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UNIT-III
Types of data – Primary Vs Secondary data – Methods of primary data collection –
Survey Vs Observation Experiments – Construction of questionnaire and
instrument – Validation of questionnaire – Sampling plan Sample size –
determinants optimal sample size – sampling techniques – Probability Vs Non–
probability sampling methods.

1) Methods of data collection techniques/Types of data in research

Data: The collection of statistical information for a specific purpose is called the data.
There are two different sources to collect data for the purpose of research they are 1)
Primary data 2) secondary data. According to the study need, researcher can prefer
primary or secondary data or both.

Primary Data Methods of Primary data collection

Data that has been collected from first- Qualitative Data: Qualitative data are mostly
hand-experience is known as primary data. Primary non-numerical and usually descriptive or
data has not been published yet and is more reliable, nominal in nature. This means the data
authentic and objective. Primary data has not been collected are in the form of words and sentences.
changed or altered by human beings; therefore its Quantitative Data: Quantitative data is
validity is greater than secondary data. Secondary numerical in nature and can be mathematically
Data
computed. Quantitative data measure uses
Advantages of Using Primary Data
different scales, which can be classified as
 The investigator collects data specific to the nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale
problem under study.
and ratio scale.
 There is no doubt about the quality of the
data collected (for the investigator).
The main methods/ techniques of primary
 If required, it may be possible to obtain
data collection are
additional data during the study period.
 Questionnaires (Dichotomous
 Ensuring the data collected is of a high
standard- all desired data is obtained questions Nominal-polytomous
accurately, and in the format it is required in; questions, Ordinal-polytomous
-there is no fake/ cooked up data; - questions, Continuous questions
unnecessary/ useless data has not been (Bounded).
included.  Interviews (structured, semi structured,
 3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the unstructured)
major expense in studies.
 Focus Group Interviews
 Observation
Disadvantages of Primary data
 Survey
 The investigator has to contend with all the  Case-studies
hassles of data collection-  Diaries
 deciding why, what, how, when to collect;  Activity Sampling Technique
 Getting the data collected (personally or
through others);  Memo Motion Study
 Getting funding and dealing with funding  Process Analysis
agencies;  Link Analysis
 Ethical considerations (consent, permissions,  Time and Motion Study
etc.).  Experimental Method

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Figure: Primary data collection techniques
Secondary data
Advantages of Secondary
Secondary data is the data that have been
already collected by someone and readily
available from other sources. Such data are
cheaper and more quickly obtainable than the
primary data and also may be available when
primary data cannot be obtained at all.
Secondary data collection techniques
1) Internal secondary data
a) Sales records
b) Marketing activity
c) Cost information
d) Distribution reports and feedback
e) Customer feedback
2) External Secondary data
a) Journals b) books c) magazines d)
newspapers e) Libraries f) Internet
data
1. It is economical. It saves efforts and expenses.
2. It is time saving.
3. It helps to make primary data collection more
specific since with the help of secondary data,
we are able to make out what are the gaps and
deficiencies and what additional information
needs to be collected.
4. It helps to improve the understanding of the
problem.
5. It provides a basis for comparison for the data
that is collected by the researcher.
Disadvantages of secondary data
 Not specific to the research needs
 Affects research quality
 Incomplete information
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2. Observation
Observation: Observation is a method that employs vision as its main means of data collection.
It implies the use of eyes rather than of ears and the voice. Observation is accurate watching
and noting of phenomena (facts) as they occur with regard to the cause and effect or mutual
relations.

Observation involves recording the behavioral patterns of people, object and events in
a systematic manner to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest.
Observation is watching behaviour of other persons as it actually happens without
controlling it. Thus, recording information without asking questions is called observation
method. Following are some examples of observation method-of data collection:

 Observing salesman’s behaviour on sales calls.

 Observing customers behavior to advertisements.
 Observing response of consumers to a display of a particular product.
 Observing the stocking pattern of retailers.

Methods of Observation
1) Structured and Unstructured Observation:
Structured observation: is used when the research Advantages of observation method of data
problem has been formulated precisely and the collection
researcher is told to observe the area of study. The
researchers are asked to record their observations. 1) Subjective bias is eliminated
Unstructured observation: implies that the 2) Data is not affected by past behaviour or
researchers are free to observe whatever they feel
relevant and judicious. future intentions
2) Disguised Observation: Here, the subject or 3) Natural behaviour of the group can be
informants do not know that they are being observed.
3) Observation under Natural Setting and recorded
Laboratory Setting: Limitations of observation method
Natural setting observation: Observations in field
studies are in their natural setting and are studied in 1) Expensive methodology
extremely realistic conditions 2) Information provided is limited
Observation in a laboratory setting, on the other
hand, enables the observer to control extraneous 3) Unforeseen factors may interfere with the
variables, which influence the behaviour of people. observational task.
4) Direct and Indirect Observation
Indirect observation: Observation made by using
instruments and devices
Direct observation: is operationally defined as
an observation made by using researcher or observer
senses.
5) Human-Mechanical Observation: Here
observations are done by manually (Human) or by
machines (Mechanical).
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3. Survey Method

Survey: Survey means a planned effort to collect the desired information from a
representative sample of the relevant population generally known as respondents.
Survey research can be divided into three broad Note: Survey is one among the
categories: most popular technique, used
1) Interview Method,
2) Questionnaire Method, and in social sciences research
3) Schedule.

Interview method of data collection Schedule method of data collection

Interview is a meaningful interaction between Schedule is an instrument in
interviewer and interviewee. research, which is most frequently
Interview is a conversation between two or used in collecting field data
more people where question are asked by the especially where the survey method
interviewer to obtain information from the is employed. It is used in indirect
interviewee. interview. It contains questions and
Types of Interview blank tables, which are to be filled
1) Personal Interview: A personal interview is face- in by the investigators themselves
to-face communication with the respondent. after getting information from the
Structured Interview respondents.
Unstructured Interview
2) Telephone Interview According to Goode and Hatt,
3) Mail Interview "Schedule is that name usually
4) Self-Administered Interview applied to a set of questions which
5) Panel Interview are asked and filled in by an
6) Electronic Interview: Fax and internet surveys interviewer in a face-to-face
situation with another person".
Advantages and Disadvantages of interview
method Types of Schedule
Advantages of Disadvantage of
Rating Schedule
interview method interview method
Documents Schedule
Institutional Survey Forms of
Easy correction of Incomplete process
Evaluations Schedules
speech
Observation Schedules
Development of No record
Interview Schedule
relationship
Selection of suitable Lack of attention
candidate
Collection of primary Disappointed
information
Sufficient information Time-consuming
Sufficient information Bias
Time-saving Costly
Less costly Not suitable for
personal matters
Increasing knowledge Knowledge of
interviewer
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4) Questionnaire/Construction of Questionnaire

Questionnaire: Questionnaire is a data collection instrument. It is a list of questions to

be asked from the respondents. It also contains a suitable space where the answers can
be recorded.

Figure: Questionnaire Development and Translation Process

Different types of questions

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Guidelines of effective questionnaire construction Validity of Research

 Determine What Information is Wanted Instrument/Questionnaire
 Determine the Type of Questionnaire to Use:
 3) Determine the Content of Individual Questions: Validity: Validity explains how well
 4) Determine the Type of Question to Use: the collected data covers the actual
 5) Deciding on Wording of Questions: area of investigation – Ghuari and
 6) Decide on Question Sequence: Grohaug2005
 7)Decide on Length of Questionnaire:
 8)Decide on Layout and Reproduction
 9)Check Questions
 10) Pre-test:
 11) Revision and Final Draft:
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Figure: Validity of research instrument

5. Experiments

Experiments: Experiments involve manipulating the independent variable to determine

how it affects the dependent variable. Experiments require one or more experimental
groups that are exposed to the experimental treatment(s) and a control group that is
not exposed.

Steps in conducting experiments

Selecting Relevant Variables
Specifying Treatment Levels
Controlling the Experimental Environment
Choosing the Experimental Design
Selecting and Assigning Participants
Pilot Testing, Revising, and Testing
Analyzing the Data
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6. SAMPLING
A finite part of a population or a subset of a set of sampling units, selected by some
process, usually by deliberate selection with the object of investigating the properties of
the parent population or set is called a sample.
For example, a fruit merchant does not examine each and every apple or mango.
He inspects only a few of them and takes decision to purchase or not to purchase. The
most important aim of sampling is to obtain maximum information about the population
under study with the least use of money, labour, and time.

Fundamental definitions in sampling:

1) Population or universe:

All the items, which fall within the purview of enquiry, are known as universe or
population.
For eg: (1) the population of books in the national library. (2) The population of the
heights of Indians.
2) Sample: It is a portion of the population which is examined with a view to
estimate the characteristics of the population, i.e.:
i) To assess the quality of a bag of rice, we examine only a portion of it. The portion
selected from the bag is called a sample, while the whole quantity of rice in the
bag is the population,

3) Sampling Frame: This refers to a list containing all sampling units. It generally
consists of a list of items from which the sample is to be drawn. A frame should be a
good representative of the population.

4) Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors: Sampling survey is related to study of limited

units of the total population; hence there would be scope for inaccuracy or error in the
process of collection, processing and analysis of the data (sample). These errors can be
broadly classified into sampling and non-sampling errors.
i) Sampling Errors: Sampling errors or variations among sample statistics are due to
differences between each sample and the population and among several samples.
Sampling errors originate at the time of collecting samples. The major cause for error lies
in the fact that a researcher depends on a small sample drawn from a large universe to
draw conclusions of its characteristics.

ii) Non-Sampling Errors: Non-sampling errors occur at the time of observation,

approximation and processing of data. This error is common to both the sampling and
census survey. Non-sampling errors can arise at any stage of the planning or execution
of complete enumeration or sample survey.
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Determinants of Sample Size

In addition to the purpose of the study and population size, three determinants usually
will need to be specified to determine the appropriate sample size:
1) Size of the Universe: The larger the size of the universe, the bigger should be.the sample
size.
2) Resources Available: If the resources available are vast a larger sample size could be taken.
However, in most cases resources constitute a big constraint on sample size.
3) Degree of Accuracy or Precision Desired: The greater the degree of accuracy desired, the
larger should be the sample size. However, it does not necessarily mean that bigger samples
always ensure greater accuracy. If a sample is selected by experts by following scientific
method, it may ensure better results even when it is small compared to a situation in which
a large sample size is selected by inexperienced people.
4) Homogeneity or Heterogeneity of the Universe: If the universe consists of homogeneous
units a small may serve the purpose but if the universe consists of heterogeneous units a
large sample may be inevitable.
5) Nature of Study: For an intensive and continuous study a small sample may be suitable.
But for studies which are not likely to be repeated and are quite extensive in nature, it may
be necessary to take a larger sample size.
6) Method of Sampling Adopted: The size of sample is also influenced by the type of
sampling plan adopted. For example, if the sample is a simple random sample it may
necessitate bigger sample size. However, in a properly drawn stratified sampling plan, even
a small sample may give better results.
7) Nature of Respondents: Where it is expected a large number of respondents will not
cooperate and send back the questionnaire, a large sample should be selected.
8) The Level of Precision: The level of precision, sometimes called sampling error, is
the range in which the true value of the population is estimated to be. This range is
often expressed in percentage points (e.g., ±5 percent). Thus, if a researcher finds
that 60% of farmers in the sample have adopted a recommended practice with a
precision rate of ±5%, then he or she can conclude that between 55% and 65% of
farmers in the population have adopted the practice.
9) The Confidence Level: This means that if a 95% confidence level is selected, 95
out of 100 samples will have the true population value within the range of
precision specified earlier. There is always a chance that the sample you obtain
does not represent the true population value.
10) Degree of Variability: The third criterion, the degree of variability in the attributes
being measured, refers to the distribution of attributes in the population. The more
heterogeneous a population, the larger the sample size required to obtain a given level
of precision. The less variable (more homogeneous) a population, the smaller the
sample size. A proportion of 50% indicates a greater level of variability than either
20% or 80%. This is because 20% and 80% indicate that a large majority do not or
do, respectively, have the attribute of interest. Because a proportion of .5 indicates
the maximum variability in a population, it is often used in determining a more
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conservative sample size, i.e., the sample

size may be larger than if the true variability of the population attribute were used.

Methods of sampling

Figure: Methods of sampling

Probability Sampling: Probability sampling is also known as 'Random sampling' or

'chance sampling'. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal
chance of inclusion in the sample
1. Simple Random Sampling: This is the simplest and most popular technique of
sampling. In it each unit of the population has equal chance of being included in the
sample. This method implies that if 'N' is the size of the population and V units are to be
drawn in the sample, then the sample should be taken in such a way that each of the NCn
samples has an equal chance of being selected.

2. Systematic Sampling: In this sampling, one unit is selected at random from the
universe and the other units are at a specified interval from the selected unit. This method
can be used when the population is finite and the units of the Universe can be arranged
on the basis of any system— like alphabetical arrangement, numerical arrangement or
geographical arrangement etc.

3. Stratified Random Sampling: "Stratified random sample is one in which random

selection is done not from the heterogeneous universe as a whole but from different
homogeneous parts or 'strata' of a universe. Stratified involves developing strata which
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are distinctly different from each other but are homogeneous within. There after units are
chosen from each strata randomly.

4. Cluster Sampling: In this method, the universe is divided into some recognizable sub-
groups which are called 'clusters'. After this a simple random sample of these clusters is
drawn and then all the units belonging to the selected clusters constitute the sample. In
cluster sampling, groups of elements that are heterogeneous form a group and then the
groups are chosen randomly.

Multi-Stage Sampling: This is a modified form of cluster sampling. While in cluster

sampling all the units in a selected cluster constitute the sample, in multistage sampling
the sample units are selected in two or three or four stages. In this system the universe
is first divided into first-stage sample units, from which the sample is selected.

The selected first-stage samples are then sub-divided into second stage units
from which another sample is selected. Third stage and fourth-stage sampling is done in
the same manner if necessary. Thus, for an urban survey, a sample of towns may be
taken first and then for each of the selected town a sub-sample of households may be
taken, and then, if needed, from each of the selected household a third-stage-sample of
individuals may be obtained.
Area Sampling: Area Sampling is a form of multi-stage sampling in which maps, rather
than lists or registers are used as the sampling frame. It is more frequently used in those
countries which do not have a satisfactory sampling frame such as a population list.

Non- Probability Sampling

Non- probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis
for estimating the probability that each item in the population has been included in the
sample. Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as 'deliberate
sampling', 'purposive sampling'.

1) Convenience Sampling: In convenience sampling selection, the researcher chooses

the sampling units on the basis of convenience or accessibility. It is called accidental
samples because the sample-units enter by accident. This is also known as a sample
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of the man in the street, i.e., selection of units where they are. Sample units are
selected because they are accessible.
2) Judgment Sampling: A second method of non-probability sampling that is
sometimes advocated is the selection of universe items by means of expert judgment.
Using this approach, specialists in the subject matter of the survey choose what they
believe to be the best sample for that particular study.

3) Quota Sampling: One of the most commonly used non-probability sample designs
is quota sampling, which enjoys its most widespread use in consumer surveys. This
sampling method also uses the principle of stratification. As in stratified random
sampling, the researcher begins by constructing strata. Bases for stratification in
consumer surveys are commonly demographic, e.g., age, sex, income and so on.
Often compound stratification is used - for example, age groups within sex.

Next, sample sizes (called quotas) are established for each stratum. As with
stratified random sampling, the sampling within strata may be proportional or
disproportional. Field-workers are then instructed to conduct interviews with the
designated quotas, with the identification of individual respondents being left to the
field-workers.

4) Panel Sampling: Here, the initial samples are drawn on random basis and
information from these is collected on regular basis. It is a semi-permanent sample
where members may be included repetitively for successive studies. Here there is a
facility to select and quickly contact such well balanced samples and to have
relatively high response rate even by mail.

5) Snowball Sampling: It is a special non-probability method used when the desired

sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate
respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial
subjects to generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower
search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself
reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the
population.

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