Functions

R. B. Ponsones
➢ Def. A function from a set 𝑿 to a set 𝒀 is a rule
which assigns to each element of 𝑿 exactly one
element of 𝒀.
➢ Set 𝑿 is called the domain of the function.
➢ Functions are usually named using letters 𝒇, 𝒈, or 𝒉,
and so on.

R. B. Ponsones
➢ If 𝒇 is a function and 𝒂 is an element in its domain, then
𝒇(𝒂) (read as “𝒇 of 𝒂”)
is the value of the function 𝒇 at 𝒂.
➢ We call 𝒇(𝒂) the image of 𝒂 under function 𝒇.
The range of 𝒇 is the set of all the images of 𝒇.

R. B. Ponsones
Ex. Consider the following arrow diagram.
• Here, 𝒇 is a function.
• Domain: 𝑿 = 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄
1 • Codomain: 𝒀 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒
a
2 • 𝒇 𝒂 = 𝟐, 𝒇 𝒃 = 𝟒, 𝒇 𝒄 = 𝟐
b 3 • Range = 𝟐, 𝟒
c 4

R. B. Ponsones
➢ A function can also be represented as a set of ordered
pairs.
▪ A function 𝒇 is the set of ordered pairs (𝒙, 𝒇 𝒙 ) such that 𝒙
is in the domain of 𝒇.
▪ In a function, no two ordered pairs have the same first
component and different second components.

R. B. Ponsones
Ex.
In this example, we write
𝒇 = { 𝒂, 𝟐 , 𝒃, 𝟒 , 𝒄, 𝟐 }.
1
a
2
b 3
c 4

R. B. Ponsones
• Ex. The set { 𝟐, 𝟏 , 𝟑, 𝟒 , 𝟏, 𝟒 , 𝟒, 𝟒 } is a function with
domain {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒} and range {𝟏, 𝟒}.
• Ex. The set { 𝟏, 𝟐 , 𝟐, 𝟑 , 𝟑, 𝟓 , 𝟑, 𝟏 , 𝟒, 𝟒 } is not a function
since there are two ordered pairs, namely, (𝟑, 𝟓) and (𝟑, 𝟏) that
have the same first component but different second
components.

R. B. Ponsones
• When a function is written as an equation in the form
𝒚=𝒇 𝒙 ,
𝒙 is called the independent variable, an element of the
domain, and 𝒚 is the dependent variable, an element of the
range.
• We say that “𝒚 is a function of 𝒙”.

R. B. Ponsones
 Evaluating Functions
➢ If 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒄 is a number, 𝒇(𝒄) indicates 𝒇 evaluated
at 𝒄 and is found by substituting 𝒄 for 𝒙 in 𝒇(𝒙).
Ex. Given: 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟏 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐
Evaluate the following.
1. 𝒇 𝟓
2. 𝒇(−𝟑𝒕)
3. 𝒇(𝟏 + 𝟐𝒙)

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 Finding the Domain of a Function
➢ Unless stated otherwise, given the equation of a function,
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙), the domain of 𝒇 is the largest possible set of numbers
for which 𝒇(𝒙) is defined.

R. B. Ponsones
▪ Ex. Find the domain of the function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 − 𝟏.
Sol. Note that for 𝒇(𝒙) to be defined, the radicand 𝒙 − 𝟏 should be
≥ 𝟎. That is, the domain is the set of all real numbers for which
𝒙 − 𝟏 ≥ 𝟎 or 𝒙 ≥ 𝟏. Hence, the domain is the set
{𝒙|𝒙 ≥ 𝟏} or [𝟏, ∞).

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 𝒙−𝟏
• Ex. Find the domain of 𝒚 = .
𝟑−𝒙
• Sol. Note that no division by zero is allowed. Hence, the domain
is the set of all real numbers for which 𝟑 − 𝒙 ≠ 𝟎 or 𝒙 ≠ 𝟑.
• The domain is written
𝒙 𝒙 ≠ 𝟑} or −∞, 𝟑 ∪ (𝟑, ∞).

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 It’s Your Turn!
• Ex. Find the domain of each function:
• 1. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏
𝟑
• 2. 𝒚 = 𝒙 − 𝟖
𝒙−𝟏
• 3. 𝒈(𝒙) =
𝒙+𝟓
𝒙−𝟏
• 4. 𝒚=
𝟐−𝒙
•

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 Operations With Functions
• Assume that 𝒇 and 𝒈 are functions and 𝒙 is in the
domain of both 𝒇 and 𝒈.
• We define:
• 1. 𝒇 + 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒇 𝒙 + 𝒈(𝒙) (sum)
• 2. 𝒇 − 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒇 𝒙 − 𝒈(𝒙) (difference)

R. B. Ponsones
• 3. 𝒇 ∙ 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝒈(𝒙) (product)
𝒇 𝒇 𝒙
• 4. 𝒙 = (quotient)
𝒈 𝒈 𝒙
(provided 𝒈(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎)

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• Ex. Given: 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 and 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒙 + 𝟐
• Find:
• a. (𝒇 + 𝒈)(𝟑)
• b. (𝒇 − 𝒈)(𝒙)
𝒇
• c. (𝒕)
𝒈
• d. (𝒈𝒇)(𝒙)

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 Composition of Two Functions
• The composition of two functions 𝒇 and 𝒈, written
𝒇 ∘ 𝒈, is defined by
• 𝒇∘𝒈 𝒙 =𝒇 𝒈 𝒙
• 𝒇 ∘ 𝒈 is also called the composite function of 𝒇 and
𝒈.

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R. B. Ponsones
• Ex. Given: 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓, 𝒈 𝒙 = −𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓
• Find:
• a. (𝒈 ∘ 𝒇)(𝟓)
• b. 𝒈 ∘ 𝒇 𝒙
• c. 𝒇 ∘ 𝒈 𝒙

R. B. Ponsones
 It’s Your Turn!
➢ Given the following functions:
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏, 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝟐 + 𝒙
▪ Find the following.
▪ 1. 𝒇(𝒂 + 𝟏)
▪ 2. (𝒇 − 𝒈)(𝟑)
▪ 3. (𝒇𝒈)(𝒙)
𝒈
▪ 4. −𝟐
𝒇
▪ 5. (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙)

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 Graph of a Function
• Def. If 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) is a a function, the graph of 𝒇 is the
set of all ordered pairs (𝒙, 𝒚) such that 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙).

R. B. Ponsones
Ex. Sketch the graph of 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 or 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏,

𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏

−𝟐 −𝟑

−𝟏 −𝟏

𝟎 𝟏

𝟏 𝟑

𝟐 𝟓

R. B. Ponsones
Vertical Line Test: A graph in the coordinate plane is the graph of
a function if and only if there is no vertical line that intersects
the graph more than once.
• This is not the graph of a
function.

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Ex. Is this the graph of a function?

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 Not all equations represent functions.
• Ex. Explain why the equation • Graph of 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙:
𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙 does not represent a
function.
• Ans. When 𝒙 = 𝟒, 𝒚 = ±𝟐.
• There are 2 ordered pairs such as
(𝟒, −𝟐) and (𝟒, 𝟐) with the same
𝒙-coordinate but different 𝒚
coordinates.

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 Intercepts of a Graph
• Def. An 𝒙-intercept of the graph of an equation is the
abscissa of a point where the graph intersects the 𝒙-axis.
• Def. A 𝒚-intercept of a graph is the ordinate of a point
where the graph intersects the 𝒚-axis.
• To find the 𝒚-intercept, let 𝒙 = 𝟎 and solve for 𝒚.
• To find the 𝒙-intercept, let 𝒚 = 𝟎 and solve for 𝒙.

R. B. Ponsones
• Ex. Given the equation: • Graph of 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 = 𝟔:
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 = 𝟔
▪ When 𝒚 = 𝟎, 𝒙 =3.
Thus, the 𝒙-intercept is 𝟑.
▪ When 𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝒚 = 𝟐.
The 𝒚-intercept is 𝟐.

R. B. Ponsones
• Ex. Find the 𝒙- and 𝒚-intercepts of the graph of 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟔.
Sol. Factor.
𝒚 = (𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝒙 − 𝟐)
When 𝒙 = 𝟎: 𝒚 = −𝟔
When 𝒚 = 𝟎: 𝒙 = −𝟑, 𝟐
Thus the 𝒚-intercept is −𝟔 and the 𝒙-intercepts are −𝟑 and 𝟐.

R. B. Ponsones
Def. A number 𝒄 is called a zero of a function 𝒇 if 𝒇 𝒄 = 𝟎.
➢ Recall that if 𝒇 𝒄 = 𝟎, then the graph of 𝒇 has an 𝒙-
intercept 𝒄.
➢ That is, the 𝒙-intercepts of the graph of 𝒇are the zeros
of 𝒇.
Ex. If 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔, the zeros of 𝒇 are 𝟐 and 𝟑 since
𝒇 𝟐 = 𝟎 and 𝒇 𝟑 = 𝟎.

R. B. Ponsones
Behavior of Functions

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 Increasing (Decreasing) Function
➢A function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) is increasing on an interval if for any
two numbers 𝒙𝟏 and 𝒙𝟐 in the interval with 𝒙𝟏 < 𝒙𝟐 ,
• 𝒇 𝒙𝟏 < 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ).
➢A function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) is decreasing on an interval if for any
two numbers 𝒙𝟏 and 𝒙𝟐 in the interval with 𝒙𝟏 < 𝒙𝟐 ,
• 𝒇 𝒙𝟏 > 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ).

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 Constant function
• A function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) is constant on an interval if for
any two numbers 𝒙𝟏 and 𝒙𝟐 in the interval,
• 𝒇 𝒙𝟏 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ).

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 • Ex. Determine the intervals
where the graph is increasing,
decreasing or constant.

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Ex. Determine the intervals where the graph is increasing or
decreasing.

• Ans.
• Increasing on
• −∞, −𝟏 ∪ (𝟏, ∞)
• Decreasing on (−𝟏, 𝟏)

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Types of Functions

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• 1. Linear function
• Equation: 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃 or 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃, where
𝒎 and 𝒃 are real numbers
➢ Domain: ℝ (set of all real numbers)
➢ℝ is also written as (−∞, ∞).
➢ Range: ℝ
➢ Graph: line (with slope 𝒎 and 𝒚-intercept 𝒃)

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• Example of a linear
function:
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟖

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• Constant Function • Ex. 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟓
• Equation: 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒌 where 𝒌 • Domain: ℝ; Range: {𝟓}
is a constant
• Domain: ℝ
• Range: {𝒌}
• Graph: Horizontal line with
𝒚-intercept 𝒌

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 2. Quadratic Functions
• Equation: • Domain: ℝ
• Graph:
• 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 • Parabola (opens upward if 𝒂 > 𝟎
• (with 𝒂 ≠ 𝟎) and downward if 𝒂 < 𝟎)
➢ General form ➢ vertex: (𝒉, 𝒌);
➢ equation of axis: 𝒙 = 𝒉
• or • Range:
𝟐
•𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒙 − 𝒉 +𝒌 ➢[𝒌, ∞) (if opening upward)
➢ Standard form ➢(−∞, 𝒌] (if opening downward)

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 𝟐
Ex. Given: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓

• Graph: Parabola that opens • Vertex: (−𝟏, 𝟑)

upward • Domain: ℝ
• Standard form: • Range: [𝟑, ∞)
• 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓 • Equation of axis: 𝒙 = −𝟏

• 𝒚 = 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓
• 𝒚 = 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 + 𝟓 − 𝟐
•𝒚= 𝟐 𝒙+𝟏 𝟐+𝟑
(standard form)
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• Graph of
𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓

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 𝟐
Ex. 𝒚 = −𝒙 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑
➢ Write in standard form and • ⇒
find the following: Vertex, • Opens downward
domain , range, equation of
axis. Then sketch the graph. • Vertex: (𝟐, 𝟏)
• Sol. Standard form: • Equation of axis: 𝒙 = 𝟐
• 𝒚 = −𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑 • Domain: ℝ
• Range: (−∞, 𝟐]
• 𝒚 = − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑
• 𝒚 = − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟒 − 𝟑 + 𝟒
• 𝒚=− 𝒙−𝟐 𝟐+𝟏
• (standard form)

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• Graph of 𝒚 = −𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑

R. B. Ponsones
 4. Root Functions
𝒏
• Equation: 𝒚 = 𝒙
• If 𝒏 is even:
• Domain: [𝟎, ∞)
• Range: [𝟎, ∞)
• If 𝒏 is odd:
• Domain: ℝ
• Range: ℝ
• Ex. 𝒚 = 𝒙
(Graph shown on the right)

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 𝟑 𝟒
• Ex. 𝒚 = 𝒙 • Ex. 𝒚 = 𝒙

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• Ex. Refer to the graph of the
function
𝒚= 𝒙−𝟏+𝟑
On the right.
• Determine its domain and
range.

R. B. Ponsones
 5. Polynomial Functions
Def. A polynomial function of degree 𝒏 is defined by an
equation of the form
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟎 ,
• where 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , … , 𝒂𝒏 are real numbers and 𝒂𝒏 ≠ 𝟎.
➢ The numbers 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , … , 𝒂𝒏 are called the coefficients of the
polynomial.
➢ The number 𝒂𝒏 is called the leading coefficient and 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 , the
leading term.
➢ The number 𝒂𝟎 is called the constant term.
R. B. Ponsones
• Ex. The function 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟓 is a polynomial
function of degree 𝟑 with leading coefficient 𝟐 and constant
term −𝟓.
➢ The graph of a polynomial function is a smooth curve, that
is, with no breaks or gaps, holes or sharp corners.
➢ The graphs of polynomials of degree 0 and degree 1 are
lines while those of degree 2 are parabolas.

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 Possible Shapes of the
Graphs of Polynomial Functions
• 1. Degree 0 or 1 (Lines) • Degree 2 (Parabolas that
open upward or downward)

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• 2. Degree 3

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• 3. Degree 4

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• Ex. The graph of 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟒𝒙𝟑 is
shown on the right.
• Domain: ℝ; Range: [−𝟏, ∞)
When 𝒚 = 𝟎:
𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟒𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎
𝒙𝟑 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟒 = 𝟎
𝟒
𝒙 = 𝟎 or 𝒙 =
𝟑
𝟒
▪ 𝒙-intercepts: 𝟎 and
𝟑
When 𝒙 = 𝟎: 𝒚 = 𝟎; 𝒚-intercept: 0

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 6. Piecewise Functions

• Def. A function that is defined by

two or more equations over
specified intervals is called a
piecewise function.
• Ex. Sketch the graph and find its
domain and range.
−𝒙, 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 < 𝟎
𝒇 𝒙 =ቊ
𝒙 + 𝟐, 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
Sol.
Domain: ℝ
Range: (𝟎, ∞)
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• Ex. Given the function: • Ans.
•𝒇 𝒙 = • 𝒇 −𝟑 = −𝟏𝟏
•
𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓, 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 ≤ −𝟑 • 𝒇 𝟒 = −𝟏𝟎
ቐ−𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐, 𝐢𝐟 − 𝟑 < 𝒙 < 𝟑 • 𝒇 𝟎 = −𝟐
𝒙 − 𝟏𝟒, 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 ≥ 𝟑
• Find:
• 𝒇 −𝟑 , 𝒇 𝟒 , and 𝒇(𝟎)

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 7. Absolute Value Function
• Equation: 𝒚 = 𝒙 , where
−𝒙, 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 < 𝟎
• 𝒙 = ቐ 𝟎, 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒙, 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 > 𝟎
• Domain: ℝ
• Range: [𝟎, ∞)

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 Relative Extrema
• Def. A function value 𝒇(𝒄) is a relative maximum of 𝒇 if there
exists an open interval containing 𝒄 on which 𝒇 is defined such
that 𝒇 𝒄 > 𝒇(𝒙) for all 𝒙 in open the interval.

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Examples of Relative Maximum Points

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• Def. A function value 𝒇(𝒄) is a relative minimum of 𝒇 if there
exists an open interval containing 𝒄 on which 𝒇 is defined such
that 𝒇 𝒄 < 𝒇(𝒙) for all 𝒙 in open the interval.

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Examples of Minimum Relative Points

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• Ex. Refer to the graph of
𝟏 𝟑
𝒚= 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐
𝟑
on the right.
• At what point does the graph have
a relative maximum? A relative
minimum?

R. B. Ponsones
• References:
• Blitzer, R., (2004). Algebra and Trigonometry (2nd Edition). Pearson Education (Asia) PTE Ltd.
• Leithold, L., (2002). College Algebra and Trigonometry. Pearson Education (Asia) PTE Ltd.
• Rees, P., Sparks, F. and Sparks Rees, C., (2003). College Algebra (10th Edition), McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company
• Sobel, M. and Lerner, N., (1979). Algebra and Trigonometry - a Pre-Calculus Approach (2nd Edition).
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
• Stewart, J., Redlin, L. and Watson, S., (2007). Algebra and Trigonometry, (2nd Edition). Brooks/Cole
(Thomson Learning)
• Paul’s Online Math Notes: http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/
• Spector, L., The Math Page: http://www.themathpage.com/

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