CHAP 3.

1: STEADY NON-UNIFORM FLOWS

There are two categories of non-uniform flow; the first is rapidly varied flow and the second is
gradually varied flow.

RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW

When the depth of flow varies rapidly in the direction of flow, within a short length of the channel, the
flow is known as Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF).

Figure 1 Rapidly and Gradually Varied Flows

In the analysis of rapidly varied flow, the following are salient points to note in the formation of
rapidly varied flow and derivation of equations for the design of hydraulic control structures:

(I) Rapidly varied flow occurs when flow through a channel transitions due to change in slope or
change in channel cross section (flow over a hump, flow through a contraction or expansion).

(II) A rapid change in steady flow through an open channel produces what is known as a hydraulic
jump. On the other hand, a rapid change in unsteady channel flow produces a hydraulic surge.

Figure 2 Hydraulic Jump

GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (GVF)

(i) Flow in a channel is termed gradually varied flow (GVF), if the flow depth changes gradually over
a large length of the channel. This condition occurs when the motivating, and drag forces are not
balanced with the result that the depth varies gradually along the length of the channel i.e. when
𝛅𝐲
(𝛅𝐱 ≪≪≪ 𝟏).

KEPHA O M 1
Figure 3 Gradually Varied Flow

Study of gradually varied flow assumes the following:

(I) The channel is prismatic

𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦
(II) The flow in the channel is steady ( 𝛿𝑡 = 0)and non-uniform(𝛿𝑥 ≠ 0)
1
(III) The channel bed slope is small ((𝑇𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑆0 ) << 10)
(IV) Pressure distribution at any section of the channel is hydrostatic

RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW-SPECIFIC ENERGY

The energy at a x-section of a channel, referred to the base of the channel is termed the
specific energy or specific head (𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒍 𝒃𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒎) and
is usually denoted by E.

Figure 4 Total and Specific Energy

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ASSUMPTIONS AND ANALYTICAL STEPS

1) Distance 𝐴𝐵 = AC Cos 𝜃 = d Cos 𝜃.

𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
2) From the definition of specific energy: E = AB + 𝟐𝒈 = d Cos𝜽 + 𝟐𝒈 -------[𝟏]𝒇or steep
channels [𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 > 1/10].
3) For mild slopes (𝜃 is small) then: 𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = Sin 𝜃 = 𝜃 hence 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 1;hence from
𝑉2
equation [1] specific energy can be written as:𝐸 = d + -----[2].
2𝑔
4) Under the same conditions as in (3) the total head is given by the expression 𝐻 = 𝑍 +
𝑉2
𝑑 + ------[3].
2𝑔
5) In uniform flow the specific energy is assumed constant and the energy grade line is
parallel to the channel bed.
6) In non-uniform flow, the total energy grade line must always slope in the direction of
flow. on the other hand, specific energy grade line may increase or decrease according
to the particular channel and flow conditions.
𝑄
7) By definition velocity (𝑉 = 𝐴 ), in the case of a rectangular channel section the following
flow properties hold:
𝑄2 𝑄2
(I) Then from equation (2): 𝐸 = 𝑑 + 2𝑔 A2 = 𝑑 + … … . . [4].
2𝑔[B y]2
𝑄
(II) Considering q = [𝐵 ], discharge per unit width, then equation [4] simplifies to:
𝒒𝟐
𝑬 = 𝒅 + 𝟐𝒈 d𝟐 ………….[𝟓],

Specific Energy Diagram

1) For a steady fixed inflow into a channel the specific energy at a particular section of the
channel may be varied by:

• Changing the flow depth by changing channel geometry

• Amending the channel roughness
• Changing the longitudinal slope
• Changing flow conditions upstream and or downstream by means of a hydraulic
structure such as sluice gate or drop respectively.
2) Keeping the discharge constant in equation [5] it can be seen that specific energy is a
function of depth of flow only.

𝒒𝟐
• (E-d) d𝟐 = = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒕 -------------[𝟔].
𝟐𝒈

• Equation [6] is a cubic equation with three roots, one of which is negative and the other
two, that are positive.
• Plotting ‘E’ vs ‘d’ for constant discharge we get a diagram known as specific energy
diagram.

KEPHA O M 3
Figure 5 Specific Energy Diagram

`
Figure 6 Specific Energy Diagram for Variable Q

The following may be noted

(a) It can be observed that the specific energy declines to a minimum at the point’ C’. The
depth and velocity at C are called critical depth dc and the critical velocity Vc.

(b) The critical depth represents the least possible specific energy with which the fixed
discharge Q is able to flow in the channel of the given shape.

(c) For every value of the specific energy other than the minimum, there are two possible
depths of flow in the channel i.e. d1 and d2 [the positive roots of the cubic equation]; one
above and the other below the critical depth value. These values are known as high
stage and the low stage respectively. Other terms for the same are conjugate depths or
alternate depths.

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(d) When the depth is above the critical depth, the velocity and flow rate are referred to as
sub-critical. Correspondingly, for depths below the critical depth the term supercritical
is applied.

Critical Depth, Critical Velocity, Critical Specific Energy

From the graphical approach, the critical depth corresponds to minimum specific energy. The
conditions for [𝒅 = 𝒅𝒄] may be determined analytically by differentiating the specific energy
expression [𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. ] depth and equating to zero:

Figure 7 Variation of Specific Energy and Discharge with Depth

1) The specific energy is given by the equation:

𝑄2 QA-2
𝐸 = y + 2𝑔 =𝑦+ .
A2 2𝑔

2) From knowledge of calculus in mathematics the minimum specific energy is determined by

differentiating the above equation with respect to depth and equating to zero to determine
the optimum parameters thus:

Figure 8 Non Prismatic section Figure 9 Prismatic channel section

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 𝛿𝐸 𝛿𝑦 𝛿 𝑄𝐴−2
• = + ( ).
𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦 2𝑔

𝛿𝐸 2𝑄 2 𝐴−3 𝛿𝐴
• = 1− =0
𝛿𝑦 2𝑔 𝛿𝑦

𝛿𝐸 2𝑄 2 𝛿𝐴
=1− =0
𝛿𝑦 2𝑔𝐴3 𝛿𝑦

2𝑄 2 𝛿𝐴
1=
2𝑔𝐴3 𝛿𝑦

𝛿𝐴
• But From figure 8 𝛿𝑦 is defined as
𝛿𝐴
𝛿𝐴 = 𝐵 𝛿𝑦 ∴ =𝐵
𝛿𝑦

1⁄3
2𝑄 2 𝐵 𝑄2 2B 1 𝑞2
= 𝐵2 . 2g 𝐵y 3 = 1 ≫ (𝑞)2 . g y 3 = 1 ∴ 𝑦 = ( 𝑔 )
2𝑔 (B .y)3

• At critical specific energy y = 𝑦𝑐 hence

3 𝑞2
∴ 𝑦𝑐 = √ ⁄𝑔 -------------------[7].
• For a rectangular channel section, the critical specific energy is defined as:
𝑞2 1
E𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 + . .
y𝑐2 2𝑔
𝑞2
From equation = 𝑦𝑐3
𝑔
𝑦 3
E𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 + 2y𝑐2 = 3⁄2 𝑦𝑐
𝑐
∴ y𝒄 = 𝟐⁄𝟑 𝑬𝒄 -------[𝟖]

• The critical velocity (𝑉𝑐 ) is determined as:

𝑐 𝑉2
𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 + 2𝑔

𝑉𝑐2 𝑦𝑐
= 𝐸𝑐 − 𝑦𝑐 = 3⁄2 y𝑐 − 𝑦𝑐 =
2𝑔 2

𝑉𝑐2
=1
𝑔𝑦𝑐

𝑽𝒄
∴ = 𝟏 --------[𝟗].
√(gy𝒄)
𝑉𝑐
• The quantity { } is known as the Froude Number “Fr “.
√(gy𝑐 )
𝑽𝒄
Therefore 𝑭𝒓 = = 𝟏 … … … … … … … (11) for critical flow
√(gy𝒄 )

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Summary:

(i) The diagram applies for a given cross section and discharge

(ii) As the depth of flow increases, the static energy increases, and the kinetic
energy decreases

(iii) The total energy curve approaches the static energy curve for high depths and
the kinetic energy curve for small depths.

(iv) The specific energy is minimum for a particular depth-the depth happens to be
the critical depth-depth for which the Froude’s number is equal to 1.0 and velocity
is equal to critical velocity Vc

Figure 10 Specific Energy Diagram

(v) Supercritical Flow: The flow is subcritical (shooting or torrential) when the depth
𝑉
of flow in the channel is less than the critical depth ( > 1) and depth y1
√(𝑔𝑦)
supercritical

(vi) Subcritical Flow: The flow is subcritical (streaming or tranquil) when the depth of
𝑉
flow in the channel is greater than the critical depth ( < 1) and depth y2
√(𝑔𝑦)
subcritical

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 𝑉
(vii) Critical Flow: The flow is said to be critical if ( = 1).
√(𝑔𝑦)

(viii) For all other values, there are two depths associated- one greater than the critical
depth and one less than the critical depth

(ix) As discharge increases, the specific energy moves to the upper right portion of
the chart.

KEPHA O M 8