41 8.35 0.374 1.27 3.64 0.108 2.03 2.53 1.60 154 4.69 92.9
–Pomorzany ± 0.08 ± 0.18 ± 0.18 ± 0.08 ± 0.019 ± 0.03 ± 0.03 ± 0.005 ± 0.10 ± 0.08 ± 0.08 ±8 ± 0.23 ± 4.6
Gdynia- 51.6 65.04 4.75 8.96 0.323 1.00 2.17 0.143 2.87 1.70 3.33 252 5.35 8.64
Dębogórze ± 0.6 ± 0.04 ± 0.04 ± 0.03 ± 0.016 ± 0.01 ± 0.01 ± 0.007 ± 0.14 ± 0.21 ± 0.17 ± 13 ± 0.27 ± 0.43
Częstochowa 4.79 60.31 6.54 8.21 0.209 0.852 4.38 0.134 3.31 5.89 4.37 469 15.4 5.27
± 0.04 ± 0.10 ± 0.08 ± 0.18 ± 0.010 ± 0.01 ± 0.05 ± 0.007 ± 0.17 ± 0.21 ± 0.22 ± 23 ± 0.8 ± 0.26
Ruda Śląska- 20.8 72.05 6.23 7.67 1.13 0.885 1.65 0.207 1.73 2.58 0.957 559 20.7 9.15
Orzegów ± 0.1 ± 0.10 ± 0.04 ± 0.02 ± 0.06 ± 0.01 ± 0.01 ± 0.010 ± 0.09 ± 0.01 ± 0.048 ± 28 ± 1.0 ± 0.46
Myszków 7.75 75.77 6.54 5.35 1.07 1.24 1.69 0.139 0.0320 1.27 10.4 475 25.2 32.5
± 0.54 ± 0.18 ± 0.03 ± 0.10 ± 0.05 ± 0.02 ± 0.01 ± 0.007 ± 0.0016 ± 0.01 ± 0.5 ± 24 ± 1.3 ± 1.6
Rzeszów 11.2 56.87 4.57 7.23 1.02 1.50 3.78 0.242 2.82 1.23 2.36 242 16.3 2.66
± 0.1 ± 0.49 ± 0.04 ± 0.10 ± 0.05 ± 0.01 ± 0.02 ± 0.012 ± 0.14 ± 0.01 ± 0.12 ± 12 ± 0.8 ± 0.13
Skarżysko- 13.1 54.38 4.07 6.80 0.436 1.19 5.67 0.173 3.32 1.41 2.71 371 5.99 6.48
Kamienna ± 0.3 ± 0.10 ± 0.03 ± 0.05 ± 0.022 ± 0.01 ± 0.07 ± 0.009 ± 0.17 ± 0.31 ± 0.14 ± 19 ± 0.30 ± 0.32
Żywiec 6.51 55.42 4.44 7.24 0.345 0.651 3.19 0.154 2.45 6.99 12.6 535 29.7 18.43
± 0.10 ± 0.04 ± 0.04 ± 0.25 ± 0.017 ± 0.04 ± 0.02 ± 0.008 ± 0.12 ± 0.68 ± 0.6 ± 27 ± 1.5 ± 0.92
Kędzierzyn- 6.49 67.74 4.52 5.67 0.219 1.10 6.12 0.161 4.97 2.02 2.59 754 9.67 9.94
Koźle ± 0.13 ± 0.23 ± 0.05 ± 0.06 ± 0.011 ± 0.01 ± 0.04 ± 0.008 ± 0.25 ± 0.05 ± 0.13 ± 38 ± 0.48 ± 0.50
Mineral 3.5-31 10–20 10–28 0.1–2.7 4.9–24 1.1–20 0.1–0.2 0.02 0.2–0.7 0.01 0.2–1
fertilizersa

a
– composition of mineral NPK fertilizers available in the Polish market (n = 12).

Table 3
Heavy metal content in sewage sludge from Polish WWTPs.
Zn Cu Pb Cr Ni Cd Hg

mg/kg

Nowy Targ 521.4 38.61 12.14 139.1 23.05 7.85 0.083

± 25.7 ± 2.01 ± 0.10 ± 3.4 ± 1.03 ± 0.01 ± 0.004
Szczecin-Zdroje 1244 499.2 41.38 40.91 31.30 13.0 0.10
± 75 ± 5.9 ± 0.87 ± 2.00 ± 1.63 ± 0.4 ± 0.01
Szczecin –Pomorzany 906.8 190.8 33.78 32.35 37.82 14.7 0.11
± 58.3 ± 10.5 ± 0.59 ± 1.33 ± 1.45 ± 0.7 ± 0.01
Gdynia-Dębogórze 1116 223.8 41.95 45.68 41.00 13.1 3.1
± 42 ± 1.3 ± 1.32 ± 2.69 ± 1.78 ± 0.8 ± 0.2
Częstochowa 2110 271.0 96.8 302.5 136.2 15.6 1.1
± 56 ± 4.1 ± 1.5 ± 3.2 ± 0.7 ± 1.2 ± 0.1
Ruda Śląska- Orzegów 1153 66.60 64.49 53.89 41.84 14.9 7.2
± 54 ± 1.48 ± 0.12 ± 1.51 ± 1.96 ± 0.1 ± 0.4
Myszków 2157 37.24 168.0 58.33 39.28 13.7 0.46
± 53 ± 2.83 ± 0.4 ± 0.60 ± 2.59 ± 1.1 ± 0.02
Rzeszów 1119 200.9 44.34 90.97 63.66 14.4 7.2
± 60 ± 0.6 ± 1.20 ± 3.10 ± 1.33 ± 0.7 ± 0.4
Skarżysko-Kamienna 4504 325.8 97.53 246.8 65.57 11.6 2.6
± 24 ± 1.5 ± 2.78 ± 16.1 ± 2.54 ± 0.2 ± 0.1
Żywiec 936.4 193.3 29.84 66.05 90.10 1.88 2.3
± 12.8 ± 13.7 ± 0.12 ± 0.39 ± 2.15 ± 0.03 ± 0.1
Kędzierzyn-Koźle 3804 197.1 60.40 85.91 79.53 7.6 0.64
± 123 ± 6.08 ± 5.36 ± 2.04 ± 12.81 ± 1.0 ± 0.03
Permissible values for sewage sludge land application 1* 2500 1000 750 500 300 20 16
2* 3500 1200 1000 1000 400 25 20
3* 5000 2000 1500 2500 500 50 25
Permissible values for organic fertilizers 140 100 60 5 2

1* use of sewage sludge in agriculture or for land reclamation for agricultural purposes.
2* use of sewage sludge for land reclamation for non-agricultural purposes.
3* use of sewage sludge while adapting the land to specific needs resulting from waste management plans, spatial development plans or decisions on building and
land development conditions, for growing crops intended for the production of compost, or for growing plants not designated for consumption and feed production.

Directive sets permissible values for heavy metal content (Zn, Cu, Pb, set by the Directive except that from the WWTP in Kędzierzyn-Koźle, in
Ni, Cr, Cd and Hg) depending on the proposed sewage sludge use. The which the concentration of Zn was found to be higher (4504 mg/kg)
results of the study presented in Table 3 show that the heavy metal than the permissible value for sewage sludge intended for agricultural
content in the analysed sewage sludge did not exceed the limit values use (2500 mg/kg) and for reclamation (3500 mg/kg).

5
H. Kominko, et al.
Due to the fact that sewage sludge can be considered an organic
fertilizer (Bai et al., 2017), the composition of sewage sludge was
compared with regulatory parameters set up by Polish Regulations re-
lating to organic fertilizers (Journal of Laws from 2008, No. 119, item
765). According to the Ordinance, organic fertilizers should contain no
less than 30% organic matter and, in the case of the declared content of
N, P, or K or their sum, the content of each nutrient cannot be less than
the following: a) 0.3 mass/mass percent (% m/m) of total nitrogen, b)
0.2% m/m of total phosphorus (expressed as P2O5), and c) 0.2% m/m of
total potassium (expressed as K2O). In addition, organic fertilizers
should fulfil the requirements for heavy metal content (Cr, Pb, Cd, Ni
and Hg), which is important from an environmental point of view.
Sewage sludge from Polish WWTPs analysed in the study met the
requirements in terms of organic matter and nutrient content. However,
all sewage sludge contained at least one metal whose concentration
exceeded the limit value according to legislation (Table 3).
The content of Cr in sewage sludge varied from 32.4 to 303 mg/kg.
Eight sewage sludge samples had Cr concentrations below the max-
imum value (100 mg/kg), while sewage sludge from WWTPs in Nowy
Targ, Częstochowa, and Skarżysko-Kamienna were characterised by a
higher content of Cr than that allowed by the Ordinance. In the case of
Pb, all samples, except that from the WWTP in Myszków, fulfilled the
requirement (140 mg/kg). The Ni content of sewage sludge from
WWTPs in Nowy Targ, Szczecin-Zdroje, Szczecin-Pomorzany, Ruda
Śląska, Gdynia and Myszków was below 60 mg/kg. Other samples
contained higher concentrations of Ni than the maximum permitted
value. In the case of sewage sludge from the WWTP in Częstochowa, the
concentration of Ni exceeded 127% of
The concentration of Cd was found to be high in all analysed ma-
terials, except in sewage sludge from the WWTP in Żywiec, whereas
other samples contained 2–3 times higher concentrations of Cd than the
permissible value. The content of Hg was much higher than the max-
imum concentration (2 mg/kg) in sewage sludge from WWTPs in
Rzeszów (7.20 mg/kg), Ruda Śląska (7.15 mg/kg), and Gdynia
(3.07 mg/kg). Sewage sludge from WWTPs in Nowy Targ, Szczecin-
Zdroje, Szczecin-Pomorzany, Myszków, Częstochowa and Kędzierzyn-
Koźle fulfilled the requirement regarding Hg content in organic ferti-
lizers. The primary source of heavy metals in sewage sludge is industrial
sewage, mainly from electroplating, the chemical industry, and the
metal processing industry (Fernandes et al., 2007). However, no strong
correlation was observed between the share of industrial effluent in
wastewater and heavy metal content of sewage sludge analysed in the
study. In WWTPs in Nowy Targ and Żywiec the share of industrial ef-
fluent was the highest, at 46.5% and 48.4%, respectively. The ex-
ceeding of limit values of heavy metal content in sewage sludge from
these WWTPs was not significant. An interesting finding is that sewage
sludge from WWTPs in Skarżysko-Kamienna, Częstochowa and
Rzeszów, where the share of industrial effluent was the lowest (6.8%,
12.2%, 5.7%, respectively), contained three or four metals with con-
centrations above the permissible values for organic fertilizers. These
heavy metals can originate from runoff, corrosion processes and
households, which are significant sources of heavy metals in sewage.
The study conducted by (Sörme and Lagerkvist, 2002) showed that the
large sources of Cu in the WWTP in Stockholm were tap water and
roofs. The large contributors of Zn in wastewater effluent were re-
sidences (food, pipes, taps), galvanised goods and car washing, in the
case of Ni it was chemicals added to WWTPs and in the case of Hg it was
amalgams. It was concluded that sources of Cr, Cd and Pb were more
poorly understood and difficult to track. The main sources of these
metals were car washing and artists’ paint in the case of Cd.
Identification and quantification of key sources of heavy metals in
effluents and their control are crucial for reducing heavy metal content
in sewage sludge and reducing contamination releases to the environ-
ment through agricultural application. However, it should be noted that
regulatory actions aimed at controlling heavy metal discharge can focus
only on identified sources. It was reported that up to 30–60% of heavy
6
Journal of Environmental Management 248 (2019) 109283
metal load can be introduced to WWTPS from unidentified and dis-
persed sources (European Commission, 2001). Therefore, there is a
need for deeper studies of dispersed heavy metal sources and analysis of
the possible management of these sources in order to reduce con-
tamination load to wastewater.
In order to reduce the heavy metal content in sewage sludge, im-
mobilisation techniques or removal technologies can be used. Heavy
metal immobilisation can be achieved by mixing sewage sludge with
various substrates from the group of alkaline materials (lime, ash, hy-
droxyapatite), or clays (bentonite and limonite) or organic materials
(activated carbon, compost). This allows significant reduction in the
mobility of heavy metals in sewage sludge and therefore decreases their
accumulation in soil after sewage sludge application (Penido et al.,
2019; Tsadilas et al., 2014).
Various technologies have been developed in recent years for re-
moving heavy metals from sewage sludge. Chemical extraction by using
mineral/organic acids or chelating reagents is the most commonly used
method for the removal of heavy metals from sewage sludge with good
recovery rate (average 80–90%) (Suanon et al., 2016). However, it
requires high dosages of extraction agents, which lead to high operating
costs and operational difficulties (Deng et al., 2009). In addition, some
chelating reagents can pose secondary pollution problems through
heavy metal leaching (Wu et al., 2015). Therefore, heavy metal removal
by bioleaching has attracted increasing attention due to the low costs of
the method (80% cheaper than chemical extraction) (Gu et al., 2016),
the possibility of metal recovery from the leachate and improved de-
watering properties of sewage sludge (Marchenko et al., 2018). The
drawback of this removal method is the slow reaction kinetics. The
recovery efficiency varies depending on the metal and can reach
34–100% Cu, 18–80% Cr, 18–69% Cd, 10–58% Pb, 58–99% Mn,
42–100% Ni, and 38–100% Zn (Gu et al., 2018). A better understanding
of reactions taking place in biofilm as well as optimisation of process
parameters (pH, temperature, reaction time, mass transfer rate, etc.) are
needed to adapt bioleaching technology to heavy metal removal from
sewage sludge on an industrial scale. Electrokinetic remediation, which
is based on transport of metal ions towards electrodes under an electric
field is considered a promising technique for heavy metal removal from
sewage sludge (Fu et al., 2017). This technology does not introduce
additional substrates into the system; however, the process requires a
great deal of energy (Shen et al., 2007). Emerging technologies for
heavy metal removal from sewage sludge, such as supercritical water
treatment (Qian et al., 2016), application of chitosan magnetite nano-
particles (Bratina et al., 2016), and photocatalysis (Kabra et al., 2008)
have been intensively studied.
All the above-mentioned technologies give satisfactory results and
can be implemented in WWTPs. However, there are still some bottle-
necks, such as cost-effectiveness, simplicity and technical feasibility,
which should be improved to increase the attractiveness and accessi-
bility of the technologies.
A promising solution for sewage sludge management is its use as a
component in organo-mineral fertilizer production, which allows for
nutrients and organic matter recycling. It should be highlighted that it
is not possible to prepare fertilizers from sewage sludge only, due to
problems with heavy metal content. The amount of sewage sludge in a
fertilizer composition should be selected based on the heavy metal
content of the sewage sludge. Special attention should be paid to Cd
content, due to its toxicity (Roberts, 2014). Such an approach provides
a decrease in heavy metal content in the final product as a result of
dilution. Additionally, such fertilizers would have higher nutrient
content in comparison to sewage sludge, which is associated with lower
doses.
3.1.2. Alternative raw materials
The characterisation of alternative raw materials is presented in
Table 4. The results of the study showed that poultry litter ash and
biomass ash are rich sources of phosphorus and potassium. Their use as
H. Kominko, et al. Journal of Environmental Management 248 (2019) 109283

Table 4
Composition of alternative sources of P and K in organo-mineral fertilizers.
Poultry litter ash Biomass ash

P2O5 % 18.8 ± 0.3 12.1 ± 0.2

K2O 24.7 ± 0.8 19.9 ± 0.9
Ca 9.68 ± 0.47 2.98 ± 0.44
Mg 6.27 ± 0.03 0.261 ± 0.010
Fe 0.78 ± 0.10 0.33 ± 0.03
Zn mg/kg 2288 ± 29 7182 ± 0.9
Cu 694 ± 2 157 ± 4
Cr 122 ± 3 17.4 ± 0.01
Ni 110 ± 8 34.3 ± 2.5
Pb 19.1 ± 0.4 46.6 ± 1.7
Cd 5.27 ± 0.10 13.7 ± 1.3
Hg 0.24 ± 0.01 0.011 ± 0.001

Table 5
Sample names of organo-mineral fertilizers for rape crop.
Sewage sludge-based fertilizers for rape Sewage sludge-based fertilizers for
crop (R) with poultry litter ash (PA) rape crop (R) with biomass ash (BA)

N/P2O5/K2O = 11.2–13.2/4.0–5.6/13.2–17.6
R-PA1, R-PA2 R-BA1, R-BA2
N/P2O5/K2O = 7.4–9.9/3.0–4.8/9.9–13.2
R-PA3, R-PA4 R-BA3, R-BA4

components in fertilizer production is a sustainable disposal method.

Nevertheless, heavy metal content should be taken into account (see
Table 4).
The study showed, that poultry litter ash has high Zn, Cu, Cr and Ni
contents. Heavy metals in poultry litter originates from feed additives
used to promote animal growth (Sarvi et al., 2017) and depends on the
specifics of diet and farm size (Zhang et al., 2012). After combustion of
poultry litter the heavy metals are concentrated in the ash. Biomass ash
is generally characterised by low heavy metal content (Islam et al.,
2017), which was confirmed in this study. However, a very high con-
centration of Zn was found in analysed biomass ash. In the literature the
maximum concentration of Zn reported for some biomass ashes was
16400 mg/kg (Vassilev et al., 2010).
3.2. Sewage sludge-based fertilizers for rape crop
3.2.1. Composition of fertilizers
According to the International Fertilizer Industry Association rape
uptakes nutrients (N/P2O5/K2O) in ratios of 2.8–3.3/1–1.4/3.3–4.4
(International Fertilizer Industry Association, 1992). Based on this data,
two types of organo-mineral fertilizers with different nutrient content
were developed. Four organo-mineral fertilizers, two of which con-
tained poultry litter ash (R-PA1, R-PA2) and two biomass ash (R-BA1,
R-BA2) were produced with expected nutrient content (%) N/P2O5/
K2O = 11.2–13.2/4.0–5.6/13.2–17.6, and four fertilizers (two with
poultry litter ash – R-PA3, R-PA4 and two with biomass ash – R-BA3, R-
BA4) with expected nutrient content (%) N/P2O5/K2O = 7.4–9.9/
3.0–4.8/9.9–13.2 (Table 5). The appropriate amount of each
Fig. 2. NPK composition of organo-mineral fertilizers for rape crop (red lines
show the expected nutrient range: A) 11.2–13.2 (N) 4.0–5.6 (P2O5) 13.2–17.6
(K2O); B) 7.4–9.9 (N) 3.0–4.8 (P2O5) 9.9–13.2 (K2O)). (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web
version of this article.)
component (sewage sludge, poultry litter ash, biomass ash, mineral
fertilizers, acids) and the type of mineral fertilizer were selected so as to
introduce such amounts of nutrients that would result in products with
the expected NPK contents and, at the same time, meet the require-
ments in terms of heavy metal content for organo-mineral fertilizers.
Produced organo-mineral fertilizers contained 38–42% of sewage
sludge. Such an amount allows for a reduction in the amount of heavy
metals in fertilizers and provides enough organic matter concentration
to comply with Polish requirements related to organo-mineral fertilizers
(Journal of Laws from 2008, No. 119, item 765). The ash content in the
obtained fertilizers was 9–12%. Different conventional fertilizers
(KNO3, K2SO4, NH4NO3, (NH4)2SO4, and diammonium phosphate
(DAP)) were used for modification of the nutrient content of organo-

Fig. 1. Images of organo-mineral fertilizers for rape crop.

7
H. Kominko, et al. Journal of Environmental Management 248 (2019) 109283

Fig. 3. Different forms of phosphorus in sewage sludge-based fertilizers for rape crop.

mineral fertilizers. Images of the obtained organo-mineral fertilizers are
presented in Fig. 1.
3.2.2. Nutrient content
The moisture content in sewage sludge-based organo-mineral ferti-
lizers ranged from 2.3 to 4.4%. The NPK contents of the final products
are presented in Fig. 2. With respect to nitrogen, all the organo-mineral
fertilizers fulfilled the assumed concentration. In the case of phos-
phorus, only the fertilizer R-BA2 had a 3% higher phosphorus content
than expected. The phosphorus content in the other fertilizers was in
line with expectations. The potassium concentration of the obtained
fertilizing products was close to that expected, except for fertilizer R-
PA3, where that K2O content was 21% higher.
3.2.3. Phosphorus availability
The information of potentially plant-available phosphorus in ferti-
lizers enables assessment of their effectiveness and application rates.
The study has shown that sewage sludge-based fertilizers are generally
characterised by low content of water-soluble phosphorus compounds
(Fig. 3). In the case of fertilizers with the addition of poultry litter ash,
the content of water-soluble phosphorus was in the range of
8.03–19.6% total phosphorus content. Fertilizers containing biomass
ash, R-BA1 and R-BA2, had 12.1 and 14.6% water-soluble phosphorus,
respectively. The lowest content of water-soluble phosphorus was found
in R-BA3 and R-BA4 (2.47 and 2.70%, respectively). It can be con-
cluded that fertilizers containing poultry litter ash have higher water
solubility of phosphorus compounds in comparison with those con-
taining biomass ash. The higher content of water-soluble phosphorus in
fertilizers R-BA1 and R-BA2 can be attributed to the diammonium
phosphate content in the fertilizers, which is characterised by good
water solubility. There were no significant differences in the contents of
ammonium citrate-soluble phosphorus in the obtained fertilizers. The
value was between 21.9 and 28.7% total phosphorus content.
A low content of potentially plant-available phosphorus is con-
nected with the chemical state of phosphorus in sewage sludge and
poultry/litter biomass ashes, which are the main sources of phosphorus
in innovative fertilizers for rape crop. From the literature data, it fol-
lows that phosphorus in poultry litter ash is in the form of calcium
phosphates and apatite (Brod, 2018; Kaneko et al., 2014). In the case of
biomass ash, phosphorus occurs in apatite and potassium phosphate
salts (KNaCa2(PO4)2, KFe2(PO4)2, KFe2(PO4)2) (Bogush et al., 2018),
which are characterised by low water solubility (Brod et al., 2016).
Phosphorus in sewage sludge is bonded in organic matter and also
occurs in inorganic form. The composition of inorganic phosphorus
depends on the chemicals used in the wastewater treatment process to
improve sludge dewatering and to enhance phosphorus removal
(Kahiluoto et al., 2015). Aluminium and ferric salts, which are widely
used, lead to a decrease in phosphorus availability in sewage sludge
(Mayer et al., 2016). However, after application of sewage sludge or
sewage sludge-based fertilizers, insoluble phosphorus can be trans-
formed into available forms as a result of organic matter mineralisation
and sorption–desorption processes taking place in the soil (Sapek,
2014). Due to this, sewage sludge-based fertilizers can be considered
slow-release fertilizers, which reduce the risk of nutrient loss to the
environment and consequently improve fertilizer efficiency.
3.2.4. Heavy metal content
It is well known that fertilizers are a source of heavy metals in soil,
resulting in serious environmental damage. This fact becomes more
important in the case of fertilizers based on secondary raw materials,
such as sewage sludge and poultry litter ash/biomass ash. The content
of heavy metals in all obtained fertilizing products did not excess per-
missible concentrations set up by Polish legislation regarding organo-
mineral fertilizers (Table 6). Moreover, the Pb and Hg content in

Table 6
Concentrations of heavy metals in sewage sludge-based fertilizers for rape crop.
Cr Pb Ni Cd Hg

mg/kg

Sewage sludge-based fertilizers with poultry litter ash

R-PA1 47.9 ± 0.6 18.9 ± 0.0 56.3 ± 2.3 1.61 ± 0.07 0.377 ± 0.022
R-PA2 46.8 ± 1.2 17.9 ± 0.9 56.1 ± 0.9 1.35 ± 0.08 0.286 ± 0.062
R-PA3 55.6 ± 3.5 18.4 ± 1.5 56.1 ± 0.9 1.95 ± 0.12 0.750 ± 0.049
R-PA4 46.8 ± 0.5 14.8 ± 0.2 53.1 ± 1.1 2.12 ± 0.05 0.646 ± 0.069
Sewage sludge-based fertilizers with biomass ash
R-BA1 38.0 ± 0.8 19.6 ± 0.8 38.5 ± 0.9 2.68 ± 0.23 0.344 ± 0.010
R-BA2 36.1 ± 0.2 21.5 ± 0.4 44.4 ± 0.2 1.79 ± 0.03 0.588 ± 0.015
R-BA3 42.3 ± 0.3 15.2 ± 1.5 41.4 ± 0.1 3.34 ± 0.28 0.491 ± 0.025
R-BA4 49.4 ± 0.4 18.7 ± 0.4 45.0 ± 0.5 1.73 ± 0.03 0.578 ± 0.004
Organo-mineral fertilizer standards 100 140 60 5 2

8
H. Kominko, et al. Journal of Environmental Management 248 (2019) 109283

sewage sludge-based fertilizers was relatively low, at 84–89% and

63–86%, respectively, lower than maximum permitted values. There
were no significant differences in heavy metal concentration between
fertilizers with the addition of poultry litter ash and those with biomass
ash addition, except for Ni, which was slightly higher in R-PA1–R-PA4
fertilizers.
The issue of heavy metal content in fertilizers has attracted in-
creasing attention. In March 2016, a regulation for CE fertilizers was
proposed to boost the use of organic and waste-based fertilizers
(European Commission, 2016). The proposal had two main objectives:
1) to create a market for fertilizers based on waste and by-products and
2) to harmonise cadmium limit for fertilizers in member states in order
to avoid cadmium accumulation in the soil. The commission proposed
to establish the limit for Cd to 60 mg/kg P2O5, and this value would be
Fig. 4. Inhibition of rape root and stalk growth in relation with the control
tightened to 40 mg/kg P2O5 after 12 years and to 20 mg/kg P2O5 after
sample.
15 years after adopting of the regulation. In organo-mineral fertilizers,
the proposal set a limit of up to 3 mg Cd/kg of fertilizer expressed as dry
solids in the case of fertilizers with a phosphorus content lower than 5% growth by 13–18%. In the case of fertilizers with biomass ash, the in-
P2O5. Requirements concerning Cd content for organo-mineral fertili- hibition was 26–29% compared to the control sample. At the same time,
zers containing more than 5% P2O5 should be the same as for mineral the stalk growth of rape was higher in all samples fertilised by sewage
fertilizers (European Commission, 2016). sludge-based fertilizers. The best results were obtained in the case of
From this point of view, sewage sludge-based fertilizers containing fertilizers with biomass addition, where rape stalks were 21% longer for
poultry litter ash (R-PA1–R-PA4) and biomass ash (R-BA4), which have fertilizer R-BA1 and 67% longer for fertilizer R-BA3 compared to the
less than 5% P2O5, meet the requirements of the proposal in regards to control sample. Similar results were obtained by Cybulska et al. (2018),
Cd content. In the case of R-BA3, the Cd concentration is higher than where the phytotoxicity effects of compost from poultry post-slaughter
the standard value (3.34 mg Cd/kg of fertilizer). R-BA1 and R-BA2 waste and commercial compost were examined. The authors suggest
(5.30 and 5.76% of P2O5) contain 51 and 31 mg Cd/kg P2O5, respec- that such results could be attributed to the organic matter and nutrient
tively, and fulfil the standard requirements of the proposed Directive. content of compost, which promoted better stalk growth of the tested
The impact of the new regulation on suppliers of phosphate rock, plants compared to the control sample.
fertilizer producers, and farmers is currently strongly contested. The
average Cd concentration in mineral fertilizers in the European Union is
3.2.6. Comparison with fertilizers available on the market
estimated to be 45 mg Cd/kg P2O5 (Cichy et al., 2014). The European
The granulation process for fertilizer R-PA2 was scaled up. The
Union suggests three main ways to obtain fertilizers with low Cd con-
obtained fertilizer product was characterised by a wide grain size range.
tent: 1) based on phosphate rock with low Cd content; 2) im-
However, the study has shown that there were no significant differences
plementation of decadmiation techniques, and 3) use of secondary raw
in nutrient content in each fraction (Table 7). The NPK concentration of
materials (Ridder et al., 2012).
the particular fractions was in line with the assumption. The granulated
The study by Fertilizer Europe showed that accepting new Cd limit
fertilizer met the standard requirements regarding heavy metal content.
of 60 mg would exclude 9% of fertilizers available on the market, 40 mg
A simplified analysis of raw material costs for sewage sludge-based
would exclude 32% and 20 mg would exclude 50% (Ulrich, 2019). In
fertilizer was made using the example of R-PA2. The costs of input
order to produce fertilizers that fulfil the new requirements, the Eur-
materials for the production of R-PA2 and of the input materials that
opean Union should consider increasing the supplies of low cadmium
could be used for the production of a blended fertilizer with the same
phosphate rocks, mainly from Russia, which has one of the largest de-
nutrient content as R-PA2 were calculated. The average prices of mi-
posits of phosphate ore with low cadmium content (Oosterhuis et al.,
neral fertilizers available from major global producers (‘Alibaba’) were
2000). This would result in the unavoidable dependence of the Eur-
used for calculation.
opean Union on one supplier, which can be associated with high fer-
Assuming that the indirect costs of fertilizer production in both
tilizer prices and political blackmail.
cases would be the same, production costs of sewage sludge-based
In the case of decadmiation technologies, it should be noted that
fertilizers would be 38–45% lower compared to traditional fertilizers
they exist but are not implemented on an industrial scale. It is estimated
with the same nutrient content (Table 8). This is due to the fact that
that investment costs of implementation of techniques to reduce Cd
fertilizer R-PA2 includes 50% waste, for which the producer does not
content will increase fertilizer prices by 5–10% (Ridder et al., 2012).
Furthermore, problems of the utilisation of waste with high Cd con-
Table 7
centrations will appear (Europe, 2014).
Composition of granulated organo-mineral fertilizer R-PA2.
The use of secondary raw materials for fertilizer production have
gained increasing attention as an element of sustainable nutrient Grain size 1–2 mm Grain size > 7 mm Mixed grains
management (Chojnacka et al., 2019). However, there are concerns
N % 11.6 ± 0.2 11.3 ± 0.1 11.5 ± 0.2
related mainly to contamination levels in waste fertilizing sources, their P2O5 5.63 ± 0.13 5.36 ± 0.11 5.17 ± 0.08
effectiveness and prices in comparison with conventional fertilizers K2O 17.3 ± 0.4 15.9 ± 0.4 16.2 ± 0.2
(Lupton, 2017). Regulatory and technical actions should be taken in Ca 2.02 ± 0.08 1.94 ± 0.05 1.91 ± 0.05
Mg 0.835 ± 0.004 0.787 ± 0.064 0.802 ± 0.021
order to improve the collection of waste, and to increase the safety and
Fe 2.32 ± 0.10 3.07 ± 0.06 2.13 ± 0.14
agronomic value of waste-based fertilizers. Zn mg/kg 624 ± 18 602 ± 11 566 ± 15
Cu 180 ± 8 175 ± 4 176 ± 3
3.2.5. Phytotoxicity Cr 56.9 ± 1.7 45.1 ± 1.2 57.5 ± 3.4
Four sewage sludge-based fertilizers were selected for phytotoxicity Pb 23.1 ± 0.2 22.5 ± 0.3 24.1 ± 2.0
Ni 58.5 ± 3.5 57.1 ± 0.8 58.2 ± 0.1
tests. The results of the tests are presented in Fig. 4.
Cd 1.62 ± 0.00 1.41 ± 0.10 1.61 ± 0.05
It should be noted that all fertilizers inhibited the root growth of Hg 0.712 ± 0.110 1.07 ± 0.41 –
rape. The fertilizers with poultry litter ash caused inhibition of root

9
H. Kominko, et al. Journal of Environmental Management 248 (2019) 109283

Table 8
A simplified analysis of raw material costs used in sewage sludge-based fertilizer production.
Sewage sludge-based fertilizer Blended mineral fertilizer Blended mineral fertilizer II
R-PA2 I

N/P2O5/K2O = 11.5/5.2/16.2
Component Amount, kg Price, $ Component Amount, kg Price, $ Component Amount, kg Price, $
Sewage sludge 400 0 Single super-phosphate 289 64 NH4H2PO4 85 49
Poultry litter ash 100 0 KNO3 352 264 KNO3 352 264
KNO3 260 195 NH4NO3 188 56 (NH4)2SO4 256 49
NH4NO3 150 45
HNO3 (100%) 100 46
829 384 693 362
1000 286 1000 463 1000 522

bear the costs. Moreover, when the technology of sewage sludge-based
fertilizers is implemented by an external firm, additional income would
arise from the utilisation of sewage sludge from the WWTP, resulting in
decreased production costs. In Poland, the costs of sewage sludge uti-
lisation strongly fluctuate according to local conditions and are in the
range 25–150 $/t of wet sewage sludge.
The chemical composition of sewage sludge-based fertilizer R-PA2
was compared with mineral fertilizers dedicated for rape crop
(Polifoska 5, Lufobos pod rzepak), organic fertilizers (granulated cattle
manure, ecological granulated chicken manure) and sewage sludge-
based fertilizers (OrCal, Oskar) available on the Polish market. The
prices of nutrients in the compared fertilizers was calculated (Table 9).
The total nutrient content of organo-mineral fertilizer R-PA2 is the
same as that of mineral fertilizer Lubofos pod rzepak and 34% lower
than that of Polifoska 5. There are differences in the content of each
nutrient in the compared fertilizers. This can be attributed to the fact
that such mineral fertilizers are also recommended for other crops
(sugar beet, corn, potatoes), which have different nutritional require-
ments (‘Polifoska 5’). It is worth pointing out that in the case of using
fertilizer R-PA2 there would be no need to use additional organic fer-
tilizers, as besides its high NPK content the fertilizer contains organic
matter beneficial for plant growth, whereas the producers of mineral
fertilizers recommend soil fertilisation with manure before mineral
application.
Fertilizer R-PA2 has significantly higher total nutrient content in
comparison to organic fertilizers and fertilizers based on sewage sludge
produced in Poland (OrCal, Oskar), which will have an impact on fer-
tilizer doses and the associated costs of transport and application.
The prices of nutrients in mineral fertilizers are lower than in or-
ganic fertilizers due to their high nutrient content. The fertilizer Oskar
has the lowest nutrient prices, resulting from the low price of the fer-
tilizer. The low price of waste-based fertilizers is common, due to the
lack of consumer confidence. Education and demonstration projects in
order to show the importance of recycling nutrients and organic matter
and to prove the safety of waste-based fertilizers is very important for
increasing public acceptance of such products (Mayer et al., 2016). The
estimated prices of nutrients in fertilizer R-PA2 are higher than in fer-
tilizer Polifoska 5 .
Based on experimental data, it was calculated that it is possible to
produce 2716–4416 tonnes of organo-mineral fertilizers based on dried
sewage sludge from WWTP in Żywiec. Moreover, such approach allows
the recycling of 82–140 tonnes of phosphorus (P2O5) and 42–73 tonnes
of nitrogen (N) annually. Additional economic benefits will result from
using poultry litter ash and biomass ash. It should be emphasised that
sewage sludge is a local, stable and cheap source of nutrients, which is
very important in the case of the import dependency of Poland and the
decreasing quality of phosphate rock.
Sewage sludge use for fertilizer production in order to recycle nu-
trients fits with the current European trend towards nutrient recycling
and waste recovery. A number of technological concepts have been
created during recent years in Europe in this field, addressing mainly
bio-nutrients (Nutri2Cycle) and (RUN4LIFE) and organic carbon (SYS-
TEMIC) as well as the recovery of bio-polymers, cellulose and bio-gas
production (SMART-Plant). The key objective of such projects is to
transform wastewater treatment plants into facilities where completely
new materials will be produced from waste streams. In some European
countries, nutrient recovery has become mandatory and a few gov-
ernments have implemented political reforms related to phosphorus
recovery in order to increase efficiency of nutrient use. In Switzerland,
phosphorus recovery from sewage sludge, sewage sludge ash and meat
and bone meal is legally binding by ordinance (Ordinance on Avoid-
ance and Disposal of Waste). A new Sewage Sludge Ordinance Reg-
ulation entered into force in Germany in 2017, according to which
sewage treatment plants serving populations over 50,000 should re-
cover phosphorus from sewage sludge. Phosphorus should be recovered
from sewage sludge with a phosphorus content of not less than 2% of

Table 9
Comparison of produced organo-mineral fertilizer with mineral, organic and sewage sludge-based fertilizers available on the Polish market.
R-PA2 Polifoska 5 Lubofos pod rzepak Granulated cattle manure Granulated chicken manure (ecological) OrCala Oskarb

Moisture content % 3 >5 >5 10 10 na na

Organic matter ~20 0 0 ~65 ~65 ~20–40 ~50
N 11.5 5 3.5 2 4 4.7 3
P2O5 5.2 15 10 5 3 2.5 3
K2O 16.2 30 18.5 2 3 1.3 0.3
Total NPK content 32.9 50 32 9 10 8,5 6.3
CaO 2.7 na 2 na 9 25–36 na
MgO 1.3 2 2.5 1 1 na 16
Nitrogen price (N) $/kg 0.75c 0.67 0.80 1.52 3.79 1.39 0.01
Phosphorus price (P) 0.41c 0.37 0.44 0.83 2.07 0.76 0.05
Potassium price (K) 0.77c 0.69 0.82 1.56 3.89 1.42 0.10

na – data not available.

a
fertilizer produced by mixing sewage sludge with alkali agent.
b
fertilizer produced by treating sewage sludge with magnesite and sulfuric acid.
c
estimated only on the basis of raw materials costs.

10
H. Kominko, et al.
sewage sludge, expressed as dry mass; in the case of a lower phosphorus
content the sewage sludge will be intended for energy recovery
(Wellmer and Scholz, 2017). The Swedish government plans to estab-
lish new laws to ensure that phosphorus can be recycled from sewage
sludge in line with the circular economy (Huygens et al., 2018).
As mentioned above, strategies for sewage sludge utilisation should
be focused on low economic costs, national regulations, resource re-
covery and social concerns. The determining factor in the use of sewage
sludge as a component of organo-mineral fertilizers is the quality of the
sludge. The main reason that disqualifies sewage sludge from use for
agricultural purposes is Cd content: the Cd concentration of sewage
sludge intended for organo-mineral fertilizer production cannot be
higher than 9 mg/kg in order not to exceed limit value (5 mg/kg). It
should be noted that only dried sewage sludge from WWTPs in Nowy
Targ, Żywiec and Kędzierzyn-Koźle comply with this requirement and
could be used for fertilizer production as suggested in the paper.
4. Conclusions
Due to the prohibition of landfilling of sewage sludge in Poland
from January 2016, there is a need for economically justified and en-
vironmentally friendly methods of disposal. The most favourable option
for sewage sludge utilisation is its use for agricultural purposes, which
allows recycling of nutrients and organic matter in line with the circular
economy.
The study showed that sewage sludge is rich in phosphorus and
nitrogen, as well as in Ca, Fe, Mg, which are considered essential for
plant growth. However, the Cd content of most sewage sludge samples
is more than 5 mg/kg of dry solids and limits their use as organic fer-
tilizers.
It is possible to obtain organo-mineral fertilizers for rape crop that
contain 48–52% of secondary raw materials. By using poultry litter ash/
biomass ash and conventional fertilizers it is possible to modify the
elemental composition of novel organo-mineral fertilizers to adjust to
plant individual needs and to obtain products with high nutrient con-
tents: 7.4–13.2% of N, 3.0–5.6% of P2O5, and 9.9–17.6% of K2O. The
fertilizers fulfil Polish requirements addressing heavy metal content in
organo-mineral fertilizers. Moreover, most of the organo-mineral fer-
tilizers comply with limit values proposed by the European Commission
regarding Cd content. The content of water-soluble phosphate com-
pounds in the obtained fertilizers is low (2.5–19.7% of total phosphorus
content). The results of phytotoxicity tests showed that sewage sludge-
based fertilizers cause longer stalk growth of rape compared to control.
Further research is needed to examine the effectiveness of sewage
sludge-based fertilizers and the possible accumulation of heavy metals
in soil and plant tissues.
The use of sewage sludge as a component of organo-mineral ferti-
lizers presents a good opportunity to recycle 82–140 tonnes of phos-
phorus (as P2O5) and 42–73 tonnes of nitrogen annually in case of
sewage sludge from the WWTP in Żywiec.
References
Alibaba. [WWW Document], n.d. https://www.alibaba.com/globalhome/home.vhtml,
Accessed date: 6 June 2019.
Amann, A., Zoboli, O., Krampe, J., Rechberger, H., Zessner, M., Egle, L., 2018.
Environmental impacts of phosphorus recovery from municipal wastewater. Resour.
Conserv. Recycl. 130, 127–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.11.002.
Angın, I., Yaganoglu, A.V., 2011. Effects of sewage sludge application on some physical
and chemical properties of a soil affected by wind erosion. J. Agric. Sci. Technol. 13,
757–768.
Aparicio, I., Santos, J.L., Alonso, E., 2009. Limitation of the concentration of organic
pollutants in sewage sludge for agricultural purposes: a case study in South Spain.
Waste Manag. 29, 1747–1753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2008.11.003.
Atienza-Martínez, M., Gea, G., Arauzo, J., Kersten, S.R.A., Kootstra, A.M.J., 2014.
Phosphorus recovery from sewage sludge char ash. Biomass Bioenergy 65, 42–50.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.03.058.
Bai, Y., Zang, C., Gu, M., Gu, C., Shao, H., Guan, Y., Wang, X., Zhou, X., Shan, Y., Feng, K.,
2017. Sewage sludge as an initial fertility driver for rapid improvement of mudflat
11
Journal of Environmental Management 248 (2019) 109283
salt-soils. Sci. Total Environ. 578, 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.
06.083.
Bauer, P.J., Szogi, A.A., Shumaker, P.D., 2019. Fertilizer Efficacy of poultry litter ash
blended with lime or gypsum as fillers. Environments 6, 12.
Bauman-Kaszubska, H., Sikorski, M., 2011. Charakterystyka ilościowa i jakościowa
osadów ściekowych pochodzących z małych oczyszczalni ścieków w powiecie
Płockim. Inżynieria Ekol. 20–29.
Bettiol, W., Ghini, R., 2011. Impacts of sewage sludge in tropical soil: a case study in
Brazil. Appl. Environ. Soil Sci. 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/212807.
Bibby, K., Peccia, J., 2013. Identification of viral pathogen diversity in sewage sludge by
metagenome analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 1945–1951. https://doi.org/10.
1021/es305181x.
Bień, J., Neczaj, E., Worwag, M., Grosser, A., Nowak, D., Milczarek, M., Janik, M., 2011.
Kierunki zagospodarowania osadów w Polsce po roku 2013. Inżynieria i Ochr. Śro-
dowiska 14, 375–384.
Billen, P., Costa, J., Van Der Aa, L., Van Caneghem, J., Vandecasteele, C., 2015. Electricity
from poultry manure: a cleaner alternative to direct land application. J. Clean. Prod.
96, 467–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.016.
Bogush, A.A., Stegemann, J.A., Williams, R., Wood, I.G., 2018. Element speciation in UK
biomass power plant residues based on composition, mineralogy, microstructure and
leaching. Fuel 211, 712–725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.09.103.
Brännvall, E., Wolters, M., Sjöblom, R., Kumpiene, J., 2015. Elements availability in soil
fertilized with pelletized fly ash and biosolids. J. Environ. Manag. 159, 27–36.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.05.032.
Bratina, B., Šorgo, A., Kramberger, J., Ajdnik, U., Zemljič, L.F., Ekart, J., Šafarič, R., 2016.
From municipal/industrial wastewater sludge and FOG to fertilizer: a proposal for
economic sustainable sludge management. J. Environ. Manag. 183, 1009–1025.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.09.063.
Brod, E., 2018. Manure-based Recycling Fertilisers. A Literature Review of Treatment
Technologies and Their Effect on Phosphorus Fertilization Effects.
Brod, E., Øgaard, A.F., Krogstad, T., Haraldsen, T.K., Frossard, E., Oberson, A., 2016.
Drivers of phosphorus uptake by barley following secondary resource application.
Front. Nutr. 3, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2016.00012.
Central Statistical Office, 2017. Environmental Protection (In Polish). Warsaw.
Chojnacka, K., Gorazda, K., Witek-Krowiak, A., Moustakas, K., 2019. Recovery of ferti-
lizer nutrients from materials - contradictions, mistakes and future trends. Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 110, 485–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.04.063.
Cichy, B., Jaroszek, H., Paszek, A., Nowych, I., Chemicznych, S., Ichn, C.N., Tarnowska,
A., Azoty, G., 2014. Kadm w nawozach fosforowych ; aspekty ekologiczne i ekono-
miczne. Chemik 68, 837–839.
Cieślik, B.M., Namieśnik, J., Konieczka, P., 2015. Review of sewage sludge management:
standards, regulations and analytical methods. J. Clean. Prod. 90, 1–15. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.11.031.
Clarke, B.O., Smith, S.R., 2011. Review of “emerging” organic contaminants in biosolids
and assessment of international research priorities for the agricultural use of bioso-
lids. Environ. Int. 37, 226–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2010.06.004.
Cordell, D., Drangert, J.O., White, S., 2009. The story of phosphorus: global food security
and food for thought. Glob. Environ. Chang. 19, 292–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
gloenvcha.2008.10.009.
Cornel, P., Schaum, C., 2009. Phosphorus recovery from wastewater: needs, technologies
and costs. Water Sci. Technol. 59, 1069–1076. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2009.
045.
Cybulska, K., Rygielski, K., Kowarska, M., 2018. Assesment of the compost made of post-
slaughter waste on a background of commertial preparations applying the
Phytotoxkit analysis. Polish J. soil Sci. 1–9. https://doi.org/10.17951/pjss/2018.51.
1.159.
Deng, J., Feng, X., Qiu, X., 2009. Extraction of heavy metal from sewage sludge using
ultrasound-assisted nitric acid. Chem. Eng. J. 152, 177–182. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.cej.2009.04.031.
Desmidt, E., Ghyselbrecht, K., Zhang, Y., Pinoy, L., Der, B. Van, Verstraete, W., Rabaey,
K., Meesschaert, B., 2015. Technology global phosphorus scarcity and full-scale P-
recovery Techniques : a review. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 336–384. https://doi.org/
10.1080/10643389.2013.866531.
Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000
Establishing a Framework for Community Action in the Field of Water Policy. Official
Journal of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.1039/ap9842100196.
Donatello, S., Cheeseman, C.R., 2013. Recycling and recovery routes for incinerated
sewage sludge ash (ISSA): a review. Waste Manag. 33, 2328–2340. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.wasman.2013.05.024.
Duan, B., Liu, F., Zhang, W., Zheng, H., Zhang, Q., Li, X., Bu, Y., 2015. Evaluation of
source apportionment of heavy metals (HMs) in sewage sludge of municipal waste-
water treatment plants (WWTPs) in Shanxi, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health
12, 15807–15818.
Egle, L., Rechberger, H., Zessner, M., 2015. Overview and description of technologies for
recovering phosphorus from municipal wastewater. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 105,
325–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.09.016.
Eid, E.M., Alrumman, S.A., El-Bebany, A.F., Hesham, A.E.L., Taher, M.A., Fawy, K.F.,
2017. The effects of different sewage sludge amendment rates on the heavy metal
bioaccumulation, growth and biomass of cucumbers (Cucumis sativus L.). Environ.
Sci. Pollut. Res. 24, 16371–16382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9289-6.
EU, 2003. Regulation (EC) No 2003/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council
of 13 October 2003 Relating to Fertilizers. Off. J. Eur. Union.
Europe, F., 2014. Putting all the cards on the table. Fertilizer International 458, 28–31.
European Commission, 1986. Council Directive of 12 June 1986 on the Protection of the
Environment, and in Particular of the Soil, when Sewage Sludge Is Used in
Agriculture (86/278/EEC). https://www.2004R0726 v.7 of 05.06.2013.
H. Kominko, et al.
European Commission, 2001. Pollutants in Urban Waste Water and Sewage Sludge.
European Commission, 2016. Circular Economy Package. Proposal for Proposal for a
Regulation on the Making Available on the Market of CE Marked Fertilising Products
and Amending Regulations (EC) No 1069/2009 and (EC) No 1107/2009. Regulation
of the European Parliament and of the Council. https://doi.org/10.1017/
CBO9781107415324.004.
Fernandes, F., Lopes, D.D., Andreoli, C.V., da Silva, S.M.C.P., 2007. Sludge treatment i
disposal. Biological Wastewater Treatment Series. pp. 244. https://doi.org/10.1016/
B978-1-85617-705-4.00021-6.
Fu, R., Wen, D., Xia, X., Zhang, W., Gu, Y., 2017. Electrokinetic remediation of chromium
(Cr)-contaminated soil with citric acid (CA) and polyaspartic acid (PASP) as elec-
trolytes. Chem. Eng. J. 316, 601–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.01.092.
Gharfalkar, M., Court, R., Campbell, C., Ali, Z., Hillier, G., 2015. Analysis of waste
hierarchy in the European waste directive 2008/98/EC. Waste Manag. 39, 305–313.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.02.007.
Gorazda, K., Tarko, B., Wzorek, Z., Kominko, H., Nowak, A.K., Kulczycka, J., Henclik, A.,
Smol, M., 2017. Fertilisers production from ashes after sewage sludge combustion – a
strategy towards sustainable development. Environ. Res. 154, 171–180. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.01.002.
Grobelak, A., Grosser, A., Kacprzak, M., Kamizela, T., 2019. Sewage sludge processing
and management in small and medium-sized municipal wastewater treatment plant-
new technical solution. J. Environ. Manag. 234, 90–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jenvman.2018.12.111.
Grotto, D., Batista, B.L., Souza, J.M.O., Carneiro, M.F.H., Dos Santos, D., Melo, W.J.,
Barbosa, F., 2015. Essential and nonessential element translocation in corn cultivated
under sewage sludge application and associated health risk. Water, Air, Soil Pollut.
226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-015-2527-y.
Gu, X.Y., Wong, J.W.C., Tyagi, R.D., 2016. Bioleaching of heavy metals from sewage
sludge for land application. Curr. Dev. Biotechnol. Bioeng. Solid Waste Manag.
241–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63664-5.00011-3.
Gu, T., Rastegar, S.O., Mousavi, S.M., Li, M., Zhou, M., 2018. Advances in bioleaching for
recovery of metals and bioremediation of fuel ash and sewage sludge. Bioresour.
Technol. 261, 428–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2018.04.033.
Hei, L., Jin, P., Zhu, X., Ye, W., Yang, Y., 2016. Characteristics of speciation of heavy
metals in municipal sewage sludge of guangzhou as fertilizer. Procedia Environ. Sci.
31, 232–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2016.02.031.
Huygens, D., Saveyn, H., Tonini, D., Eder, P., Sancho, L.D., 2018. Pre-final STRUBIAS
report. Draft strubias recovery rules and market study for precipitated phosphate salts
&derivates, thermal oxidation materials&derivates and pyrolysis&gasification mate-
rials in view of their possible inclusion as Component Material Categories in the
Revised Fertiliser Regulation. Circular Economy and Industrial Leadership Unit,
Directorate B - Growth and Innovation,Joint Research Centre - European
Commission, pp. 1–298.
Insam, H., Knapp, B.A., 2011. Recycling of Biomass Ashes. Springer.
International Fertilizer Industry Association, 1992. World Fertilizer Use Manual. Paris.
Islam, M.S., Ahmed, M.K., Raknuzzaman, M., Habibullah-Al-Mamun, M., Kundu, G.K.,
2017. Heavy metals in the industrial sludge and their ecological risk: a case study for
a developing country. J. Geochem. Explor. 172, 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
gexplo.2016.09.006.
Journal of Laws, 2008. Regulation of the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development
of June 18, 2008 on the Implementation of Certain Provisions of the Act on Fertilizers
and Fertilization (In Polish). Warsaw.
Journal of Laws, 2015a. Regulation of the Minister of Economy of 16 July 2015 on the
Admission of Waste for Landfilling (In Polish). Warsaw.
Journal of Laws, 2015b. Regulation of the Minister of the Environment of February 6,
2015 on Municipal Sewage Sludge (In Polish). Warsaw.
Journal of Laws, 2018. Regulation of the Council of Ministers of June 5, 2018 Regarding
the Adoption of the “Program of Measures to Reduce the Pollution of Waters with
Nitrates from Agricultural Sources and Prevention of Further Pollution” (In Polish).
Warsaw. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-28220-3_40.
Kabra, K., Chaudhary, R., Sawhney, R.L., 2008. Solar photocatalytic removal of metal
ions from industrial wastewater. Environ. Prog. 27, 487–495. https://doi.org/10.
1002/ep.
Kacprzak, M., Neczaj, E., Fijałkowski, K., Grobelak, A., Grosser, A., Worwag, M., Rorat,
A., Brattebo, H., Åsgeir, A., Singh, B.R., 2017. Sewage sludge disposal strategies for
sustainable development. Environ. Res. 156, 39–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envres.2017.03.010.
Kahiluoto, H., Kuisma, M., Ketoja, E., Salo, T., Heikkinen, J., 2015. Phosphorus in manure
and sewage sludge more recyclable than in soluble inorganic fertilizer. Environ. Sci.
Technol. 49, 2115–2122. https://doi.org/10.1021/es503387y.
Kaneko, K., Li, L., Shimizu, T., Matsumura, H., Takarada, T., 2014. Fuel gas production
and plant nutrient recovery from digested poultry manure. J. Poult. Sci. 51, 444–450.
https://doi.org/10.2141/jpsa.0130184.
Kirchmann, H., Börjesson, G., Kätterer, T., Cohen, Y., 2017. From agricultural use of
sewage sludge to nutrient extraction: a soil science outlook. Ambio 46, 143–154.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-016-0816-3.
Koutroubas, S.D., Antoniadis, V., Fotiadis, S., Damalas, C.A., 2014. Growth, grain yield
and nitrogen use efficiency of Mediterranean wheat in soils amended with municipal
sewage sludge. Nutrient Cycl. Agroecosyst. 100, 227–243. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10705-014-9641-x.
Kumar, V., Chopra, A.K., Srivastava, S., 2016. Assessment of heavy metals in spinach
(spinacia oleracea L.) grown in sewage sludge–amended soil. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant
Anal. 47, 221–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2015.1122799.
Küüt, A., Ilves, R., Küüt, K., Raide, V., Ritslaid, K., Olt, J., 2017. Influence of European
Union directives on the use of liquid biofuel in the transport sector. Procedia Eng 187,
30–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.346.
12
Journal of Environmental Management 248 (2019) 109283
Latare, A.M., Kumar, O., Singh, S.K., Gupta, A., 2014. Direct and residual effect of sewage
sludge on yield, heavy metals content and soil fertility under rice-wheat system. Ecol.
Eng. 69, 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.03.066.
Lupton, S., 2017. Markets for waste and waste–derived fertilizers. An empirical survey. J.
Rural Stud. 55, 83–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.07.017.
Marchenko, O., Demchenko, V., Pshinko, G., 2018. Bioleaching of heavy metals from
sewage sludge with recirculation of the liquid phase: a mass balance model. Chem.
Eng. J. 350, 429–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.05.174.
Mayer, B.K., Baker, L.A., Boyer, T.H., Drechsel, P., Gifford, M., Hanjra, M.A.,
Parameswaran, P., Stoltzfus, J., Westerhoff, P., Rittmann, B.E., 2016. Total value of
phosphorus recovery. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50, 6606–6620. https://doi.org/10.
1021/acs.est.6b01239.
Mew, M.C., 2016. Phosphate rock costs, prices and resources interaction. Sci. Total
Environ. 542, 1008–1012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.045.
Mierzwa-Hersztek, M., Gondek, K., Baran, A., 2016. Effect of poultry litter biochar on soil
enzymatic activity, ecotoxicity and plant growth. Appl. Soil Ecol. 105, 144–150.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2016.04.006.
Mininni, G., Blanch, A.R., Lucena, F., Berselli, S., 2015. EU policy on sewage sludge
utilization and perspectives on new approaches of sludge management. Environ. Sci.
Pollut. Res. 22, 7361–7374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3132-0.
Nutri2Cycle [WWW Document], n.d. https://www.nutri2cycle.eu/, Accessed date: 15
February 2018.
Oosterhuis, F.H., Brouwer, F.M., Wijnants, H.J., 2000. A possible EU wide charge on
cadmium in phosphate fertilizers: economic and environmental implications. Final
Report to the European Commission 1–75 E-00/02.
Ottosen, L.M., Kirkelund, G.M., Jensen, P.E., 2013. Extracting phosphorous from in-
cinerated sewage sludge ash rich in iron or aluminum. Chemosphere 91, 963–969.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.01.101.
Pajak, T., 2013. Thermal treatment. Environ. Protect. Eng. 39, 41–53. https://doi.org/10.
5277/EPE130205.
Pasqualone, A., Summo, C., Centomani, I., Lacolla, G., Caranfa, G., Cucci, G., 2017. Effect
of composted sewage sludge on morpho-physiological growth parameters, grain yield
and selected functional compounds of barley. J. Sci. Food Agric. 97, 1502–1508.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.7892.
Penido, E.S., Martins, G.C., Mendes, T.B.M., Melo, L.C.A., do Rosário Guimarães, I.,
Guilherme, L.R.G., 2019. Combining biochar and sewage sludge for immobilization
of heavy metals in mining soils. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 172, 326–333. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.01.110.
PN-88/C-87015. Fertilizers - Methods for Testing the Content of Phosphates (In Polish),
n.D.
PN-91/C-04537/09, 1991. Water and Sewage. Research on the Content of Phosphorus
Compounds. (In Polish).
Polifoska 5 [WWW Document], n.d. http://grupaazoty.com/pl/oferta/nawozy/37/40.
html, Accessed date: 1 October 2019.
Polish Committee of the Standardization, 2002. PN-EN 13346:2002. Characterization of
Sludge—Determination of Trace Elements and Phosphorus—Aqua Regia Extraction
Methods.
Polish Official Journal, 2016. Resolution No. 88 of the Council of Ministers of 1 July 2016
on the National Waste Management Plan 2022 (In Polish). Warsaw.
Qian, L., Wang, S., Xu, D., Guo, Y., Tang, X., Wang, L., 2016. Treatment of municipal
sewage sludge in supercritical water: a review. Water Res. 89, 118–131. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.11.047.
Reijnders, L., 2014. Phosphorus resources, their depletion and conservation, a review.
Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 93, 32–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2014.09.
006.
Ren, J., Liang, H., Chan, F.T.S., 2017. Urban sewage sludge, sustainability, and transition
for Eco-City: multi-criteria sustainability assessment of technologies based on best-
worst method. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang. 116, 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
techfore.2016.10.070.
Ridder, M., De, Jong, S., De, Polchar, J., Lingemann, S., 2012. Risks and Opportunities in
the Global Phosphate Rock Market: Robust Strategies in Times of Uncertainty.
https://doi.org/Report No 17/12/12 ISBN/EAN: 978-94-91040-69-6.
Roberts, T.L., 2014. Cadmium and phosphorous fertilizers: the issues and the science.
Procedia Eng 83, 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.09.012.
Roig, N., Sierra, J., Martí, E., Nadal, M., Schuhmacher, M., Domingo, J.L., 2012. Long-
term amendment of Spanish soils with sewage sludge: effects on soil functioning.
Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 158, 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2012.05.016.
Rosiak, E., 2014. Krajowy Rynek Rzepaku Na Tle Rynku Światowego.
RUN4LIFE. [WWW Document], n.d. http://run4life-project.eu/about/, Accessed date: 1
October 2019.
Samolada, M.C., Zabaniotou, A.A., 2014. Comparitive assesment of municipal sewage
sludge incineration, gasification and pyrolysis for a sustainable sludge-to-energy
management in Greece. Waste Manag. 34, 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
wasman.2013.11.003.
Sapek, B., 2014. Nagromadzenie i uwalnianie fosforu w glebach - źródła, procesy
przyczyny. Woda-Środowisko-ObszaryWiejsckie I–III 77–100.
Sarvi, M., Ylivainio, K., Turtola, E., 2017. Report on Environmentally Relevant Heavy
Metals in P-Fertilizer Materials.
Scholz, R.W., Ulrich, A.E., Eilittä, M., Roy, A., 2013. Sustainable Use of Phosphorus: A
Finite Resource, Science of the Total Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2013.05.043.
Sharma, B., Sarkar, A., Singh, P., Singh, R.P., 2017. Agricultural utilization of biosolids: a
review on potential effects on soil and plant grown. Waste Manag. 64, 117–132.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.03.002.
Shen, Z., Chen, X., Jia, J., Qu, L., Wang, W., 2007. Comparison of electrokinetic soil
remediation methods using one fixed anode and approaching anodes. Environ. Pollut.
H. Kominko, et al.
150, 193–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2007.02.004.
Siebielec, G., Siebielec, S., Lipski, D., 2018. Long-term impact of sewage sludge, digestate
and mineral fertilizers on plant yield and soil biological activity. J. Clean. Prod. 187,
372–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.245.
SMART-Plant. [WWW Document], n.d. https://www.smart-plant.eu/index.php,
Accessed date: 1 October 2019.
Smol, M., Kulczycka, J., Henclik, A., Gorazda, K., Wzorek, Z., 2015. The possible use of
sewage sludge ash (SSA) in the construction industry as a way towards a circular
economy. J. Clean. Prod. 95, 45–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.02.051.
Smol, M., Kulczycka, J., Kowalski, Z., 2016. Sewage sludge ash (SSA) from large and small
incineration plants as a potential source of phosphorus – Polish case study. J.
Environ. Manag. 184, 617–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.10.035.
Sörme, L., Lagerkvist, R., 2002. Sources of heavy metals in urban wastewater in
Stockholm. Sci. Total Environ. 298, 131–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-
9697(02)00197-3.
Suanon, F., Sun, Q., Dimon, B., Mama, D., Yu, C.P., 2016. Heavy metal removal from
sludge with organic chelators: comparative study of N, N-bis(carboxymethyl) glu-
tamic acid and citric acid. J. Environ. Manag. 166, 341–347. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.jenvman.2015.10.035.
Suciu, N.A., Lamastra, L., Trevisan, M., 2015. PAHs content of sewage sludge in Europe
and its use as soil fertilizer. Waste Manag. 41, 119–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
wasman.2015.03.018.
Suhadolc, M., Schroll, R., Hagn, A., Dörfler, U., Schloter, M., Lobnik, F., 2010. Single
application of sewage sludge - impact on the quality of an alluvial agricultural soil.
Chemosphere 81, 1536–1543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.08.024.
Świerczek, L., Cieślik, B.M., Konieczka, P., 2018. The potential of raw sewage sludge in
construction industry – a review. J. Clean. Prod. 200, 342–356. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.188.
SYSTEMIC [WWW Document], n.d. https://systemicproject.eu/, Accessed date: 1
October 2019.
Tiruneh, A.T., Fadiran, A.O., Mtshali, J.S., 2014. Evaluation of the risk of heavy metals in
sewage sludge intended for agricultural application in Swaziland. Int. J. Environ. Sci.
5, 197–216. https://doi.org/10.6088/ijes.2014050100017.
Tsadilas, C., Samaras, V., Evangelou, E., Shaheen, S.M., 2014. Influence of fly ash and
sewage sludge application on wheat biomass production, nutrients availability, and
soil properties. Int. J. Coal Sci. Technol. 1, 221–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s40789-014-0027-0.
Turunen, V., Sorvari, J., Mikola, A., 2018. A decision support tool for selecting the op-
timal sewage sludge treatment. Chemosphere 193, 521–529. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.chemosphere.2017.11.052.
Ulrich, A.E., 2019. Cadmium governance in Europe's phosphate fertilizers: not so fast?
Sci. Total Environ. 650, 541–545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.014.
Urbaniak, M., Wyrwicka, A., Tołoczko, W., Serwecińska, L., Zieliński, M., 2017. The effect
of sewage sludge application on soil properties and willow (Salix sp.) cultivation. Sci.
Total Environ. 586, 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.012.
van Dijk, K.C., Lesschen, J.P., Oenema, O., 2016. Phosphorus flows and balances of the
European Union member states. Sci. Total Environ. 542, 1078–1093. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.048.
13
Journal of Environmental Management 248 (2019) 109283
Vassilev, S.V., Baxter, D., Andersen, L.K., Vassileva, C.G., 2010. An overview of the
chemical composition of biomass. Fuel 89, 913–933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.
2009.10.022.
Vogel, C., Krüger, O., Herzel, H., Amidani, L., Adam, C., 2016. Chemical state of mercury
and selenium in sewage sludge ash based P-fertilizers. J. Hazard Mater. 313,
179–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.03.079.
Wang, X., Chen, T., Ge, Y., Jia, Y., 2008. Studies on land application of sewage sludge and
its limiting factors. J. Hazard Mater. 160, 554–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jhazmat.2008.03.046.
Waqas, M., Li, G., Khan, S., Shamshad, I., Reid, B.J., Qamar, Z., Chao, C., 2015.
Application of sewage sludge and sewage sludge biochar to reduce polycyclic aro-
matic hydrocarbons (PAH) and potentially toxic elements (PTE) accumulation in
tomato. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 22, 12114–12123. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11356-015-4432-8.
Wellmer, F.-W., Scholz, R.W., 2017. Putting phosphorus first: the need to know and right
to know call for a revised hierarchy of natural resources. Resources 6, 20. https://doi.
org/10.3390/resources6020020.
Werle, S., 2015. Sewage sludge-to-energy management in eastern Europe: a polish per-
spective. Ecol. Chem. Eng. S 22, 459–469. https://doi.org/10.1515/eces-2015-0027.
Withers, P.J.A., van Dijk, K.C., Neset, T.S.S., Nesme, T., Oenema, O., Rubæk, G.H.,
Schoumans, O.F., Smit, B., Pellerin, S., 2015. Stewardship to tackle global phos-
phorus inefficiency: the case of Europe. Ambio 44, 193–206. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s13280-014-0614-8.
Wolski, P., Zawieja, I., Stanczyk-Mazanek, E., 2011. Thermal utilization and agricultural
use of sewage sludge in Poland. Inżynieria i Ochr. Środowiska 411–418.
Wu, Q., Cui, Y., Li, Q., Sun, J., 2015. Effective removal of heavy metals from industrial
sludge with the aid of a biodegradable chelating ligand GLDA. J. Hazard Mater. 283,
748–754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.10.027.
Yang, G.H., Zhu, G.Y., Li, H.L., Han, X.M., Li, J.M., MA, Y.B., 2018. Accumulation and
bioavailability of heavy metals in a soil-wheat/maize system with long-term sewage
sludge amendments. J. Integr. Agric. 17, 1861–1870. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S2095-3119(17)61884-7.
Ye, L., Zhang, T., 2011. Pathogenic bacteria in sewage treatment plants as revealed by
454 pyrosequencing. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 7173–7179. https://doi.org/10.
1021/es201045e.
Ye, Y., Ngo, H.H., Guo, W., Liu, Yiwen, Li, J., Liu, Yi, Zhang, X., Jia, H., 2017. Insight into
chemical phosphate recovery from municipal wastewater. Sci. Total Environ. 576,
159–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.078.
Yuan, Z., Pratt, S., Batstone, D.J., 2012. Phosphorus recovery from wastewater through
microbial processes. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 23, 878–883. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
copbio.2012.08.001.
Zhang, F., Li, Y., Yang, M., Li, W., 2012. Content of heavy metals in animal feeds and
manures from farms of different scales in Northeast China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public
Health 9, 2658–2668. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9082658.
Zhang, Q., Hu, J., Lee, D.J., Chang, Y., Lee, Y.J., 2017. Sludge treatment: current research
trends. Bioresour. Technol. 243, 1159–1172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.
2017.07.070.