Unit-2

Pollution
Definition: Any undesirable change in any of the property (physical, chemical, or biological
characteristics) of any of the components of environment which leads to instability, disorder,
harm or discomfort to the ecosystem is called pollution. The contaminant which brings about
such changes is called pollutant.
Although there are some natural pollutants such as volcanoes, pollution generally occurs because
of human activity. Biodegradable pollutants, like sewage cause no permanent damage if they are
adequately dispersed, but non-biodegradable pollutants, such as lead, may be concentrated as
they move up the food chain. Air pollution, associated with basic industries such as oil refining,
chemicals, and iron and steel, as well as with the internal combustion engine, is probably the
principal offender, followed by water and land pollution. Present-day problems of pollution
include acid rain and the burning of fossil fuels to produce excessive carbon dioxide.
Different types of pollution based on the part of environment which is polluted:
1. Air Pollution/atmospheric pollution
2. Noise or sound pollution
3. Water pollution/Hydrospheric pollution
4. Soil pollution/Lithospheric pollution
5. Radioactive pollution
6. Visual pollution
7. Thermal pollution
Air pollution: The air or atmosphere is said to be polluted if the concentration of any of the
constituents increases or decreases drastically to cause harmful effect on human health or his
environment.
Noise or sound pollution: Noise excessive enough to cause psychological or physical damage is
considered noise pollution.
Water pollution: Addition of undesirable substances to water that make it harmful to man,
animal and aquatic life causing significant changes in the normal activity is referred to as water
pollution.
Soil pollution: Natural and synthetic materials that can adversely affect the physical, chemical
and biological properties of soil thereby affecting the productivity is called as soil pollution.
Radioactive pollution: Pollution caused by the radioactive substances mainly in water is
radioactive pollution.
Visual pollution: Thus litter, billboards and auto junkyards are said to constitute visual
pollution.
Thermal pollution: Waste heat that alters local climate or affects fish populations in rivers is
designated thermal pollution.
 Air pollution
Definition: The presence of natural and artificial substances in the atmospheric environment that
affect human health or well-being, or the well-being of any other specific organism.
Pragmatically, air pollution also applies to situations where contaminants impact
structures and artifacts or esthetic sensibilities (such as visibility or smell). Most artificial
impurities are injected into the atmosphere at or near the Earth's surface. The lower atmosphere
(troposphere) cleanses itself of some of these pollutants in a few hours or days as the larger
particles settle to the surface and soluble gases and particles encounter precipitation or are
removed through contact with surface objects. Unfortunately, removal of some pollutants (eg.,
sulfates and nitrates) by precipitation and dry deposition results in acid deposition, which may
cause serious environmental damage. Also, mixing of the pollutants into the upper atmosphere
may dilute the concentrations near the Earth's surface, but can cause long-term changes in the
chemistry of the upper atmosphere, including the ozone layer.
Sources of air pollution
I) Sources may be classified in a number of ways. Firstly,
1. Natural sources. Eg. Volcanic eruptions, Forest fires.
2. Anthropogenic/ Manmade sources: Eg. Industrial, Automobile and Fireworks exhausts.
II) Another frequent classification is in terms of
1. Stationary sources (power plants, incinerators, industrial operations, and space heating)
2. Moving sources (motor vehicles, ships, aircraft, and rockets).
Types of air pollutants:
1. Primary pollutants - products of natural events (like fires and volcanic eruptions) and human
activities added directly to the air
2. Secondary pollutants - formed by interaction of primary pollutants with each other or with
normal components of the air
Major Classes of Air Pollutants:
 Carbon oxides (CO & CO2)
o sources = incomplete/complete combustion of fossil fuels
 transportation, industry, & home heating
o CO2 is an important greenhouse gas, CO2 causes nausea and headache.
o CO (carbon monoxide)
 the most abundant pollutant know to affect human health
 combines with hemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin & may create
problems for infants, the elderly, & those with heart or respiratory diseases
 Sulfur oxides (Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Sulphur trioxide (SO3) & Hydrogen sulphide,
mainly SO2,)
 o source = combustion of coal & oil (esp. coal), metallurgical process and hydrogen
sulphide gas from natural sources.
o can react with gases in atmosphere to form sulfuric acid ('acid rain'). SO2 and
SO3 react with water to form sulphurous acid (H2SO3) and sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) respectively. These acids cause irritation of eyes, nose and throat; they
also adversely affect aquatic life. SO2 also damages leather because of the
formation of H2SO4 on the leather surface which causes hydrolysis of leather
proteins.
o High concentrations of SO2 cause chlorosis, plasmolysis, membrane damage,
reduced growth, yield and death.
o Exposure to SO2 can cause impairment of respiratory function, aggravation of
existing respiratory disease (especially bronchitis), and a decrease in the ability of
the lungs to clear foreign particles. It can also lead to increased mortality,
especially if elevated levels of particulate matter (PM) are also present. Groups
that appear most sensitive to the effects of SO2 include asthmatics and other
individuals with hyperactive airways, and individuals with chronic obstructive
lung or cardiovascular disease. Elderly people and children are also likely to be
more sensitive to SO2.
o They play an important role in the formation of secondary pollutants called
photochemical smog (originally called as London smog). When they combine
with another air pollutant Hydrocarbons, they react with one another in the
presence of sunlight and form a mixture of compounds including which appears
as a blackish haze called photochemical smog.
 (smoke+fog=smog)
 (smog formed under the influence of sunlight is photochemical smog)
 To form, it requires SOx, Hydrocarbons, water vapours, sunlight &
atmospheric inversion
 It is oxidative
 Nitrogen oxides - NO (nitric oxide) & NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) are major pollutants.
o source = motor vehicles, industry (burning fossil fuels) and volcanic eruption.
Nitrogen dioxide is also formed from the atmospheric nitrogen by electrical
energy of lighting and by natural ionizing radiation. The oxides of Nitrogen (NO2)
form about 10% of air pollutants.
o can react with other gases in atmosphere to from nitric acid (HNO3) ('acid rain')
These acids cause irritation of eyes, nose and throat; they also adversely affect
aquatic life.
o Nitrogen monoxide like Carbon monoxide lowers the oxygen carrying capacity of
the blood.
o Being a strong reducing agent, NO2 react with metals, textiles and other
materials.
 o Nitrogen oxides damage plants causing defoliation and necrosis.
o Nitrogen oxides play an important role in the formation of secondary pollutants
called photochemical smog (originally called as Los Angeles smog). When
Nitrogen oxides combine with another air pollutant Hydrocarbons, they react with
one another in the presence of sunlight and forms a compound called PAN
(Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate) and ozone which appears as a yellowish brown haze
called photochemical smog. PAN cause eye irritation, soar throat, respiratory
irritation and so on. After about 12 hours of exposure cardiopulmonary (heart)
activities are impaired.
 (smoke+fog=smog)
 (smog formed under the influence of sunlight is photochemical smog)
 To form, it requires Nox, Hydrocarbons, water vapours, sunlight &
atmospheric inversion
 It is reductive
 Volatile organic compounds (hydrocarbons) - methane, benzene, propane, &
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's)
o source = motor vehicles (evaporation from gas tanks), industry, & various
household products
o Concentrations of many VOCs are consistently higher in indoors than outdoors.
o Eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches, dizziness, visual disorders, and
memory impairment are among the immediate symptoms that some people have
experienced soon after exposure to some organics. At present, not much is known
about what health effects occur from the levels of organics usually found in
homes. Many organic compounds are known to cause cancer in animals; some are
suspected of causing, or are known to cause, cancer in humans.
o They are also part of photochemical smog.
o They cause blood disorder like Methemoglobinemia
 Suspended particulate matter
o solid particles (e.g., dust, soot, & asbestos) & liquid droplets (e.g., pesticides)
o sources = power plants, iron/steel mills, land clearing, highway construction,
mining, & other activities that disturb or disrupt the earth's surface
o act as respiratory irritants; some are known carcinogens (e.g., asbestos)
o can aggravate heart/respiratory diseases
 Toxic compounds
o trace amounts of at least 600 toxic substances (such as lead and mercury)
produced by human activities
 sources of mercury = burning coal and waste (such as medical wastes)
  Mercury is an element that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust. Most people and wildlife
can generally tolerate the extremely low levels of this naturally occuring substance.
When mercury enters the body it becomes concentrated in tissue, an effect known as
bioaccumulation. Because this element is toxic at very low concentrations, even slight
increases in the minute concentrations naturally present in the environment can have
serious effects on humans and wildlife. Once mercury enters the water it can be
converted to its most toxic form, methyl mercury, by bacteria or chemical reactions.
Methyl mercury is absorbed by tiny aquatic organisms, which are then eaten by small
fish. The chemical is stored in the fish tissue and is passed on at increasing concentrations
to larger predator fish. People and wildlife at the top of the food chain are consequently
exposed to elevated amounts of methyl mercury through the contaminated fish they
consume.

SUMMARY of Effects of Air Pollutants

The major concern with air pollution relates to its effects on humans. Since most people spend
most of their time indoors, there has been increased interest in air-pollution concentrations in
homes, workplaces, and shopping areas. Much of the early information on health effects came
from occupational health studies completed prior to the implementation of general air-quality
standards.
Air pollution principally injures the respiratory system, and health effects can be studied through
three approaches, clinical, epidemiological, and toxicological. Clinical studies use human
subjects in controlled laboratory conditions, epidemiological studies assess human subjects
(health records) in real-world conditions, and toxicological studies are conducted on animals or
simple cellular systems. Of course, epidemiological studies are the most closely related to actual
conditions, but they are the most difficult to interpret because of the lack of control and the
subsequent problems with statistical analysis. Another difficulty arises because of differences in
response among different people. For example, elderly asthmatics are likely to be more strongly
affected by sulfur dioxide than the teenage members of a hiking club.
Damage to vegetation by air pollution is of many kinds. Sulfur dioxide may damage field crops
such as alfalfa and trees such as pines, especially during the growing season. Both hydrogen
fluoride (HF) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in high concentrations have been shown to be harmful
to citrus trees and ornamental plants, which are of economic, importance in central Florida.
Ozone and ethylene are other contaminants that cause damage to certain kinds of vegetation.
Air pollution can affect the dynamics of the atmosphere through changes in longwave and
shortwave radiation processes. Particles can absorb or reflect incoming short-wave solar
radiation, keeping it from the Earth's surface during the day. Greenhouse gases can absorb long-
wave radiation emitted by the Earth's surface and atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide, methane, fluorocarbons, nitrous oxides, ozone, and water vapor are important
greenhouse gases. These represent a class of gases that selectively absorb long-wave radiation.
This effect warms the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and surface higher than would be
found in the absence of an atmosphere (the greenhouse effect). Because the amount of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is rising, there is a possibility that the temperature of the
atmosphere will gradually rise, possibly resulting in a general warming of the global climate over
a time period of several generations.
Researchers are also concerned with pollution of the stratosphere (10–50 km or 6–30 mi above
the Earth's surface) by aircraft and by broad surface sources. The stratosphere is important,
because it contains the ozone layer, which absorbs part of the Sun's short-wave radiation and
keeps it from reaching the surface. If the ozone layer is significantly depleted, an increase in skin
cancer in humans is expected. Each 1% loss of ozone is estimated to increase the skin cancer rate
3–6%.
Visibility is reduced as concentrations of aerosols or particles increase. The particles do not just
affect visibility by themselves but also act as condensation nuclei for cloud or haze formation. In
each of the three serious air-pollution episodes discussed above, smog (smoke and fog) were
present with greatly reduced visibility.

Air pollution control measures:

There are 5 methods of controlling air pollution. They are
1. Proper planning of industrial area like zoning.
2. Dilution of source discharge by use of tall stalks.
3. Using source correction methods
4. Vegetation and
5. Use of controlling equipments

1. Proper planning of industrial area like zoning

Air pollution can be effectively controlled by adopting the zoning system at the planning stage
itself.
Cumulative zoning in the past has resulted in less availability of land for industries.
Permissible system: Modified system of Cumulative zoning, though this system has also
resulted in crowding of industrial zones with other uses besides industry.
Exclusive zoning system: which provides for compatible uses for each zone, excluding other
uses. In this system a separate zone or area is set aside for industries (known as industrial area or
industrial zone), thereby reducing the ill effects of air pollution on urban dwellers. By proper
zoning, the planning of the city should be done such that residential areas and heavy industries
are not located too close to each other. This is achieved by providing a green belt between the
industries and the township.
In India, zoning system varies from city to city. For example, in the industrial estate of
Bangalore, only three zones are provided for light, medium and large industries. Bombay plan
has listed four zones, 1. Small repairing and light manufacturing units, permissible in residential
areas, 2. Service industrial zone, 3. Special industrial zone and 4. General industrial zone.
2. Dilution of source discharge by use of tall stacks
The atmosphere, like natural stream, possesses self-cleansing properties, which continuously
clean and remove the pollutants from the atmosphere under natural conditions, provided the
pollutants are discharged in the atmosphere judiciously so that effective dispersion takes place. If
the pollutants are carried away to some distance or taken to high altitudes, they are reduced in
concentration by diffusion and dilution. The pollutants are taken to high altitudes by means of
tall stacks. The height of the stack should be such that the maximum ground level concentration,
which varies inversely with the square of the stack height, is within the permissible limits. Tall
stacks penetrate the inversion layer and disperse the contaminants easily so that ground level
concentration is less harmful. Dilution of pollutants in air depends on atmospheric temperature
and speed and direction of the wind.
Disadvantage: It is a short term contact measure, which in reality brings about highly
undesirable long range effects. This is so because dilution only dilutes the contaminants to levels
at which their harmful effects are less noticeable near their original source whereas at a
considerable distance from the source, there contaminants eventually come down in some from
or another.

3. Using source correction methods: This method is known as air pollution prevention at
source. This can be achieved through:
a. Change in raw materials
b. Process changes and
c. Equipment or replacement.
d. Maintenance of equipment
a. Change in raw material: If one type of the raw material, currently in use results in air
pollution problem while a substitute material, which may be of purer grade, does not, the
substitution will be more desirable. The raw material in current use may contain certain
ingredient which is not essential for the process by which contributes to pollution, the non-
essential ingredient should be removed through prior processing so that pollution can be
minimized. (Low sulphur fuel which has less pollution potential can be used as an alternative to
high sulphur fuels.).Comparatively more refined liquid petroleum gas (LPG) or liquefied natural
gas (LNG) can be used instead of traditional high contaminant fuels such as coal.
b. Process modification: Atmospheric pollutants emissions can sometimes be reduced by
adopting modified or new processes.
1. If coal is washed before pulverized, then fly ash emissions are considerably reduced.
2. If air intake of boiler furnace is adjusted, then excess fly ash emissions at power
plants can be reduced.
3. Use of exhaust hoods and ducts over several types of industrial ovens have not only
reduced pollutants but also have resulted in the recovery of valuable solvents that
could have become air pollutants.
 4. Similarly volatile substances can be recovered by condensation and the non condens-
able gases can be recycled for additional reactions.
c. Equipment modification or replacement: Old equipment, which contributes to greater
degree of air pollution, can be modified or completely replaced.
1. Smoke, carbon monoxide and fumes can be reduced if open hearth furnaces are re-
placed with controlled basic oxygen furnaces or electric furnaces.
2. In petroleum refineries, loss of hydrocarbon vapours from storage tanks due to evapo-
ration, temperature changes or displacement during filling, etc., can be reduced by de-
signing the storage tanks with floating roof covers.
3. Pressuring the storage tanks in the above case can also give similar results.
d. Maintenance of equipment
An appreciable amount of pollution is caused due to poor maintenance of the equipment,
which includes the leakage around ducts, pipes, valves and pumps etc. emissions of pollutants
due to negligence can be minimized by a routine check-up of the seals and gaskets.
4. Vegetation
Plants contribute towards controlling air pollution by utilizing carbon dioxide and
releasing oxygen in the process of photosynthesis. This purifies the air removal of gaseous
pollutants (CO2) for the respiration of men and animals. Gaseous pollutants like carbon
monoxide are fixed by some plants, namely Coleus blumeri, Ficus variegate and Phascolus
vulgaris. Species of Pinus, Quercus, Pyrus, Juniperus and Vitis depollute the air by metabolizing
nitrogen oxides. Plenty of trees should be planted, especially around those areas which are
declared as high risk areas of pollution.
5. Control at source by equipment
The most effective means of dealing with the problem of air pollution is to prevent emission at
the source itself. In the case of industrial pollutants, it is often achieved by investigating various
approaches at an early stage of the process. Design, development and selecting of those methods
should be emphasized which do not contribute to air pollution. Pollution control equipments are
generally classified into two types.

Pollution control equipments (PCE)

Control devices for particulate Control devices for gaseous

contaminants contaminants
Gravitational settling
Cyclone separators
Fabric filters
Electrostatic precipitators Wet absorption Dry absorption
Wet collectors (scrubbers)

Spray tower Venturi scrubber Cyclonic scrubber

The particulate matter from gas stream can be removed at source using various types of control
equipment. Various methods are available, but to select the required equipment certain basic data
must be available. The required data are:
1. Quality of gas to be treated and its variation with time.
2. Nature and concentration of matter to be removed.
3. Temperature and pressure of gas stream.
4. Nature of the gas phase.

Particulates Control:
Gravity settling chambers
A typical horizontal flow gravity settling chamber is constructed in the form of a long
horizontal box with inlet, outlet, and dust collection hoppers. The dust-laden air stream enters the
unit at the inlet, then enters the expansion section, which causes the air velocity to be reduced
and particles to settle by gravity. Gravitation force may be employed to remove particulates in
settling chambers when the settling velocity is greater than about 0.12 m/s. The chambers are
provided with enlarged areas to minimize horizontal velocities and allow time for the vertical
velocity to carry the particle to the floor. The chamber usually operates with velocity between
0.5 and 2.8 m/s, although for best operating results the gas flow should be uniformly maintained
at less than 0.3 m/s.

Settling chamber design based on laminar flow requires either a very large size or large
number of trays with an awkward shape of chamber. The laminar chamber has the advantage of
giving theoretically perfect collection efficiency for particles of the designated size but is of little
practical value since the efficiency drops off rapidly with smaller particles. The most practical
flow in the settling chamber will probably be turbulent rather than laminar. Thus, turbulent
chamber offers a more practical design concept. The chamber should be reasonably designed for
the removal of 99% of the particles. Here an improved type of settling chamber is the baffle
chamber beeing used; the baffles cause sudden changes of the direction of the air stream thus
enhancing particle separation and collection. The motion thus induced is superimposed on the
motion due to gravity. Thus, particle collection is accomplished by a combination of gravity and
an inertial effect. Particles as small as 10 to 20 m can be collected. The settling chamber with
baffles is more compact and requires less space then the simple gravity settling chamber.
Settling chambers are the simplest and crudest PCE and are best used upstream of more
efficient collectors. They can then reduce the load, improve the performance and extend the life
of the more efficient and more expensive device, and the dust can be recovered more easily.
Settling chambers have been used in many industries, including metal refining, foodstuffs, and
power plants.
The advantages of settling chambers include: low cost of construction and maintenance;
few maintenance problems; relatively low pressure drops; temperature and pressure limitations
imposed only by the materials of construction used; dry disposal of solid particulates. The
disadvantages include large space requirements and relatively low overall collection efficiency.

Cyclone separators
The most widely used mechanical collector is the cyclone. Instead of gravitational force,
centrifugal force is utilized by cyclone separators to separate the particulate matter from the
polluted gas. Centrifugal force several times greater than gravitational force can be generated by
spinning gas stream and this quality makes cyclone separators more effective in removing much
smaller particulates than can possibly be removed by gravitational settling chambers. A simple
cyclone separator consists of a cylinder with a conical base. A tangential inlet discharging near
the top and an outlet for discharging the particulates is present at the base of the cone.

Mechanism of action: The mechanism depends on centrifugal force instead of gravity to

separate particles from gas stream. The generated centrifugal force can be several times greater
than the gravitational force. Therefore, particles that can be removed in centrifugal collection are
much smaller than those that can be removed in gravity settling chambers. Reverse flow cyclone
consists of a cylindrical shell, a conical base dust hopper and an inlet where the dust laden gas
enters tangentially. The dust laden gas enters tangentially, receives a rotating motion and
generates a centrifugal force due to which the particulates are thrown to the cyclone walls as the
gas spirals upwards inside the cone (i.e., flow reverses to form an inner vortex which leaves flow
through the outlet). Particles slide down the walls of the cone and into the hopper. The operating
or separating efficiency of cyclone depends on the magnitude of the centrifugal force exerted on
the particles. The greater the centrifugal force, the greater the separating efficiency.
Like settling chambers, cyclones are frequently used as pre-treatment units to precede other,
higher-efficiency air cleaning devices.

The advantages of settling chambers apply also to cyclones, and in addition cyclones can be used
over a broad range of pressures and temperatures, from below ambient to above 1000 oC. Their
performance is insensitive to inlet dust concentration at the inlet; efficiency can increase with
increasing particle concentration; and they can be used effectively for the removal of liquid
droplets from gases, as in the discharge from absorption columns. The disadvantage is the low
efficiency for airborne particles finer than 5 m.

Fabric filters
Filtration is one of the oldest and most widely used methods for separation of particulates from a
carrier gas. A filter is a porous structure composed of a granular or fibrous material, which
retains the particulates and allows the gas to pass through the voids of the filter. Small particles
are initially retained on the fabric by direct interception, inertial impaction, diffusion and
gravitational settling. The filter is constructed of any material compatible with the carrier gas and
particulates and may be arranged in fabric, cloth filters or deep-bed filters.
Fibrous and deep-bed filters have large void spaces amounting from 97 to 99 % of the total
volume. Fabric filters are made in the form of tubular bags or cloth envelopes and are suitable for
a dust loading of the order of 1 g/m3. They are capable of removing dust particles as small as 0.5
microns and will remove substantial quantities of particles of which are closed and lower ends
are attached to an inlet manifold. The hopper at the bottom serves as a collector for the dust. The
gas entering through the inlet pipe strikes a baffle plate, which causes the larger particles to fall
into the hopper due to gravity. The carrier gas then flows upward into the tubes and then
outward through the fabric, leaving the particulate matter as a cake on the inside of the bags.
The filter efficiency during pre-coat formation is low but increases as the pre-coat formed, until a
final efficiency of over 99% is achieved. The pre-coat acts as a part of the filter medium, which
further helps in the removal of particulates. Many such bags are hung in a baghouse. For efficient
filtration and a longer life, the filter bags must be cleaned occasionally by a mechanical shaker to
prevent too many particulate layers from building up on the inside surfaces of the bag.
The advantages of fabric filters include high efficiency for fine particles, ease of operation and
maintenance, dry disposal of solid particles. The disadvantages include relatively high
installation and operating costs, limitations for use in high temperatures and in handling sticky
materials.

Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)

Electrostatic precipitators are the most popular methods for efficient removal of fine solids and
liquids from gas streams: they can have collecting efficiencies of over 99%. A high potential
electric field is established between discharge and collecting electrodes of opposite polarity. The
discharge electrode is of small cross sectional area, such as a wire or piece of flat stock, and the
collection electrode is large in surface area, such as a plate. The dust-laden gas to be cleaned
passes through the field. At a critical voltage, the gas molecules are ionized at or near the surface
of the discharge electrode. Ions of the same polarity as the discharge electrode attach themselves
to neutral dust particles, which are then attracted to the collecting plate. On contact with the
collecting surface, dust particles lose their charge and can then be easily removed by vibration,
washing or by gravity.
The advantages of ESPs include: high collection efficiency for small particles; low operating
pressure drops; temperature and pressure limitations imposed only by the construction materials
used; dry disposal of solid particles. The disadvantages include large space requirements, high
cost, and need for skilled operation and maintenance. The success of a precipitator depends not
only on the quality of the system but also on adequate operation and maintenance; therefore,
well-trained operators are required.
Scrubbers
Scrubber is a device used to entrap a targeted object using a scrubbing medium. The scrubbing
medium can be selected based on the properties of the pollutant and the carrier gas in the
exhaust.
In a scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the suitable scrubbing medium,
by spraying, by forcing through, by sucking out or by some other contact method. The scrubbing
media entraps the targeted pollutant by physical phenomenon like simple capture, adsorption,
etc. or by chemical phenomenon like absorption, dissolution, ion exchange, etc.
Based on the type of scrubbing media used, the scrubbers are of two types, dry scrubbers and wet
scrubbers. In dry scrubbers solid scrubbing media like activated granular charcoal, activated
alumina, zeolt, etc. been used
Scrubbers can be designed to collect particulate matter and/or gaseous pollutants. Wet scrubbers
remove dust particles by capturing them in liquid droplets. Wet scrubbers remove pollutant gases
by dissolving or absorbing them into the liquid. Wet scrubbers are widely used in cleaning
contaminated gas streams because of their ability to remove effectively both particulate and
gaseous pollutants. They are designed to incorporate small dust particles into larger water
droplets, which can then be removed by simple mechanisms such as gravity, impaction on
baffles, or by centrifugal collectors. The droplets are produced, for example, by spray nozzles, by
the shearing a liquid film with the gas stream, or by the motion of a mechanically driven rotor,
and principles used to incorporate the dust into droplets include inertial impaction, direct
interception, diffusion,
Advantages and disadvantages
For particulate control, wet scrubbers (also referred to as wet collectors) are evaluated against
fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators (ESPs). Some advantages of wet scrubbers over these
devices are as follows:
 Wet scrubbers have the ability to handle high temperatures and moisture.
 In wet scrubbers, the inlet gases are cooled, resulting in smaller overall size of
equipment.
 Wet scrubbers can remove both gases and particulate matter.
 Wet scrubbers can neutralize corrosive gases.
Some disadvantages of wet scrubbers include corrosion, the need for entrainment separation or
mist removal to obtain high efficiencies and the need for treatment or reuse of spent liquid.Table
1 summarizes these advantages and disadvantages. Wet scrubbers have been used in a variety of
industries such as acid plants, fertilizer plants, steel mills, asphalt plants, and large power plants.

Table 1. Relative advantages and disadvantages of wet scrubbers compared to

other control devices

Advantages Disadvantages

Small space requirements Corrosion problems

Scrubbers reduce the temperature and
volume of the unsaturated exhaust
stream. Therefore, vessel sizes, including
fans and ducts downstream, are smaller
than those of other control devices.
Smaller sizes result in lower capital costs
and more flexibility in site location of the
scrubber.
No secondary dust sources
Once particulate matter is collected, it
cannot escape from hoppers or during
transport.
Handles high-temperature, high-
humidity gas streams
No temperature limits or condensation
problems can occur as in baghouses or
ESPs.
Minimal fire and explosion hazards
Various dry dusts are flammable. Using
water eliminates the possibility of
explosions.
Ability to collect both gases and
particulate matter
Water and dissolved pollutants can form
highly corrosive acid solutions. Proper
construction materials are very important.
Also, wet-dry interface areas can result in
corrosion.
High power requirements
High collection efficiencies for
particulate matter are attainable only at
high pressure drops, resulting in high
operating costs.
Water-disposal problems
Settling ponds or sludge clarifiers may be
needed to meet waste-water regulations.
Difficult product recovery
Dewatering and drying of scrubber
sludge make recovery of any dust for
reuse very expensive and difficult.
Meteorological problems
The saturated exhaust gases can produce
a wet, visible steam plume. Fog and
precipitation from the plume may cause
local meteorological problems.

Gaseous pollutants Control:

Commonly applied technologies for treating gases and vapor include the following: absorption,
adsorption, condensation, thermal oxidation (catalytic and non-catalytic) and biofiltration. Each
of these treatment techniques are typically economic over a certain range of concentrations, and
are better suited to treat some pollutants than others.
Adsorption
Adsorption is an interfacial phenomenon, molecules adhere at the surface of the solid adsorbent.
A large surface area is required to collect the pollutant molecules resulting in a larger physical
size and container. Adsorption from dilute gas streams is complicated by the occurrence of high
humidity and the presence of other compounds whose removal is not desired, but which also
occupy adsorption sites. Competition for adsorption sites reduces the capacity of the adsorbent
for the target molecules. At high relative humidity, a phenomenon known as "capillary
condensation" results in further loss of adsorption capacity further increasing the need for
adsorbent and the size of the unit. Although hydrophobic adsorbents are now available, used in
industrial applications, and perform better under high humidity conditions than granular
activated carbon GAC, they are too expensive for use with non-regenerable systems. Adsorption
systems used for SVE (soil vapor extraction processes ) operation have traditionally been non-
regenerable systems because of the low concentrations. Since pollutants are only trapped, and
not destroyed by adsorption, disposal of the spent adsorbent must be taken into consideration,
since it may need to be treated as a hazardous waste.
 Absorption
The removal of one or more selected components from a gas mixture by absorption is probably
the most important operation in the control of gaseous pollutant emissions. Absorption is a
process in which a gaseous pollutant is dissolved in a liquid. Water is the most commonly used
absorbent liquid. As the gas stream passes through the liquid, the liquid absorbs the gas, in much
the same way that sugar is absorbed in a glass of water when stirred. Absorption is commonly
used to recover products or to purify gas streams that have high concentrations of organic
compounds. Absorption equipment is designed to get as much mixing between the gas and liquid
as possible.
Absorbers are often referred to as scrubbers, and there are various types of absorption equipment.
The principal types of gas absorption equipment include
spray towers, packed columns, spray chambers, and
venture scrubbers. The packed column is by far the most
commonly used for the absorption of gaseous pollutants.
The packed column absorber has a column filled with an
inert (non-reactive) substance, such as plastic or ceramic,
which increases the liquid surface area for the liquid/gas
interface. The inert material helps to maximize the
absorption capability of the column. In addition, the
introduction of the gas and liquid at opposite ends of the
column causes mixing to be more efficient because of the
counter-current flow through the column. In general,
absorbers can achieve removal efficiencies grater than 95 Typical packed column diagram
percent. One potential problem with absorption is the
generation of waste-water, which converts an air pollution problem to a water pollution problem.
Incineration
Incineration, also known as combustion, is most used to control the emissions of organic
compounds from process industries. This control technique refers to the rapid oxidation of a
substance through the combination of oxygen with a combustible material in the presence of
heat. When combustion is complete, the gaseous stream is converted to carbon dioxide and water
vapor. Incomplete combustion will result in some pollutants being released into the atmosphere.
Smoke is one indication of incomplete combustion. Equipment used to control waste gases by
combustion can be divided in three categories: direct combustion or flaring, thermal incineration
and catalytic incineration. Choosing the proper device depends on many factors, including type
of hazardous contaminants in the waste stream, concentration of combustibles in the stream,
process flow rate, control requirements, and an economic evaluation.
A direct combustor or flare is a device in which air and all the combustible waste gases react at
the burner. Complete combustion must occur instantaneously since there is no residence
chamber. Flares are commonly used for disposal of waste gases during process upsets, such as
those that take place when a process is started or shut down. A flare can be used to control
almost any emission stream containing volatile organic compounds. Studies conducted by EPA
have shown that the destruction efficiency of a flare is about 98 percent.
In thermal incinerators the
combustible waste gases pass over or
around a burner flame into a residence
chamber where oxidation of the waste
gases is completed. For thermal
incineration, it is important that the
vapor stream directed to the thermal
incinerator have a constant Thermal incinerator: General case
combustible gas concentration and
flow rate. These devices are not well-
suited to vapor streams that fluctuate, because the efficiency of the combustion process depends
on the proper mixing of vapors and a specific residence time in the combustion chamber.
Residence time is the amount of time the fuel mixture remains in the combustion chamber.
Often, supplementary fuel is added to a thermal incinerator to supplement the quantity of
pollutant gases being burned by the incinerator. Energy and heat produced by the incineration
process can be recovered and put to beneficial uses at a facility. Thermal incinerators can destroy
gaseous pollutants at efficiencies of greater than 99 percent when operated correctly.
Catalytic incinerators are very similar to thermal incinerators. The main difference is that after
passing through the flame area, the gases pass over a catalyst bed. A catalyst is a substance that
enhances a chemical reaction without being changed or consumed by the reaction. A catalyst
promotes oxidation at lower temperatures, thereby reducing fuel costs. Destruction efficiencies
greater than 95 percent are possible using a catalytic incinerator. Higher efficiencies are possible
if larger catalyst volumes or higher temperatures are used. Catalytic incinerators are best suited
for emission streams with low VOC content.

Condensation
Condensation is the process of converting a gas or vapor to liquid. Any gas can be reduced to a
liquid by lowering its temperature and/or increasing its pressure. The most common approach is
to reduce the temperature of the gas stream, since increasing the pressure of a gas can be
expensive. A simple example of the condensation process is droplets of water forming on the
outside of a glass of cold water. The cold temperature of the
 Contact condenser

glass causes water vapor from the surrounding air to pass into the liquid state on the surface of
the glass.
Condensers are widely used to recover valuable products in a waste stream. Condensers are
simple, relatively inexpensive devices that normally use water or air to cool and condense a
vapor stream. Condensers are typically used as pretreatment devices. They can be used ahead of
adsorbers, absorbers, and incinerators to reduce the total gas volume to be treated by more
expensive control equipment. Condensers used for pollution control are contact condensers and
surface condensers. In a contact condenser, the gas comes into contact
Surfacewith cold liquid. In a
condenser
surface condenser, the gas contacts a cooled surface in which cooled liquid or gas is circulated,
such as the outside of the tube. Removal efficiencies of condensers typically range from 50
percent to more than 95 percent, depending on design and applicationsAir Quality Standards
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are standards established by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency that apply for outdoor air throughout the
country. Primary standards are designed to protect human health, including sensitive populations
such as children, the elderly, and individuals suffering from respiratory disease. Secondary
standards are designed to protect public welfare (e.g. building facades, visibility, crops, and
domestic animals).
NAAQS requires the EPA to set standards on eight criteria pollutants:
1. Ozone (O3)
2. Particulate Matter
o PM10, course particles: 2.5 micrometers (μm) to 10 μm in size (although current
implementation includes all particles 10 μg or less in the standard)
o PM2.5, fine particles: 2.5 μm in size or less
3. Carbon monoxide (CO)
4. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
5. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
6. Lead (Pb)

Soil pollution
Soil contamination is the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration of the natural soil
environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage
tanks, application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata,
leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most
common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other
heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of
industrialization and intensity of chemical usage.

1. What is Soil
 Thin layer of organic and inorganic material that covers the earth rocky in face.
 Organic layer is made up of sand / silica and decayed remains of plants/animals. This “top soil” is the
upper dark coloured layer.
 Inorganic layer is made up of rocks formed over several billions of years due to weathering of
bedrock.
 Top soil – Most important for agriculture. It has to be conserved for sustaining agriculture on earth.
 Top soil pollution is a major problem due to entry of substances, chemicals and microorganisms that
results in changes in the quality of soil.
 As a result it endangers agriculture, public health (due to entry of pathogenic microorganisms-
bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae and protozoa) and the environment.

2. How does soil get polluted?

- Soil gets polluted largely due to anthropogenic factors.
- Sources of soil pollution are:
a) Industrial wastes
 They are the major cause of soil pollution. On an average more than 50% of industrial raw materials
end up as waste in one form or the other. Of these around 20% of the wastes could be extremely
harmful to soil fertility.
 Newer industrial technologies generate newer types of toxic and non –biodegradable wastes.
 Thermal, atomic and electric power plants contribute to soil pollution. Thermal power plants
generate fly ash that pollutes soil, air and water.
 Industrial pollutants enter human food chain and cause serious health problems.
 Coal – fired power plants produce sulphur dioxide which is trapped( not released to atmosphere) by
means of addition of lime( calcium hydroxide) or lime stone forming what are called sludges which
represent calcium salts and toxic elements such as As, Se, Hg, Pb and Cr- all detrimental to the
environment.
b) Urban Wastes

Urban wastes

Commercial Waste Domestic Waste

Includes garbage, rubbish – plastics, glasses, tin containers, fibre glass, paper, rubber, vegetable/ animal
residues, oil drippings, fuel wastes, leaves, abandoned toys, paints/varnishes and metallic objects
c) Agricultural Sources
  Fertilizers: excessive usage of N.K.P leads to eutrophication.
 Pesticides, Chlorinated hydrocarbons – DDT, BHC(Benzene Hexa Chloride),
Aldrin, Endrin, dieldrin, lindane, chlordane etc.
Organic phosphates: Malathion, Parathion
These can get absorbed in root crops posing a health risk
 Soil conditioners, fumigants, and chemical agent
They are used to increase soil fertility to get higher yields and kill insects.
These substances may contain several toxic metals such as Pb, As, Cd, Hg and Co which get
Introduced into the crops through the soil and ultimately enter the human food chain.
 Farm Wastes
Cattle, Pigs, Poultry contribute to soil pollution.
Raw sewage from animal sheds has very high BOD > 200 ppm, COD > 400 ppm, N (40 ppm)
Feed lot run-offs have BOD 1000 ppm, COD 8000 ppm and N 700 ppm
Methods of treating domestic sewage cannot be applied to farm sewage.

d) Metallic Pollutants
 Most industries (textiles, dyes, paints and pigments, pharmaceuticals, oil, soap and detergents,
cement, batteries, petroleum, paper and pulp, steel, glass, plastic and electroplating) dump their
solid wastes on soil with disastrous consequences to living organisms.
 Fertilizers and soil conditioners leave behind traces of metal residues in soil.
 Hazardous metals As, Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr
 Minor changes in Ca, Na, K, Mg, Fe, Zn, V has effect on plant life/ agricultural
 Production..

e) Biological agents

 Soil gets polluted by large quantities of human, animal and bird excreta.
 Biological agents naturally occurring in soil- bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and actinomytes,
earthworms, mollusks (snails, clams, squid, octopuses, and anthropods (spiders, mites, insects,
centipede, millipede and crustaceans- all contribute to soil fertility.
 Biological agents excreted by man are enteric bacteria, protozoa and viruses. These pathogens
are transmitted to soil by animals and from soil to man.

f) Mining
  Surface mining or open pit mining generates large quantities of wastes (top soil, rocks) leads to
loss of land for grazing, soil erosion, sedimentation and soil pollution.
 Effluents from mines may be highly acidic or alkaline or metal-rich containing cyanide containing
pollutants depending on the circumstances.

g) Salt Stress in Soil

 Due to evaporation of water salinity increases.
 TDS > 2100 mg/l makes soil unsuitable for growing crops except for the most salt-tolerant crops.
h) Radioactive elements
 Nuclear explosion or face out from nuclear tests or dumping of nuclear wastes
 Radiation wastes contain such as radio nuclides as Sr-90. Cs- 137, I-129.
 All emit of  radiation.

i) Effects of soil pollution

 Leads to ground water pollution
 Hazard to public health due to entry of chemicals and/or microorganisms into food chain.
 Generate fowl odour, cause air pollution and impact on clean and healthy living.

Health effects
The major concern is that there are many sensitive land uses where people are in direct contact
with soils such as residences, parks, schools and playgrounds. Other contact mechanisms include
contamination of drinking water or inhalation of soil contaminants which have vaporized. There
is a very large set of health consequences from exposure to soil contamination depending on
pollutant type, pathway of attack and vulnerability of the exposed population. Chromium and
many of the pesticide and herbicide formulations are carcinogenic to all populations. Lead is
especially hazardous to young children, in which group there is a high risk of developmental
damage to the brain and nervous system, while to all populations kidney damage is a risk.
Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with higher
incidence of leukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of
kidney damage, some irreversible. PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity.
Organophosphates and carbamates can induce a chain of responses leading to neuromuscular
blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes and depression of the
central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache,
nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient
dosages a large number of soil contaminants cause death.
Ecosystem effects
Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for
ecosystems. There are radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of many
hazardous chemicals even at low concentration of the contaminant species. These changes can
manifest in the alteration of metabolism of endemic microorganisms and arthropods resident in a
given soil environment. The result can be virtual eradication of some of the primary food chain,
which in turn have major consequences for predator or consumer species. Even if the chemical
effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of the food chain may ingest alien
chemicals, which normally become more concentrated for each consuming rung of the food
chain. Many of these effects are now well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT
materials for avian consumers, leading to weakening of egg shells, increased chick mortality and
potentially species extinction.
Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination. Contaminants
typically alter plant metabolism, most commonly to reduce crop yields. This has a secondary
effect upon soil conservation, since the languishing crops cannot shield the earth's soil mantle
from erosion phenomena. Some of these chemical contaminants have long half-lives and in other
cases derivative chemicals are formed from decay of primary soil contaminants.

Technology to combat soil Pollution

Bioremediation is the use of microorganism metabolism to remove pollutants. Technologies can

be generally classified as in situ or ex situ. In situ bioremediation involves treating the
contaminated material at the site, while ex situ involves the removal of the contaminated material
to be treated elsewhere. Some examples of bioremediation technologies are phytoremediation,
bioventing, bioleaching, landfarming,  bioreactor, composting,  bioaugmentation, 
rhizofiltration, and  biostimulation. Bioremediation can occur on its own (natural attenuation or
intrinsic bioremediation) or can be spurred on via the addition of fertilizers to increase the
bioavailability within the medium (biostimulation). Recent advancements have also proven
successful via the addition of matched microbe strains to the medium to enhance the resident
microbe population's ability to break down contaminants. Microorganisms used to perform the
function of bioremediation are known as bioremediators.

Not all contaminants, however, are easily treated by bioremediation using microorganisms. For
example, heavy metals such as cadmium and lead are not readily absorbed or captured by
organisms. The assimilation of metals such as mercury into the food chain may worsen matters.
Phytoremediation is useful in these circumstances because natural plants or transgenic plants are
able to bioaccumulate these toxins in their above-ground parts, which are then harvested for
removal. The heavy metals in the harvested biomass may be further concentrated by incineration
or even recycled for industrial use. The elimination of a wide range of pollutants and wastes from
the environment requires increasing our understanding of the relative importance of different
pathways and regulatory networks to carbon flux in particular environments and for particular
compounds, and they will certainly accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies
and biotransformation processes.

Genetic engineering approaches

The use of genetic engineering to create organisms specifically designed for bioremediation has
great potential. The bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans (the most radioresistant organism
known) has been modified to consume and digest toluene and ionic mercury from highly
radioactive nuclear waste. Most commonly, the process is misunderstood. The microbes are ever-
present in any given context and are generally referred to as "normal microbial flora". During
bioremediation (biodegradation) processes, fertilizer/nutrient supplementation is introduced to
the environments in efforts to maximize growth and production potential. Common misbelief is
that microbes are transported and dispersed into an unadulterated environment.

Mycoremediation
Mycoremediation is a form of bioremediation in which fungi are used to decontaminate the
area. The term mycoremediation refers specifically to the use of fungal mycelia in
bioremediation. One of the primary roles of fungi in the ecosystem is decomposition, which is
performed by the mycelium. The mycelium secretes extracellular enzymes and acids that break
down lignin and cellulose, the two main building blocks of plant fiber. These are organic
compounds composed of long chains of carbon and hydrogen, structurally similar to many
organic pollutants. The key to mycoremediation is determining the right fungal species to target a
specific pollutant. Certain strains have been reported to successfully degrade the nerve
gasesVX and sarin. In one conducted experiment, a plot of soil contaminated with diesel oil was
inoculated with mycelia of oyster mushrooms; traditional bioremediation techniques (bacteria)
were used on control plots. After four weeks, more than 95% of many of the PAH (polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons) had been reduced to non-toxic components in the mycelial-inoculated
plots. It appears that the natural microbial community participates with the fungi to break down
contaminants, eventually into carbon dioxide and water. Wood-degrading fungi are particularly
effective in breaking down aromatic pollutants (toxic components of petroleum), as well as
chlorinated compounds (certain persistent pesticides; Battelle, 2000). Mycofiltration is a similar
process, using fungal mycelia to filter toxic waste and microorganisms from water in soil.

Advantages
There are a number of cost/efficiency advantages to bioremediation, which can be employed in
areas that are inaccessible without excavation. For example, hydrocarbon spills
(specifically, petrol spills) or certain chlorinated solvents may contaminate groundwater, and
introducing the appropriate electron acceptor or electron donor amendment, as appropriate, may
significantly reduce contaminant concentrations after a long time allowing for acclimation. This
is typically much less expensive than excavation followed by disposal elsewhere, incineration or
other ex situ treatment strategies, and reduces or eliminates the need for "pump and treat", a
practice common at sites where hydrocarbons have contaminated clean groundwater.
Monitoring bioremediation
The process of bioremediation can be monitored indirectly by measuring the Oxidation
Reduction Potential or redox in soil and groundwater, together with pH,
temperature, oxygen content, electron acceptor/donor concentrations, and concentration of
breakdown products (e.g.carbon dioxide). This table shows the (decreasing) biological
breakdown rate as function of the redox potential.

Process Reaction  Redox potential (Eh in mV)

aerobic: O2 + 4e− + 4H+ → 2H2O 600 ~ 400

anaerobic:

denitrification 2NO3− + 10e− + 12H+ → N2 + 6H2O 500 ~ 200

manganese IV reduction   MnO2 + 2e− + 4H+ → Mn2+ + 2H2O 400 ~ 200

iron III reduction Fe(OH)3 + e− + 3H+ → Fe2+ + 3H2O 300 ~ 100

sulfate reduction SO42− + 8e− +10 H+ → H2S + 4H2O 0 ~ −150

fermentation 2CH2O → CO2 + CH4 −150 ~ −220

This, by itself and at a single site, gives little information about the process of remediation.
1. It is necessary to sample enough points on and around the contaminated site to be able to
determine contours of equal redox potential. Contouring is usually done using specialised software,
e.g. using Kriging interpolation.
2. If all the measurements of redox potential show that electron acceptors have been used up, it is in
effect an indicator for total microbial activity. Chemical analysis is also required to determine when
the levels of contaminants and their breakdown products have been reduced to below regulatory
limits.

Organic farming
Organic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green
manure, compost and biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and control pests on
a farm. Organic farming excludes or strictly limits the use of manufactured fertilizers,
pesticides (which include herbicides, insecticides and fungicides), plant growth regulators such
as hormones, livestock antibiotics, food additives, and genetically modified organisms.
Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by many nations,
based in large part on the standards set by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements (IFOAM), an international umbrella organization for organic farming organizations
established in 1972. 

IFOAM defines the overarching goal of organic farming as: "Organic agriculture is a production
system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological
processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with
adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the
shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved."

Since 1990, the market for organic products has grown from nothing, reaching $55 billion in
2009 according to Organic Monitor (www.organicmonitor.com). This demand has driven a
similar increase in organically managed farmland. Approximately 37,000,000 hectares
(91,000,000 acres) worldwide are now farmed organically, representing approximately 0.9
percent of total world farmland (2009)

Nutrient leaching
Excess nutrients in lakes, rivers, and groundwater can cause algal blooms, eutrophication, and
subsequent dead zones. In addition, nitrates are harmful to aquatic organisms by themselves. The main
contributor to this pollution is nitrate fertilizers whose use is expected to "double or almost triple by
2050". Organically fertilizing fields "significantly [reduces] harmful nitrate leaching" over conventionally
fertilized fields: "annual nitrate leaching was 4.4-5.6 times higher in conventional plots than organic
plots". The large dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico is caused in large part by agricultural runoff: a
combination of fertilizer and livestock manure. Over half of the nitrogen released into the Gulf comes
from agriculture. This increases costs for fishermen, as they must travel far from the coast to find fish.
Nitrogen leaching into the Danube River was substantially lower among organic farms. The resulting
externalities could be neutralized by charging 1 euro per kg of released nitrogen. Agricultural runoff
and algae blooms are strongly linked in California.

Green house effect, global warming and climate change

A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a gas in an atmosphere
that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause
of the greenhouse effect.[1]The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are water vapor,
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Greenhouse gases greatly affect the temperature of the
Earth; without them, Earth's surface would be on average about 33 °C colder than at present.
Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the burning of fossil fuels has contributed to the
increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from 280ppm to 390ppm, despite the uptake of a large
portion of the emissions through various natural "sinks" involved in the carbon cycle. Carbon dioxide
emissions come from combustion of carbonaceous fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. CO2 is a
product of combustion of carbon although burning coal for example, also produces carbon monoxide.
The governments of most countries in the world have agreed that deep cuts in global GHG emissions are
required, and that the future increase in global mean temperature (i.e., global warming) should be limited
to below 2 °C relative to the pre-industrial temperature level.
Since 2000 fossil fuel related carbon emissions have equaled or exceeded the IPCC's "A2 scenario",
except for small dips during two global recessions. In 2010, global CO 2 emissions exceeded the IPCC's
worst case scenario, leading to concerns over whether dangerous climate change can be avoided.
Greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases are those that can absorb and emit infrared radiation. [1] In order, the most abundant
greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are:
 water vapor
 carbon dioxide
 methane
 nitrous oxide
 ozone
Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases are determined by the balance between sources
(emissions of the gas from human activities and natural systems) and sinks (the removal of the gas from
the atmosphere by conversion to a different chemical compound. [19] The proportion of an emission
remaining in the atmosphere after a specified time is the "Airborne fraction". More precisely, the annual
AF is the ratio of the atmospheric increase in a given year to that year’s total emissions. For  CO2 the AF
over the last 50 years (1956–2006) has been increasing at 0.25 ± 0.21%/year.
Impact of a given gas on climate sensitivity
When these gases are ranked by their direct contribution to the greenhouse effect, the most important are:

Formul
Gas Contribution
a
(%)

Water vapor H2O 36 – 72 %

Carbon dioxide CO2 9 – 26 %

Methane CH4 4 – 9 %

Ozone O3 3 – 7 %

In addition to the main greenhouse gases listed above, other greenhouse gases include sulfur
hexafluoride, hydro fluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons (see IPCC list of greenhouse gases). Some
greenhouse gases are not often listed. For example, nitrogen trifluoride has a high global warming
potential (GWP) but is only present in very small quantities. [27]
Proportion of direct effects at a given moment
It is not possible to state that a certain gas causes an exact percentage of the greenhouse effect. This is
because some of the gases absorb and emit radiation at the same frequencies as others, so that the total
greenhouse effect is not simply the sum of the influence of each gas. The higher ends of the ranges quoted
are for each gas alone; the lower ends account for overlaps with the other gases. [22][23] In addition, some
gases such as methane are known to have large indirect effects that are still being quantified

Per Capita and Global Carbon Foot Printing

Today, the stock of carbon in the atmosphere increases by more than 3 million tonnes per annum (0.04%)
compared with the existing stock.

Per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in
developing countries (Grubb, 2003, p. 144).]Due to China's fast economic development, its per capita
emissions are quickly approaching the levels of those in the Annex I group of the Kyoto Protocol (PBL,
2009).[83] Other countries with fast growing emissions are South Korea, Iran, and Australia. On the other
hand, per capita emissions of the EU-15 and the USA are gradually decreasing over time. Emissions
in Russia and the Ukraine have decreased fastest since 1990 due to economic restructuring in these
countries (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 24).[84]

Energy statistics for fast growing economies are less accurate than those for the industrialized countries.
For China's annual emissions in 2008, PBL (2008) estimated an uncertainty range of about 10%.

Top emitters

Top-5 emitters for the year 2005

 % of global total Tonnes of GHG

Country or region
annual emissions per capita

Chinab 17 %   5.8

United Statesa 16 % 24.1

European Union-27a 11 % 10.6

Indonesiac   6 % 12.9

India   5 %   2.1

 These values are for the GHG emissions from fossil fuel use and cement production. Calculations are
for carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and gases containing fluorine (the F-
gases HFCs, PFCs and SF6).
 These estimates are subject to large uncertainties regarding CO 2 emissions from deforestation; and
the per country emissions of other GHGs (e.g., methane). There are also other large uncertainties
which mean that small differences between countries are not significant. CO 2 emissions from the
decay of remaining biomass after biomass burning/deforestation are not included.
 Industrialized countries: official country data reported to UNFCCC.
 Excluding underground fires.
 Including an estimate of 2000 million tones CO2 from peat fires and decomposition of peat soils after
draining. However, the uncertainty range is very large.

Embedded emissions
One way of attributing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is to measure the embedded emissions (also
referred to as "embodied emissions") of goods that are being consumed. Emissions are usually measured
according to production, rather than consumption (Helm et al., 2007, p. 3).[87] Under a production-based
accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting, rather
than the importing, country. Under a consumption-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions
on imported goods are attributed to the importing country, rather than the exporting, country.
Effect of policy
Rogner et al. (2007) assessed the effectiveness of policies to reduce emissions (mitigation of climate
change They concluded that mitigation policies undertaken by UNFCCC Parties were inadequate to
reverse the trend of increasing GHG emissions. The impacts of population growth, economic
development, technological investment, and consumption had overwhelmed improvements in energy
intensities and efforts to decarbonize (energy intensity is a country's total primary energy supply (TPES)
per unit of GDP (Rogner et al., 2007). TPES is a measure of commercial energy consumption (World
Bank, 2010, p. 371)).

Relative CO2 emission from various fuels

One liter of gasoline, when used as a fuel, produces 2.32 kg (1.3 cubic meters) of carbon dioxide, a
greenhouse gas. One US gallon produces 19.4 lb (172.65 cubic feet)

Mass of carbon dioxide emitted per quantity of energy for various fuels[

Fuel name CO2 emitted (lbs/106 Btu) CO2 emitted (g/106 J)

Natural gas 117 50.30

Liquefied petroleum gas 139 59.76

Propane 139 59.76

 Mass of carbon dioxide emitted per quantity of energy for various fuels[

Fuel name CO2 emitted (lbs/106 Btu) CO2 emitted (g/106 J)

Aviation gasoline 153 65.78

Automobile gasoline 156 67.07

Kerosene 159 68.36

Fuel oil 161 69.22

Tires/tire derived fuel 189 81.26

Wood and wood waste 195 83.83

Coal (bituminous) 205 88.13

Coal (subbituminous) 213 91.57

Coal (lignite) 215 92.43

Petroleum coke 225 96.73

Coal (anthracite) 227 97.59

Natural processes
Greenhouse gases can be removed from the atmosphere by various processes, as a consequence of:
 A physical change (condensation and precipitation remove water vapor from the atmosphere).
 A chemical reaction within the atmosphere. For example, methane is oxidized by reaction with
naturally occurring hydroxyl radical, OH·and degraded to CO2 and water vapor (CO2 from the
oxidation of methane is not included in the methane Global warming potential). Other chemical
reactions include solution and solid phase chemistry occurring in atmospheric aerosols.
 A physical exchange between the atmosphere and the other compartments of the planet. An example is
the mixing of atmospheric gases into the oceans.
 A chemical change at the interface between the atmosphere and the other compartments of the planet.
This is the case for CO2, which is reduced by photosynthesis of plants, and which, after dissolving in
the oceans, reacts to form carbonic acid and bicarbonate andcarbonate ions (see ocean acidification).
 A photochemical change. Halocarbons are dissociated by UV light releasing Cl· and F· as free
radicals in the stratosphere with harmful effects on ozone (halocarbons are generally too stable to
disappear by chemical reaction in the atmosphere).

Negative emissions
There are a number of technologies that remove emissions of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.
Most widely analyzed are those which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, either to geologic
formations such as bio-energy with carbon capture and storage and carbon dioxide air capture, or to the
soil as in the case with biochar. It has been pointed out by the IPCC, that many long-term climate scenario
models require large scale manmade negative emissions in order to avoid serious climate change

Carbon Footprint
A carbon footprint is defined as: The total amount of greenhouse gases produced to directly and
indirectly support human activities, usually expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide (CO2).
In other words: When you drive a car, the engine burns fuel which creates a certain amount of CO2,
depending on its fuel consumption and the driving distance. (CO2 is the chemical symbol for carbon
dioxide). When you heat your house with oil, gas or coal, then you also generate CO2. Even if you heat
your house with electricity, the generation of the electrical power may also have emitted a certain amount
of CO2. When you buy food and goods, the production of the food and goods also emitted some
quantities of CO2.
Your carbon footprint is the sum of all emissions of CO2 (carbon dioxide), which was induced by
your activities in a given time frame. Usually a carbon footprint is calculated for the time period of a
year.
The best way is to calculate the carbon dioxide emissions based on the fuel consumption. In the next step
you can add the CO2 emission to your carbon footprint. Below is a table for the most common used fuels:
Examples:
 For each (UK-) gallon of petrol fuel consumed, 10.4 kg carbon dioxide (CO 2) is emitted.
 For each (US-) gallon of gasoline fuel consumed, 8.7 kg carbon dioxide (CO 2) is emitted.
 If your car consumes 7.5 liter diesel per 100 km, then a drive of 300 km distance consumes 3 x 7.5 =
22.5 liter diesel, which adds 22.5 x 2.7 kg = 60.75 kg CO2 to your personal carbon footprint.

fuel type unit CO2 emitted per unit

Petrol 1 gallon (UK) 10.4 kg

Petrol 1 liter 2.3 kg

Gasoline 1 gallon (USA) 8.7 kg

Gasoline 1 liter 2.3 kg

 Diesel 1 gallon (UK) 12.2 kg

Diesel 1 gallon (USA) 9.95 kg

Diesel 1 liter 2.7 kg

Oil (heating) 1 gallon (UK) 13.6 kg

Oil (heating) 1 gallon (USA) 11.26 kg

Oil (heating) 1 liter 3 kg

To calculate the above contributions to the carbon footprint, the current UK mix for electricity and trains
was taken into account. 
Carbon dioxide is a so called greenhouse gas causing global warming. Other greenhouse gases which
might be emitted as a result of your activities are e.g. methane and ozone. These greenhouse gases are
normally also taken into account for the carbon footprint. They are converted into the amount of CO2 that
would cause the same effects on global warming (this is called equivalent CO2 amount).
Few people express their carbon footprint in kg carbon rather than kg carbon dioxide. You can always
convert kg carbon dioxide in kg carbon by multiplying with a factor 0.27 (1'000 kg CO2 equals 270 kg
carbon). The carbon footprint is a very powerful tool to understand the impact of personal behavior on
global warming. Most people are shocked when they see the amount of CO2 their activities create! If you
personally want to contribute to stop global warming, the calculation and constant monitoring of your
personal carbon footprint is essential.
For registered users, there is a carbon footprint calculator on this website, which allows to store individual
activities like, e.g. travelling by car, train, bus or air plane, fuel consumptions, electricity bills and so on
(we call the individual contributions "carbon stamps"). You can then see the amount of CO2 created for
each individual activity. You can do this either in advance and use it as a help for decisions or afterwards
to continually sum up your carbon dioxide emissions.

An off-line carbon footprint and primary energy consumption calculator (Excel sheet) is already
available in the download section.

There are graphs available on this site for the CO2 emissions per capita by country (average carbon
footprint by country). In the medium- and long term, the carbon footprint must be reduced to less than
2'000 kg CO2 per year and per person. This is the maximum allowance for a sustainable living 
Carbon footprinting measures the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an organisation, event or
product. To measure carbon footprints is the first step towards managing your carbon footprint.

A carbon footprint has historically been defined as "the total set of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
caused by an organization, event, product or person". However, calculating a carbon footprint which
conforms to this definition is often impracticable due to the large amount of data required, which is
often costly and time consuming to obtain. A more practicable definition has been suggested, which is
gaining acceptance within the field:

"A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) emissions of a defined
population, system or activity, considering all relevant sources, sinks and storage within the spatial and
temporal boundary of the population, system or activity of interest. Calculated as carbon dioxide
equivalent (CO2) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential (GWP100)."

The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint discussion. The carbon
footprint is a subset of the ecological footprint and of the more comprehensive Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA).

Global-warming potential (GWP) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in

the atmosphere. It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the
amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide. A GWP is calculated over a specific time
interval, commonly 20, 100 or 500 years. GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide (whose GWP is
standardized to 1). For example, the 20 year GWP of methane is 72, which means that if the same mass of
methane and carbon dioxide were introduced into the atmosphere, that methane will trap 72 times more
heat than the carbon dioxide over the next 20 years.
The GWP depends on the following factors:
 the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species
 the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths
 the atmospheric lifetime of the species
Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum, the use of infrared
spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of
human activities on global climate change.

Ecological Footprint 
The ecological footprint is a measure of human demand on the Earth's ecosystems. It is a standardized
measure of demand for natural capital that may be contrasted with the planet's ecological capacity to
regenerate.[1] It represents the amount of biologically productive land and sea area necessary to supply the
resources a human population consumes, and to mitigate associated waste. Using this assessment, it is
possible to estimate how much of the Earth (or how many planet Earths) it would take to support
humanity if everybody followed a given lifestyle. For 2006, humanity's total ecological footprint was
estimated at 1.4 planet Earths – in other words, humanity uses ecological services 1.4 times as fast as
Earth can renew them.[2] Every year, this number is recalculated — with a three year lag due to the time it
takes for the UN to collect and publish all the underlying statistics.

Life-cycle assessment
A life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis, ecobalance, and cradle-to-
grave analysis)[1] is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a
product's life from-cradle-to-grave (i.e., from raw material extraction through materials processing,
manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling). LCA’s can help avoid
a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by:
 Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases;
 Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs and releases;
 Interpreting the results to help you make a more informed decision.
Four main phases

Goal and scope

An LCA starts with an explicit statement of the goal and scope of the study, which sets out the context of
the study and explains how and to whom the results are to be communicated. This is a key step and the
ISO standards require that the goal and scope of an LCA be clearly defined and consistent with the
intended application. The goal and scope document therefore includes technical details that guide
subsequent work:
 the functional unit, which defines what precisely is being studied and quantifies the service delivered
by the product system, providing a reference to which the inputs and outputs can be related;
 the system boundaries;
 any assumptions and limitations;
 the allocation methods used to partition the environmental load of a process when several products or
functions share the same process; and
 the impact categories chosen.
Life cycle inventory
Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to nature for a
product system. Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw materials, and releases to air,
land, and water. To develop the inventory, a flow model of the technical system is constructed using data
on inputs and outputs. The flow model is typically illustrated with a flow chart that includes the activities
that are going to be assessed in the relevant supply chain and gives a clear picture of the technical system
boundaries. The input and output data needed for the construction of the model are collected for all
activities within the system boundary, including from the supply chain (referred to as inputs from the
technosphere).
Life cycle impact assessment
Inventory analysis is followed by impact assessment. This phase of LCA is aimed at evaluating the
significance of potential environmental impacts based on the LCI flow results. Classical Life Cycle
Impact Assessment (LCIA) consists of the following mandatory elements:
 selection of impact categories, category indicators, and characterization models;
 the classification stage, where the inventory parameters are sorted and assigned to specific impact
categories; and
 impact measurement, where the categorized LCI flows are characterized, using one of many possible
LCIA methodologies, into common equivalence units that are then summed to provide an overall
impact category total.

Interpretation
Life Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate information
from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact assessment. The results from the
inventory analysis and impact assessment are summarized during the interpretation phase. The outcome
of the interpretation phase is a set of conclusions and recommendations for the study. According to ISO
14040:2006, the interpretation should include:
 Identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of an LCA;
 Evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks; and
 Conclusions, limitations and recommendations.
There are two basic types of LCA tools:
 dedicated software packages intended for practitioners; and
 Tools with the LCA in the background intended for people who want LCA-based results without have
to actually develop the LCA data and impact measures.
Carbon capture and storage (CCS), alternatively referred to as carbon capture and sequestration, is a
technology to prevent large quantities of CO 2 from being released into the atmosphere from the use of
fossil fuel in power generation and other industries. [1] It is often regarded as a means of mitigating the
contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming. [2] The process is based on capturing carbon
dioxide (CO2) from large point sources, such as fossil fuel power plants, and storing it in such a way that
it does not enter the atmosphere. It can also be used to describe the scrubbing  of CO2 from ambient air as
a geo engineering technique. Although CO2 has been injected into geological formations for various
purposes, the long term storage of CO2 is a relatively new concept. The first commercial example was
Weyburn in 2000.

Kyoto Protocol 
The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting global warming. The UNFCCC is an international
environmental treaty with the goal of achieving the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in
the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate
system."

The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force on 16
February 2005. As of September 2011, 191 states have signed and ratified the protocol.

Countries agreed to reduce their collective greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% from the 1990 level.
Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping, but are in addition to the
industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.

The benchmark 1990 emission levels accepted by the Conference of the Parties of UNFCCC (decision
2/CP.3) were the values of "global warming potential" calculated for the IPCC Second Assessment
Report.[5] These figures are used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into
comparable CO2equivalents (CO2-eq) when computing overall sources and sinks.

Each country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas
emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.

Objective
The objective of the Kyoto climate change conference was to establish a legally binding international
agreement, whereby all the participating nations commit themselves to tackling the issue of global
warming and greenhouse gas emissions. The target agreed upon was an average reduction of 5.2% from
1990 levels by the year 2012.

The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step of the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change. The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling emission reduction
commitment periods, with negotiations on second period commitments that were scheduled to start in
2005
The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." 
The five principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
 Commitments to the Annex-countries. The heart of the Protocol lies in establishing commitments for
the reduction of greenhouse gases that are legally binding for Annex I countries. Dividing the
countries in different groups is one of the key concepts in making commitments possible, where only
 the Annex I countries in 1997, were seen as having the economic capacity to commit themselves and
their industry. Making only the few nations in the Annex 1 group committed to the protocols
limitations.
 Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I countries are required to
prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In
addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms
available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in
order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
 Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
 Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
 Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments
under the Protocol

Paris Agreement: The Paris Agreement (French: Accord de Paris), Paris climate accord or
Paris climate agreement, is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation, adaptation and
finance starting in the year 2020. The language of the agreement was negotiated by
representatives of 196 parties at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and
adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015. As of August 2017, 195 UNFCCC members have
signed the agreement, 159 of which have ratified it In the Paris Agreement, each country
determines, plans and regularly reports its own contribution it should make in order to mitigate
global warming. There is no mechanism to force a country to set a specific target by a specific
date but each target should go beyond previously set targets.

In 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump announced his intention to withdraw the United States
from the agreement, causing widespread condemnation in the European Union and many sectors
in the United States. Under the agreement, the earliest effective date of withdrawal for the U.S. is
November 2020.
Aims
The aim of the convention is described in Article 2, "enhancing the implementation" of the
UNFCCC through:
"(a) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-
industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-
industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate
change;
(b) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate
resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does not threaten
food production;
(c) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and
climate resilient development." Countries furthermore aim to reach "global peaking of
greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible". The agreement has been described as an
incentive for and driver of fossil fuel divestment. The Paris deal is the world's first
comprehensive climate agreement.

Nationally determined contributions The contributions that each individual country

should make in order to achieve the worldwide goal are determined by all countries individually
and called "nationally determined contributions" (NDCs). Article 3 requires them to be
"ambitious", "represent a progression over time" and set "with the view to achieving the purpose
of this Agreement". The contributions should be reported every five years and are to be
registered by the UNFCCC Secretariat. Each further ambition should be more ambitious than the
previous one, known as the principle of 'progression'. Countries can cooperate and pool their
nationally determined contributions. The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions pledged
during the 2015 Climate Change Conference serve unless provided otherwise—as the initial
Nationally determined contribution. The level of NDCs set by each country will set that country's
targets. However the 'contributions' themselves are not binding as a matter of international law,
as they lack the specificity, normative character, or obligatory language necessary to create
binding norms. a country to set a target in their NDC by a specific date and no enforcement if a
set target in an NDC is not met. Furthermore, there will be no mechanism to force There will be
only a "name and shame" system or as János Pásztor, the U.N. assistant secretary-general on
climate change, told CBS News (US), a "name and encourage" plan. As the agreement provides
no consequences if countries do not meet their commitments, consensus of this kind is fragile. A
trickle of nations exiting the agreement may trigger the withdrawal of more
governments, bringing about a total collapse of the agreement.

Noise pollution: Noise pollution or noise disturbance is the disturbing or excessive noise that
may harm the activity or balance of human or animal life. The source of most outdoor noise
worldwide is mainly caused by machines and transportation systems, motor vehicles engines,
aircraft, and trains.[1][2] Outdoor noise is summarized by the word environmental noise. Poor
urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential
buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential areas. Documented problems associated
with urban noise go back as far as Ancient Rome.[3]
Outdoor noise can be caused by machines, construction activities, and music performances,
especially in some workplaces. Noise-induced hearing loss can be caused by outside (e.g. trains)
or inside (e.g. music) noise.
High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans and an increased incidence
of coronary artery disease.[4] In animals, noise can increase the risk of death by altering predator
or prey detection and avoidance, interfere with reproduction and navigation, and contribute to
permanent hearing loss
Causes of Noise pollution
Noise pollution can be caused by several phenomenon including industrial activity, and social
activity (such as explosion of fire crackers, loud parties), and surface travel. The many causes of
noise pollution are discussed below:
1. Fire crackers: Fire crackers are exploded to make huge sound during celebrations and festive
occasions.  It is common sight to witness the firing of crackers at live concerts.
2. Transportation vehicles: Noise pollution is severest in the cities. The different modes of
transportation (land, air and water), such as motor-cars, buses, trains, trams, airplanes, etc.
produces sound that disturbs the human mind.
3. Microphones: The unrestricted use of microphones during social and political events.
4. Loud speakers: During social events and other festive occasions, people use loud speakers in
unjustified manner.
5. Factories and industries: In large cities, there are large number of factories, mills and
industries. These industrial sites produce immense environmental noise to disturb the habitats of
nearby residential areas.
6. Domestic appliances: Even at homes, people use large number of domestic appliances such
as grinder, mixer, juicer, etc.
7. Loud music: Playing music in high volume,
8. Television: Television also causes sound and watching television for long hours in just as
harmful for ears as they are for eyes.
9. Building and construction sites near residential areas: The building and construction
activity involves use of sound producing equipment such as cement-mixer, road-roller, crane, etc.
All the above activities produce enough noise to disturb the health and mind of human-beings
and other living bodies.
Also read: 
1. What are the Causes of Noise Pollution?
2. Sources of Noise Pollution
Effects of Noise Pollution
Noise pollution affects the human mind and body negatively. The ill-effects of noise pollution
are many. It is the major cause for several ailments. The quality of human life gets disrupted. The
lives of the children, the aged or the ailing people become miserable.
1. Loss of hearing and deafness: Noise above the tolerable threshold is the leading cause for
loss of hearing and deafness.
2. Cardiac disturbance: Noise increase the risk of cardiac disturbance including coronary artery
disease or ischemic heart disease (IHD).
3. Sleeplessness: Noise may make people restless and tired. It may cause disrupted sleeping
pattern or may keep people away from sound sleep. In the long-term, due to tiredness and lack of
sleep, the immune system may get compromised.
4. Headache: Human mind can tolerate sound only to a limited extent. Excess noise causes
headache.
5. Stress, tension and aggressiveness: Loud noises can be very stressful. Constant exposure to
irritating sound may cause stress and tension. The behavior of people often becomes aggressive.
Other than psychological imbalance, is causes physical illness such as increased blood pressure,
cardiac disturbance and insomnia.
6. Irregular blood pressure: For good health, it is very important to maintain normal pressure
in the arteries both during the heartbeat and between the heartbeat. Noise may contribute
to fluctuations in the levels of blood pressure.
7. Mental imbalance and nervous debility: Mental illness is among the worst negative effects
of noise pollution. People may find it difficult to cope with their normal routine life.
Human mind cannot accept sound beyond a certain level. Excess sound may lead to mental
imbalance and nervous disability.
8. Psychological imbalance: It may also cause psychological imbalance.
9. Difficulty in talking: Due to excessive noise, it becomes very difficult to talk on roads or
inside malls.
Also read: Negative Effects of Noise Pollution on Human Health
Prevention of Noise Pollution
Some effective measures should be taken too solve the problem. The following measures can be
taken to prevent noise pollution:
 To prevent and control noise pollution it is necessary to create public awareness. Only law is not
sufficient. People must be made aware of the harmful consequences of noise pollution.
 People should be made aware that excessive noise beyond certain limits may cause deafness.
 They should know that injuries caused by sound pollution are often irreversible.
 There should be minimum use of sound producing instruments. There should be proper
regulations for the use of loudspeakers and other devices that produce noise beyond that are
beyond the toleration limits of human-beings.
 The Pollution Control Board and the High Court have already taken effective measures to bring
sound pollution under control. Adequate measures should be taken to ensure that noise related
restrictions are not violated.
 Anti-pollution laws should be enacted and enforced.
 Ban of fire crackers should be imposed and electric horns should be replaced by bulb horns.
  The use of microphones should be controlled and regulated.
Conclusion
Noise pollution is real. It is not just a mild annoyance. It can negatively effect the lives of both
humans and animals. It poses severs threats such as environmental hazards, health problems,
habitat loss, etc. It also changes in the ways in which people cohere. As such, we should all make
sure that we do not contribute to noise pollution.