Bcer 2 Sim

College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building

Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
Civil Engineering Program
Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)
Course/Subject: BCER 2 (Water Resources Engineering)

Author: Engr. Danielyn F. Plazos
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE
USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
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Table of Contents
Course Outline: BCER 2 - (WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING).................................................5
Course Outline Policy....................................................................................................................5
Course Information.......................................................................................................................8
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a.........................................................................................................9
Metalanguage...............................................................................................................................9
Essential Knowledge.....................................................................................................................9
Let’s Check!.................................................................................................................................29
Let’s Analyze!..............................................................................................................................30
In A Nutshell!...............................................................................................................................30
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b.......................................................................................................30
Let’s Check!.................................................................................................................................54
Let’s Analyze!..............................................................................................................................54
In a Nutshell!...............................................................................................................................55
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2a.......................................................................................................56
Metalanguage.............................................................................................................................56
Essential Knowledge...................................................................................................................57
Let’s Check!.................................................................................................................................71
Let’s Analyze!..............................................................................................................................71
In a Nutshell!...............................................................................................................................72
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2b.......................................................................................................72
Let’s Check!.................................................................................................................................83
Let’s Analyze!..............................................................................................................................84
In a Nutshell!...............................................................................................................................84
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3a.......................................................................................................85
Metalanguage.............................................................................................................................85
Essential Knowledge...................................................................................................................85
Let’s Check!.................................................................................................................................99
Let’s Analyze!..............................................................................................................................99
In a Nutshell!.............................................................................................................................101
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4a.....................................................................................................101
Metalanguage...........................................................................................................................101
Essential Knowledge.................................................................................................................101
Let’s Check!...............................................................................................................................110
In A Nutshell!.............................................................................................................................111
Page 2 of 110
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
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Course Outline: BCER 2 - (WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING)

Course Coordinator: Danielyn F. Plazos, RCE
Email: danielynplazos@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: By appointment (thru SMS, email and LMS)
Mobile: 09959316324
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Effectivity Date: May 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 54 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Pre-requisite: BCE 313 (Hydrology) and BCE 314 (Hydraulics)
Co-requisite: None
Credit: 3.0 units lecture
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face-to-face sessions
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 5-unit course self-instructional manual is
designed for blended learning mode of instructional
delivery with scheduled face to face or virtual sessions.
The expected number of hours will be 54 including the
face-to-face or virtual sessions. The face-to-face
sessions shall include the summative assessment tasks
(exams) since this course is crucial in the licensure
examination for civil engineers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7 th
and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall

be attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of submission
and name of the student. The document should be
emailed to the course coordinator. It is also expected
that you already paid your tuition and other fees
before the submission of the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time
by the course coordinator.
Since this course is included in the licensure

examination for civil engineers, you will be required to
take the Multiple-Choice Question exam inside the
University. This should be scheduled ahead of time by
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your course coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all

licensure-based programs.
Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
(if necessary) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This
means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the
students will either opt to redo her/his paper or
explain in writing addressed to the course coordinator
the reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper
has reached more than 30% similarity index, the
student may be called for a disciplinary action in
accordance with the University’s OPM on Intellectual
and Academic Honesty.
Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to
complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the
possible maximum score for that assessment item for
each day or part day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment paper

has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2)
Assessments weeks after the submission. This will be returned by
email or via Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

will require some or few of the students for online or
virtual sessions to ask clarificatory questions to
validate the originality of the assessment task
submitted and to ensure that all the group members
are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an
assessment task. The resubmission is premised on the
student’s failure to comply with the similarity index
and other reasonable grounds such as academic
literacy standards or other reasonable circumstances
e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the
Papers and Appeal program coordinator your intention to appeal or
contest the score given to an assessment task. The
letter should explicitly explain the reasons/points to
contest the grade. The program coordinator shall
communicate with the students on the approval and
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disapproval of the request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean
with
the original letter of request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional
contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Final exam – 40%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style Depends on the discipline; if uncertain or inadequate,
use the general practice of the APA 6th Edition.
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account
which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard
portal. Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources
of the course. All communication formats: chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be
through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program
head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Cañesares
Email: clcanesares@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Contact Details of the Program Engr. Showna Lee T. Sales
Head Email: ssales@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with
the course coordinator about the nature of his or her
special needs. Depending on the nature of the need,
the course coordinator with the approval of the
program coordinator may provide alternative
assessment tasks or extension of the deadline of
submission of assessment tasks. However, the
alternative assessment tasks should still be in the
service of achieving the desired course learning
outcomes.
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Help Desk Contact CEE Blackboard Administrator

Jetron J. Adtoon
jadtoon@umindanao.edu.ph
09055267834
CEE
Frida Santa O. Dagatan
cee@umindanao.edu.ph
09562082442
082-2272902
GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy, RPm, RGC, LPT
ronadora_deala@umindanao.edu.ph
09212122846
Silvino P. Josol
gstcmain@umindanao.edu.ph
09060757721
Library Contact LIC

Brigida E. Bacani
library@umindanao.edu.ph
09513766681
Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS
CC’s Voice: Hello future engineer! Welcome to this course BCER 2 - (Water Resources
Engineering). By now, I am confident that you really wanted to become a civil
engineer. Thus, by taking this subject, you will be equipped with the necessary
knowledge needed for all further water engineering subjects of Civil. You must
be able to master this subject since this is a basic subject for advanced civil
engineering courses.
CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:
CO 1. You are expected to be familiar with the concepts of frequency analysis.

With this knowledge, you shall learn how to apply this topic to designing a
drainage and pipeline system.
CO 2. Determine the parameters of different probability distributions
commonly used in flood frequency analysis.
CO 3. Design a basic drainage system and/or simple water supply system.
Let us begin!
Big Picture
Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 1 (ULO-1): At the end of the unit, you are expected to
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a. Develop a knowledge and understanding concepts about water resources,

hydrologic cycle and water code of the Philippines.
b. Evaluate the peak runoff estimation
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a. Develop a knowledge and understanding concepts

about water resources, hydrologic cycle and water code of the Philippines.
Metalanguage
These are the frequent terms that you may encounter as you go along the course:
Hydrology The branch of science concerned with the properties of the

earth's water, and especially its movement in relation to land.
Water The liquid that descends from the clouds as rain, forms streams,
lakes, and seas, and is a major constituent of all living matter and
that when pure is an odorless, tasteless, very slightly
compressible liquid oxide of hydrogen.
Water Resources Are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful
and it uses for agricultural, industrial, household,
recreational and environmental activities.
Hydrologic Cycle It involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-
Atmosphere system.
Precipitation Is any liquid or frozen water that forms in the atmosphere
and falls back to the Earth.
Condensation The process where water vapor becomes liquid .
Evaporation The process of turning from liquid into vapor.
Transpiration The process of water movement through a plant and its
evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and
flowers.
Infiltration The process by which water on the ground surface enters
the soil.
Runoff The flow of water occurring on the ground surface when
excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources,
can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil.
Interception Precipitation that does not reach the soil, but is instead
intercepted by the leaves, branches of plants and the forest
floor.
Body of Water Is any significant accumulation of water, generally on a
planet's surface.
Essential Knowledge
Introduction to the subject matter:
Water resources engineering is the study and management of equipment, facilities, and
techniques used to manage and preserve life’s most plentiful resource. In addition to
assessing how and the best ways in which to control water as it pertains to water-related
activities – such as irrigation, waste disposal and canal development – water resource
engineers are also frequently involved in water management to ensure that it’s safe to drink
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both for humans, plants and animal usage. Water resources engineering has its roots in
supplying water for human use, removing water when humans are finished using it and
developing methods of avoiding damage from excess water (floods). Much of the work of
water resource engineers involves the planning and managing constructed facilities that
address these tasks
DEFINITION OF WATER RESOURCES
Water resource, any of the entire range of natural waters that occur on the Earth, regardless
of their state (i.e., vapor, liquid, or solid), is of potential use to humans. Of these, the resources
most available for use are the waters of the oceans, rivers, and lakes; other available water
resources include groundwater and deep subsurface waters and glaciers and permanent
snowfields. Human use of natural waters, particularly of freshwater resources, has increased
steadily over the centuries. It is unlikely that this trend will change given the continued growth
of population and the ever-widening utilization of water for agricultural, industrial, and
recreational purposes. This situation has given rise to growing concern over the availability of
adequate water supplies to accommodate the future needs of society. (Gopal, Kantha 2011).
The quantity of water is not the only concern. Overuse has resulted in the progressive
deterioration of water quality. Seepage of mineral fertilizers (phosphates and nitrates),
pesticides, and herbicides into surface and subsurface waters has rendered them unfit for
human consumption and disrupted aquatic ecosystems. Lakes and rivers also have been
contaminated by the improper disposal of sewage, the discharge of untreated industrial
wastes (including such toxicants as polychlorinated biphenyls, or PCBs), and the release of
heated wastewater from nuclear power plants and other industrial facilities, which results in
thermal pollution and its attendant problems.
According to the journal of Kummu, et. Al published on 2016, Water scarcity is a rapidly
growing concern around the globe, but little is known about how it has developed over time.
This study provides the first assessment of continuous sub-national trajectories of blue water
consumption, renewable freshwater availability, and water scarcity for the entire 20th
century. Water scarcity is analyzed using the fundamental concepts of shortage (impacts due
to low availability per capita) and stress (impacts due to high consumption relative to
availability) which indicate difficulties in satisfying the needs of a population and overuse of
resources, respectively. While water consumption increased fourfold within the study period,
the number of people under water scarcity risen from 0.24 billion (14% of the global
population) in the 1900s to 3.8 billion (58%) in the 2000s.
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Notice how of the world's total water supply of about 332.5 million cubic miles of water, over 96
percent is saline. And, of the total freshwater, over 68 percent is locked up in ice and glaciers.
Another 30 percent of freshwater is in the ground. Fresh surface-water sources, such as rivers
and lakes, only constitute about 22,300 cubic miles (93,100 cubic kilometers), about 1/150th of
one percent of total water. Yet, rivers and lakes are the sources of most of the water people use
every day.
 In the first bar, notice how only 2.5% of Earth's water is freshwater - the amount needed
for life to survive.
 The middle bar shows the breakdown of freshwater. Almost all of it is locked up in ice
and in the ground. Only a little more than 1.2% of all freshwater is surface water, which
serves most of life's needs.
 The right bar shows the breakdown of surface freshwater. Most of this water is locked
up in ice, and another 20.9% is found in lakes. Rivers make up 0.49% of surface
freshwater. Although rivers account for only a small amount of freshwater, this is where
humans get a large portion of their water.
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According to Greenpeace, the status of water use and supply in the country are major water
users are the agricultural sector which accounts for 85.27 percent of the total water supply, the
industrial sector which consumes 7.46% and lastly the domestic users which use the remaining
7.27percent (PEM, 2003; 2004). In the Philippines, agriculture as a whole is the greatest
consumer of water. Irrigation constitutes a large portion of total water consumption by
agriculture; it is considered the biggest water user in the country, notwithstanding the fact that
only 47 percent of the potentially irrigable area of 3.16 million hectares is irrigated. About 95
percent of the irrigated area is devoted to paddy and about 70 percent of paddy production
comes from irrigated lands (Dayrit, H., The Philippines: Formulation of a water vision, NWRB).
Based on 2003 data, 63 percent of groundwater is consumed by the domestic sector and the
remaining is shared by agriculture (17 percent), industry (13 percent), and other sectors (7
percent) (PEM, 2004). PEM 2003, on the other hand, reports that about 86 percent of piped-
water supply systems use groundwater as source.
In the Philippines, supply and delivery of potable water in different parts of the country is the
responsibility of various government agencies and water utilities. Metro Manila is being served
primarily by the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) through its two
private concessionaires, the Maynilad Water Services, Inc. and the Manila Water Company, and
by some private companies serving subdivisions. Water supply comes mainly from surface
water.
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HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Earth's water is always in movement, and the natural water cycle, also known as the hydrologic
cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the
Earth. Water is always changing states between liquid, vapor, and ice, with these processes
happening in the blink of an eye and over millions of years.
The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean. As
moist air is lifted, it cools, and water vapor condenses to form clouds. Moisture is transported
around the globe until it returns to the surface as precipitation. Once the water reaches the
ground, one of two processes may occur; 1) some water may evaporate back into the
atmosphere, or 2) the water may penetrate the surface and become groundwater. Groundwater
either seeps its way into the oceans, rivers, and streams or is released back into the atmosphere
through transpiration. The water balance on the earth's surface is runoff, emptying into lakes,
rivers, and streams, and is carried back to the oceans, where the cycle begins again.
Evaporation of warm surface water increases moisture in the colder, drier air flowing
immediately above the lake surface. With continued evaporation, water vapor in the cold air
condenses to form ice-crystal clouds transported toward shore. By the time these clouds reach
the shoreline, they are filled with snowflakes too large to remain suspended in the air and
consequently, they fall along the coastline as precipitation. The intensity of lake effect snowfall
can be enhanced by additional lifting due to the topographical features (hills) along the
shoreline. Once the snow begins to melt, the water is either absorbed by the ground, becomes
groundwater, or returns to the lake as runoff.
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WATER CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
This is Presidential Decree No. 1067, otherwise known as the Water Code of the Philippines. The
Code covers underground water, water above the ground, water in the atmosphere and the
waters of the sea within the territorial jurisdiction of the Philippines.
CHAPTER I
Declaration of Objectives and Principles
ARTICLE 1. This Code shall be known as The Water Code of the Philippines.
ARTICLE 2. The objectives of this Code are:
a. To establish the basic principles and framework relating to the appropriation, control and
conservation of water resources to achieve the optimum development and rational utilization of
these resources;
b. To define the extent of the rights and obligations of water users and owners including the
protection and regulation of such rights;
c. To adopt a basic law governing the ownership, appropriation, utilization, exploitation,

development, conservation and protection of water resources and rights to land related thereto;
and
d. To identify the administrative agencies which will enforce this Code.
ARTICLE 3. The underlying principles of this code are:
a. All waters belong to the State.
b. All waters that belong to the State can not be the subject to acquisitive prescription.
c. The State may allow the use or development of waters by administrative concession.
d. The utilization, exploitation, development, conservation and protection of water resources

shall be subject to the control and regulation of the government through the National Water
Resources Council, hereinafter referred to as the Council.
e. Preference in the use and development of waters shall consider current usages and be
responsive to the changing needs of the country.
ARTICLE 4. Waters, as used in this Code, refers to water under the grounds, water above the
ground, water in the atmosphere and the waters of the sea within the territorial jurisdiction of
the Philippines.
CHAPTER II
Ownership of Waters
ARTICLE 5. The following belong to the State:

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a. Rivers and their natural beds;
b. Continuous or intermittent waters of springs and brooks running in their natural beds and
the beds themselves;
c. Natural lakes and lagoons;
d. All other categories of surface waters such as water flowing over lands, water from rainfall
whether natural or artificial, and water from agriculture runoff, seepage and drainage;
e. Atmospheric water;
f. Subterranean or ground waters; and
g. Seawater.
ARTICLE 6. The following waters found on private lands also belong to the State:
a. Continuous or intermittent waters rising on such lands;
b. Lakes and lagoons naturally occurring on such lands;
c. Rain water falling on such lands;
d. Subterranean or ground waters; and
e. Water in swamps and marshes.
The owner of the land where the water is found may use the same for domestic purposes
without securing a permit, provided that such use shall be registered, when required by the
Council. The Council, however, may regulate such use when there is wastage, or in times of
emergency.
ARTICLE 7. Subject to the provisions of this Code, any person who captures or collects water by
means of cisterns, tanks, or pools shall have exclusive control over such water and the right to
dispose of the same.
ARTICLE 8. Water legally appropriated shall be subject to the control of the appropriator from
the moment it reaches the appropriator’s canal or aqueduct leading to the place where the
water will be used or stored and, thereafter, so long as it is being beneficially used for the
purposes for which it was appropriated.
CHAPTER III
Appropriation of Waters
ARTICLE 9. Waters may be appropriated and used in accordance with the provisions of this
Code.
Appropriation of water, as used in this Code, is the acquisition of rights over the use of waters or
the taking or diverting of waters from a natural source in the manner and for any purpose
allowed by law.
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ARTICLE 10. Water may be appropriated for the following purposes:
a. Domestic
b. Municipal
c. Irrigation
d. Power generation
e. Fisheries
f. Livestock raising
g. Industrial
h. Recreational, and
i. Other purposes
Use of water for domestic purposes is the utilization of water for drinking, washing, bathing,
cooking or other household needs, home gardens, and watering of lawns or domestic animals.
Use of water for municipal purposes is the utilization of water for supplying the water
requirements of the community.
Use of water for irrigation is the utilization of water for producing agricultural crops.
Use of water for power generation is the utilization of water for producing electrical or
mechanical power.
Use of water for fisheries is the utilization of water for the propagation and culture of fish as a
commercial enterprise.
Use of water for livestock raising is the utilization of water for large herds or flocks of animals
raised as a commercial enterprise.
Use of water for industrial purposes is the utilization of water in factories, industrial plants and
mines, including the use of water as an ingredient of a finished product.
Use of water for recreational purposes is the utilization of water for swimming pools, bath
houses, boating, water skiing, golf courses and other similar facilities in resorts and other places
of recreation.
ARTICLE 11. The State, for reasons of public policy, may declare waters not previously
appropriated, in whole or in part, exempt from appropriation for any or all purposes and,
thereupon, such waters may not be appropriated for those purposes.
ARTICLE 12. Waters appropriated for a particular purpose may be applied for another purpose
only upon prior approval of the Council and on condition that the new use does not unduly
prejudice the rights of other permittees, or require an increase in the volume of water.
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ARTICLE 13. Except as otherwise herein provided, no person, including government

instrumentalities or government-owned or controlled corporations, shall appropriate water
without a water right, which shall be evidenced by a document known as a water permit.
Water right is the privilege granted by the government to appropriate and use water.
ARTICLE 14. Subject to the provisions of this Code concerning the control, protection,
conservation, and regulation of the appropriation and use of waters, any person may
appropriate or use natural bodies of water without securing a water permit for any of the
following:
a. Appropriation of water by means of hand-carried receptacles; and
b. Bathing or washing, watering or dipping of domestic or farm animals, and navigation of

watercrafts or transportation of logs and other objects by flotation.
ARTICLE 15. Only citizens of the Philippines, of legal age, as well as juridical persons, who are
duly qualified by law to exploit and develop water resources, may apply for water permits.
ARTICLE 16. Any person who desires to obtain a water permit shall file an application with the
Council who shall make known said application to the public for any protests.
In determining whether to grant or deny an application, the Council shall consider the
following: protests filed, if any; prior permits granted; the availability of water; the water supply
needed for beneficial use; possible adverse effects; land-use economics; and other relevant
factors.
Upon approval of an application, a water permit shall be issued and recorded.
ARTICLE 17. The right to the use of water is deemed acquired as of the date of filing of the
application for a water permit in case of approved permits, or as of the date of actual use in a
case where no permit is required.
ARTICLE 18. All water permits granted shall be subject to conditions of beneficial use, adequate
standards of design and construction, and such other terms and conditions as may be imposed
by the Council.
Such permits shall specify the maximum amount of water which may be diverted or withdrawn,
the maximum rate of diversion or withdrawal, the time or times during the year when water
may be diverted or withdrawn, the point or points of diversion or location of wells, the place of
use, the purposes for which water may be used and such other requirements the Council deems
desirable.
ARTICLE 19. Water rights may be leased or transferred in whole or in part to another person
with prior approval of the Council, after due notice and hearing.
ARTICLE 20. The measure and limit of appropriation of water shall be beneficial use.
Beneficial use of water is the utilization of water in the right amount during the period that the
water is needed for producing the benefits for which the water is appropriated.
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ARTICLE 21. Standards of beneficial use shall be prescribed by the Council for the appropriator
of water for different purposes and conditions, and the use of waters which are appropriated
shall be measured and controlled in accordance therewith.
Excepting those for domestic use, every appropriator of water shall maintain water control and
measuring devices, and keep records of water withdrawal. When required by the Council, all
appropriators of water shall furnish information on water use.
ARTICLE 22. Between two or more appropriators of water from the same sources of supply,
priority in time of appropriation shall give the better right, except that in times of emergency
the use of water for domestic and municipal purposes shall have a better right over all other
uses; Provided, That where water shortage is recurrent and the appropriator for municipal use
has a lower priority in time of appropriation, then it shall be his duty to find an alternative
source of supply in accordance with conditions prescribed by the Council.
ARTICLE 23. Priorities may be altered on grounds of greater beneficial use, multi-purpose use,
and other similar grounds after due notice and hearing, subject to payment of compensation is
proper cases.
ARTICLE 24. A water right shall be exercised in such a manner that the rights of third persons or
of other appropriators are not prejudiced thereby.
ARTICLE 25. A holder of a water permit may demand the establishment of easements necessary
for the construction and maintenance of the works and facilities needed for the beneficial use of
the waters to be appropriated subject to the requirements of just compensation and to the
following conditions:
a. That he is the owner, lessee, mortgagee or one having real right over the land upon which he
proposes to use water; and
b. That the proposed easement is the most convenient and the least onerous to the servient
estate.
Easements relating to the appropriation and use of waters may be modified by agreement of the
contracting parties provided the same is not contrary to law or prejudicial to third persons.
ARTICLE 26. Where water shortage is recurrent, the use of the water pursuant to a permit may,
in the interest of equitable distribution of benefits among legal appropriators, be reduced after
due notice and hearing.
ARTICLE 27. Water users shall bear the diminution of any water supply due to natural causes or
force majeure.
ARTICLE 28. Water permits shall continue to be valid as long as water is beneficially used;
however, it may be suspended on the grounds of non-compliance with approved plans and
specifications or schedules of water distribution; use of water for a purpose other than that for
which it was granted; non-payment of water charges; wastage; failure to keep records of water
diversion, when required; and violation of any term or condition of any permit or of rules and
regulations promulgated by the Council.
Temporary permits may be issued for the appropriation and use of water for short periods
under special circumstances.
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ARTICLE 29. Water permits may be revoked after due notice and hearing on grounds of non-
use; gross violation of the conditions imposed in the permit; unauthorized sale of water; willful
failure or refusal to comply with rules and regulations or any lawful order; pollution, public
nuisance or acts detrimental to public health and safety; when the appropriator is found to be
disqualified under the law to exploit and develop natural resources of the Philippines; when, in
the case of irrigation, the land is converted to non-agricultural purposes; and other similar
grounds.
ARTICLE 30. All water permits are subject to modification or cancellation by the Council, after
due notice and hearing, in favor of a project of greater beneficial use or for multi-purpose
development, and a water permittee who suffers thereby shall be duly compensated by the
entity or person in whose favor the cancellation was made.
CHAPTER IV
Utilization of Waters
ARTICLE 31. Preference in the development of water resources shall consider security of the
State, multiple use, beneficial effects, adverse effects and costs of development.
ARTICLE 32. The utilization of subterranean or ground water shall be coordinated with that of
surface waters such as rivers, streams, springs and lakes, so that a superior right in one is not
adversely affected by an inferior right in the other.
For this purpose the Council shall promulgate rules and regulations and declare the existence of
control areas for the coordinated development, protection, and utilization of subterranean or
ground water and surface waters.
Control area is an area of land where subterranean or ground water and surface water are so
interrelated that withdrawal and use in one similarly affects the other. The boundary of a
control area may be altered from time to time, as circumstances warrant.
ARTICLE 33. Water contained in open canals, aqueducts or reservoirs of private persons may be
used by any person for domestic purpose or for watering plants as long as the water is
withdrawn by manual methods without checking the stream or damaging the canal, aqueduct or
reservoir; Provided, That this right may be restricted by the owner should it result in loss or
injury to him.
ARTICLE 34. A water permittee or appropriator may use any watercourse to convey water to
another point in the watercourse for the purpose stated in a permit and such water may be
diverted or recaptured at that point by said permittee in the same amount less allowance for
normal losses in transit.
ARTICLE 35. Works for the storage, diversion, distribution and utilization of water resources
shall contain adequate provision for the prevention and control of diseases that may be induced
or spread by such works when required by the Council.
ARTICLE 36. When the reuse of waste water is feasible, it shall be limited as much as possible, to
such uses other than direct human consumption. No person or agency shall distribute such
water for public consumption until it is demonstrated that such consumption will not adversely
affect the health and safety of the public.
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ARTICLE 37. In the construction and operation of hydraulic works, due consideration shall be
given to the preservation of scenic places and historical relics and, in addition to the provisions
of existing laws, no works that would require the destruction or removal of such places or relics
shall be undertaken without showing that the destruction or removal is necessary and
unavoidable.
ARTICLE 38. Authority for the construction of dams, bridges and other structures across of
which may interfere with the flow of navigable or floatable waterways shall first be secured
from the Department of Public Works, Transportation and Communications.
ARTICLE 39. Except in cases of emergency to save life or property, the construction or repair of
the following works shall be undertaken only after the plans and specifications therefor, as may
be required by the Council, are approved by the proper government agency; dams for the
diversion or storage of water; structures for the use of waterpower, installations for the
utilization of subterranean or ground water and other structures for utilization of water
resources.
ARTICLE 40. No excavation for the purpose of emission of a hot spring or for the enlargement of
the existing opening thereof shall be made without prior permit.
Any person or agency who intends to develop a hot spring for human consumption must first
obtain a permit from the Department of Health.
ARTICLE 41. No person shall develop a stream, lake, or spring for recreational purposes without
first securing a permit from the Council.
ARTICLE 42. Unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Philippines and only in time of
national calamity or emergency, no person shall induce or restrain rainfall by any method such
as cloud seeding without a permit from the proper government emergency.
ARTICLE 43. No person shall raise or lower the water level of a river stream, lake, lagoon or
marsh nor drain the same without a permit.
ARTICLE 44. Drainage systems shall be so constructed that their outlets are rivers, lakes, the
sea, natural bodies of water, or such other water course as may be approved by the proper
government agency.
ARTICLE 45. When a drainage channel is constructed by a number of persons for their common
benefit, the cost of construction and maintenance of the channel shall be borne by each in
proportion to the benefits derived.
ARTICLE 46. When artificial means are employed to drain water from higher to lower land, the
owner of the higher land shall select the routes and methods of drainage that will cause the
minimum damage to the lower lands, subject to the requirements of just compensation.
ARTICLE 47. When the use, conveyance or storage of waters results in damage to another, the
person responsible for the damage shall pay compensation.
ARTICLE 48. When a water resources project interferes with the access of landowner to a
portion of his property or with the conveyance of irrigation or drainage water, the person or
agency constructing the project shall bear the cost of construction and maintenance of the
bridges, flumes and other structures necessary for maintaining access, irrigation, or drainage, in
addition to paying compensation for land and incidental damages.
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ARTICLE 49. Any person having an easement for an aqueduct may enter upon the servient land
for the purpose of cleaning, repairing or replacing the aqueduct or the removal of obstructions
therefrom.
ARTICLE 50. Lower estates are obliged to receive the waters which naturally and without the
intervention of man flow from the higher estates, as well as the stone or earth which they carry
with them.
The owner of the lower estate can not construct works which will impede this natural flow,
unless he provides an alternative method of drainage; neither can the owner of the higher estate
make works which will increase this natural flow.
ARTICLE 51. The banks of rivers and streams and the shores of the seas and lakes throughout
their entire length and within a zone of three (3) meters in urban areas, twenty (20) meters in
agricultural areas and forty (40) meters in forest areas, along their margins, are subject to the
easement of public use in the interest of recreation, navigation, floatage, fishing and salvage. No
person shall be allowed to stay in this zone longer than what is necessary for recreation,
navigation, floatage, fishing or salvage or to build structures of any kind.
ARTICLE 52. The establishment, extent, form, and conditions of easements of water not
expressly determined by the provisions of this Code shall be governed by the provisions of the
Civil Code.
CHAPTER V
Control of Waters
ARTICLE 53. To promote the best interest and the coordinated protection of flood plain lands,
the Secretary of Public Works, Transportation and Communications may declare flood control
areas and promulgate guidelines for governing flood plain management plans in these areas.
ARTICLE 54. In declared flood control areas, rules and regulations may be promulgated to
prohibit or control activities that may damage or cause deterioration of lakes and dikes,
obstruct the flow of water, change the natural flow of the river, increase flood losses or
aggravate flood problems.
ARTICLE 55. The government may construct necessary flood control structures in declared
flood control areas, and for this purpose it shall have a legal easement as wide as may be needed
along and adjacent to the river bank and outside the bed or channel of the river.
ARTICLE 56. River beds, sand bars and tidal flats may not be cultivated except upon prior
permission from the Secretary of the Department of Public Works, Transportation and
Communication and such permission shall not be granted where such cultivation obstructs the
flow of water or increase flood levels so as to cause damage to other areas.
ARTICLE 57. Any person may erect levees or revetments to protect his property from flood,
encroachment by the river or change in the course of the river, provided that such constructions
does not cause damage to the property of another.
ARTICLE 58. When a river or stream suddenly changes its course to traverse private lands, the
owners of the affected lands may not compel the government to restore the river to its former
bed; nor can they restrain the government from taking steps to revert the river or stream to its
former course. The owners of the lands thus affected are not entitled to compensation for any
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damage sustained thereby. However, the former owners of the new bed shall be the owners of
the abandoned bed in proportion to the area lost by each.
The owners of the affected lands may undertake to return the river or stream to its old bed at
their own expense; Provided, That a permit therefor is secured from the Secretary of Public
Works, Transportation and Communication and work pertaining thereto are commenced within
two years from the change in the course of the river or stream.
ARTICLE 59. Rivers, lakes and lagoons may, upon the recommendation of the Philippine Coast
Guard, be declared navigable either in whole or in part.
ARTICLE 60. The rafting of logs and other objects on rivers and lakes which are floatable may be
controlled or prohibited during designated season of the year with due regard to the needs of
irrigation and domestic water supply and other uses of water.
ARTICLE 61. The impounding of water in ponds or reservoirs may be prohibited by the Council
upon consultation with the Department of Health if it is dangerous to public health, or it may
order that such pond or reservoir be drained if such is necessary for the protection of public
health.
ARTICLE 62. Waters of a stream may be stored in a reservoir by a permittee in such amount as
will not prejudice the right of any permittee downstream. Whoever operates the reservoir shall,
when required, release water for minimum stream flow.
All reservoir operations shall be subject to rules and regulations issued by the Council or any
proper government agency.
ARTICLE 63. The operator of a dam for the storage of water may be required to employ an
engineer possessing qualifications prescribed for the proper operations, maintenance and
administration of the dam.
ARTICLE 64. The Council shall approve the manner, location, depth, and spacing in which
borings for subterranean or ground water may be made, determine the requirements for the
registration of every boring or alteration to existing borings as well as other control measures
for the exploitation of subterranean or ground water resources, and in coordination with the
Professional Regulation Commission prescribe the qualifications of those who would drill such
borings.
No person shall drill a well without prior permission from the Council.
ARTICLE 65. Water from one river basin may be transferred to another river basin only with
approval of the Council. In considering any request for such transfer, the Council shall take into
account the full costs of the transfer, the benefits that would accrue to the basin of origin
without the transfer, the benefits would accrue to the receiving basin on account of the transfer,
alternative schemes for supplying water to the receiving basin, and other relevant factors.
CHAPTER VI
Conservation and Protection of Waters and Watersheds and Related Land Resources
ARTICLE 66. After due notice and hearing when warranted by circumstances, minimum stream
flows for rivers and streams, and minimum water levels for lakes may be established by the
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Council under such conditions as may be necessary for the protection of the environment,
control of pollution, navigation, prevention of salt damage, and general public use.
ARTICLE 67. Any watershed or any area of land adjacent to any surface water or overlying any
ground water may be declared by the Department of Natural Resources as protected area. Rules
and regulations may be promulgated by such Department to prohibit or control such activities
by the owners or occupants thereof within the protected area which may damage or cause the
deterioration of the surface water or ground water or interfere with the investigation, use,
control, protection, management or administration of such waters.
ARTICLE 68. It shall be the duty of any person in control of a well to prevent the water from
flowing on the surface of the land, or into any surface water, or any porous stratum underneath
the surface without being beneficially used.
ARTICLE 69. It shall be the duty of any person in control of a well containing water with
minerals or other substances injurious to man, animals, agriculture, and vegetation to prevent
such waters from flowing on the surface of the land or into any surface water or into any other
aquifer or porous stratum.
ARTICLE 70. No person shall utilize an existing well or pond or spread waters for recharging
subterranean or ground water supplies without prior permission of the Council.
ARTICLE 71. To promote better water conservation and usage for irrigation purposes, the
merger of irrigation associations and the appropriation of waters by associations instead of by
individuals shall be encouraged.
No water permit shall be granted to an individual when his water requirement can be supplied
through an irrigation association.
ARTICLE 72. In the consideration of a proposed water resource project, due regard shall be
given to ecological changes resulting from the construction of the project in order to balance the
needs of development and the protection of the environment.
ARTICLE 73. The conservation of fish and wildlife shall receive proper consideration and shall
be coordinated with other features of water resources development programs to insure that fish
and wildlife values receive equal attention with other project purposes.
ARTICLE 74. Swamps and marshes which are owned by the State and which have primary value
for waterfowl propagation or other wildlife purposes may be reserved and protected from
drainage operation and development.
ARTICLE 75. No person shall, without prior permission from the National Pollution Control
Commission, build any works that may produce dangerous or noxious substances or perform
any act which may result in the introduction of sewage, industrial waste, or any pollutant into
any source of water supply.
Water pollution is the impairment of the quality of water beyond a certain standard. This
standard may vary according to the use of the water and shall be set by the National Pollution
Control Commission.
ARTICLE 76. The establishment of cemeteries and waste disposal areas that may affect the
source of a water supply or a reservoir for domestic or municipal use shall be subject to the
rules and regulations promulgated by the Department of Health.
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ARTICLE 77. Tailings from mining operations and sediments from placer mining shall not be
dumped into rivers and waterways without prior permission from the Council upon
recommendation by the National Pollution Control Commission.
ARTICLE 78. The application of agricultural fertilizers and pesticides may be prohibited or
regulated by the National Pollution Control Commission in the areas where such application
may cause pollution of a source of water supply.
CHAPTER VII
Administration of Waters and Enforcement of the Provisions of This Code
ARTICLE 79. The administration and enforcement of the provisions of this Code, including the
granting of permits and the imposition of penalties for administrative violations hereof, are
hereby vested in the Council, and except in regard to those functions which under this Code are
specifically conferred upon other agencies of the government, the Council is hereby empowered
to make all decisions and determinations provided for in this Code.
ARTICLE 80. The Council may deputize any official or agency of the government to perform any
of its specific functions or activities.
ARTICLE 81. The Council shall provide a continuing program for data collection, research and
manpower development needed for the appropriation, utilization, exploitation, conservation,
and protection of the water resources of the country.
ARTICLE 82. In the implementation of the provisions of this Code, the Council shall promulgate
the necessary rules and regulations which may provide for penalties consisting of a fine not
exceeding One Thousand Pesos (P1,000.00) and/or suspension or revocation of the water
permit or other right to the use of water. Violations of such rules and regulations may be
administratively dealt with by the Council.
Such rules and regulations shall take effect fifteen (15) days after publication in newspapers of
general circulation.
Rules and regulations prescribed by any government agency that pertain to the utilization,
exploitation, development, control, conservation, or protection of water resources shall, if the
Council so requires, be subject to its approval.
ARTICLE 83. The Council is hereby authorized to impose and collect reasonable fees or charges
for water resources development from water appropriators, except when it is for purely
domestic purposes.
ARTICLE 84. The Council and other agencies authorized to enforce this Code are empowered to
enter upon private lands, with previous notice to the owner, for the purpose of conducting
surveys and hydrologic investigations, and to perform such other acts as are necessary in
carrying out their functions including the power to exercise the right of eminent domain.
ARTICLE 85. No program or project involving the appropriation, utilization, exploitation,

development, control, conservation, or protection of water resources may be undertaken
without prior approval of the Council, except those which the Council may, in its discretion,
exempt.
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The Council may require consultation with the public prior to the implementation of certain
water resources development projects.
ARTICLE 86. When plans and specifications of a hydraulic structure are submitted for approval,
the government agency whose functions embrace the type of project for which the structure is
intended, shall review the plans and specifications and recommend to the Council proper action
thereon and the latter shall approve the same only when they are in conformity with the
requirements of this Code and the rules and regulations promulgated by the Council.
Notwithstanding such approval, neither the engineer who drew up the plans and specifications
of the hydraulic structure, nor the constructor who built it, shall be relieved of his liability for
damages in case of failure thereof by reason of defect in plans and specifications, or failure due
to defect in construction, within ten (10) years from the completion of the structure.
Any action to recover such damages must be brought within five (5) years following such
failure.
ARTICLE 87. The Council or its duly authorized representatives, in the exercise of its power to
investigate and decide cases brought to its cognizance, shall have the power to administer oaths,
compel the attendance of witnesses by subpoena and the production of relevant documents by
subpoena duces tecum.
Non-compliance or violation of such orders or subpoena and subpoena duces tecum shall be
punished in the same manner as indirect contempt of an inferior court upon application by the
aggrieved party with the proper Court of First Instance in accordance with the provisions of
Rule 71 of the Rules of Court.
ARTICLE 88. The Council shall have original jurisdiction over all disputes relating to
appropriation, utilization, exploitation, development, control, conservation and protection of
waters within the meaning and context of the provisions of this Code.
The decisions of the Council on water rights controversies shall be immediately executory and
the enforcement thereof may be suspended only when a bond, in an amount fixed by the Council
to answer for damages occasioned by the suspension or stay of execution, shall have been filed
by the appealing party, unless the suspension is by virtue of an order of a competent court.
All disputes shall be decided within sixty (60) days after the parties submit the same for
decision or resolution.
The Council shall have the power to issue writs of execution and enforce its decisions with the
assistance of local or national police agencies.
ARTICLE 89. The decisions of the Council on water rights controversies may be appealed to the
Court of First Instance of the province where the subject matter of the controversy is situated
within fifteen (15) days from the date the party appealing receives a copy of the decision, on any
of the following grounds: (1) grave abuse of discretion; (2) question of law; and (3) questions of
fact and law.
CHAPTER VIII
Penal Provisions
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ARTICLE 90. The following acts shall be penalized by suspension or revocation of the violator’s
water permit or other right to the use of water and/or a fine of not exceeding One Thousand
Pesos (P1,000.00), in the discretion of the Council:
a. Appropriation of subterranean or ground water for domestic use by an overlying landowner

without registration required by the Council.
b. Non-observance of any standard of beneficial use of water.
c. Failure of the appropriator to keep a record of water withdrawal, when required.
d. Failure to comply with any of the terms or conditions in a water permit or a water rights
grant.
e. Unauthorized use of water for a purpose other than that for which a right or permit was
granted.
f. Construction or repair of any hydraulic work or structure without duly approved plans and
specifications, when required.
g. Failure to install a regulating and measuring device for the control of the volume of water
appropriated, when required.
h. Unauthorized sale, lease, or transfer of water and/or water rights.
i. Failure to provide adequate facilities to prevent or control diseases when required by the
Council in the construction of any work for the storage, diversion, distribution and utilization of
water.
j. Drilling of a well without permission of the Council.
k. Utilization of an existing well or ponding or spreading of water for recharging subterranean

or ground water supplies without permission of the Council.
l. Violation of or non-compliance with any order, rules, or regulations of the Council.
m. Illegal taking or diversion of water in an open canal, aqueduct or reservoir.
n. Malicious destruction of hydraulic works or structures valued at not exceeding P5,000.00.
ARTICLE 91. A. A fine of not exceeding Three Thousand Pesos (P3,000.00) or imprisonment for
not more than three (3) years, or both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the
Court, shall be imposed upon any person who commits any of the following acts:
1. Appropriation of water without a water permit, unless such person is expressly exempted
from securing a permit by the provisions of this Code.
2. Unauthorized obstruction of an irrigation canal.
3. Cultivation of a river bed, sand bar or tidal flat without permission.
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4. Malicious destruction of hydraulic works or structure valued at not exceeding Twenty-Five

Thousand Pesos (P25,000.00).
B. A fine exceeding Three Thousand Pesos (P3,000.00) but not more than Six Thousand Pesos
(P6,000.00) or imprisonment exceeding three (3) years but not more than six (6) years, or both
such fine and imprisonment in the discretion of the Court, shall be imposed on any person who
commits any of the following acts:
1. Distribution for public consumption of water which adversely affects the health and safety of
the public.
2. Excavation or enlargement of the opening of a hot spring without permission.
3. Unauthorized obstruction of a river or waterway, or occupancy of a river bank or seashore

without permission.
4. Establishment of a cemetery or a waste disposal area near a source of water supply or

reservoir for domestic municipal use without permission.
5. Constructing, without prior permission of the government agency concerned, works that
produce dangerous or noxious substances, or performing acts that result in the introduction of
sewage, industrial waste, or any substance that pollutes a source of water supply.
6. Dumping mine tailings and sediments into rivers or waterways without permission.
7. Malicious destruction of hydraulic works or structure valued at more than Twenty-Five

Thousand Pesos (P25,000.00) but not exceeding One Hundred Thousand Pesos (P100,000.00).
C. A fine exceeding Six Thousand Pesos (P6,000.00) but not more than Ten Thousand Pesos
(P10,000.00) or imprisonment exceeding six (6) years but not more than twelve (12) years, or
both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the Court, shall be imposed upon any
person who commits any of the following acts:
1. Misrepresentation of citizenship in order to qualify for water permit.
2. Malicious destruction of hydraulic works or structure, valued at more than One Hundred
Thousand Pesos (P100,000.00).
ARTICLE 92. If the offense is committed by a corporation, trust, firm, partnership, association or
any other juridical person, the penalty shall be imposed upon the President, General Manager,
and other guilty officer or officers of such corporation, trust, firm, partnership, association or
entity, without prejudice to the filing of a civil action against said juridical person. If the offender
is an alien, he shall be deported after serving his sentence, without further proceedings.
After final judgment of conviction, the Court upon petition of the prosecution attorney in the
same proceedings, and after due hearing, may, when the public interest so requires, order the
suspension or dissolution of such corporation, trust, firm, partnership, association or juridical
person.
ARTICLE 93. All actions for offenses punishable under Article 91 of this Code shall be brought
before the proper court.
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ARTICLE 94. Actions for offenses punishable under this Code by a fine of not more than Three
Thousand Pesos (P3,000.00) or by an imprisonment of not more than three (3) years, or both
such fine and imprisonment, shall prescribe in five (5) years; those punishable by a fine
exceeding Three Thousand Pesos (P3,000.00) but not more than Six Thousand Pesos
(P6,000.00) or an imprisonment exceeding three (3) years but not more than six (6) years, or
both such fine and imprisonment, shall prescribe in seven (7) years; and those punishable by a
fine exceeding Six Thousand Pesos (P6,000.00) but not more than Ten Thousand Pesos
(P10,000.00) or an imprisonment exceeding six (6) years but not more than twelve (12) years,
or both such fine and imprisonment, shall prescribe in ten (10) years.
CHAPTER IX
Transitory and Final Provisions
ARTICLE 95. Within two (2) years from the promulgation of this Code, all claims for a right to
use water existing on or before December 31, 1974 shall be registered with the Council which
shall confirm said rights in accordance with the provisions of this Code, and shall set their
respective priorities.
When priority in time of appropriation from a certain source of supply cannot be determined,
the order of preference in the use of the waters shall be as follows:
a. Domestic and municipal use
b. Irrigation
c. Power generation
d. Fisheries
e. Livestock raising
f. Industrial use, and
g. Other uses.
Any claim not registered within said period shall be considered waived and the use of the water
deemed abandoned, and the water shall thereupon be available for disposition as
unappropriated waters in accordance with the provisions of this Code.
ARTICLE 96. No vested or acquired right to the use of water can arise from acts or omissions
which are against the law or which infringe upon the rights of others.
ARTICLE 97. Acts and contracts under the regime of old laws, if they are valid in accordance
therewith, shall be respected, subject to the limitations established in this Code. Any
modification or extension of these acts and contracts after the promulgation of this Code, shall
be subject to the provisions hereof.
ARTICLE 98. Interim rules and regulations promulgated by the Council shall continue to have
binding force and effect, when not in conflict with the provisions of this Code.
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ARTICLE 99. If any provision or part of this Code, or the application thereof to any person or
circumstance, is declared unconstitutional or invalid for any reason, the other provisions or
parts therein shall not be affected.
ARTICLE 100. The following laws, parts and/or provisions of laws are hereby repealed:
a. The provisions of the Spanish Law on Waters of August 3, 1866, the Civil Code of Spain of
1889 and the Civil Code of the Philippines (R.A. 386) on ownership of waters, easements
relating to waters, use of public waters and acquisitive prescription on the use of waters, which
are inconsistent with the provisions of this Code;
b. The provisions of R.A. 6395, otherwise known as the Revised Charter of National Power
Corporation, particularly section 3, paragraph (f), and section 12, insofar as they relate to the
appropriation of waters and the grant thereof;
c. The provisions of Act No. 2152, as amended, otherwise known as the Irrigation Act, section 3,
paragraphs (k) and (m) of P.D. No. 813, R.A. 2056; Section 90, C.A. 137; and,
d. All decrees, laws, acts, parts of acts, Rules of Court, executive orders, and administrative
regulations which are contrary to or inconsistent with the provisions of this Code.
*Self-Help! You can also refer to the sources below to

help you further understand the lesson:
- Lopez, S. (2017). Water Resources Engineering (1st Ed.)

- https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1976/12/31/presidential-decree-no-1067-s-1976/
- https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-cycle?qt-
science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
- https://www.greenpeace.org/static/planet4-philippines-stateless/2019/05/11e8551c-
11e8551c-the-state-of-water-in-the-phil.pdf
Let’s Check!
Activity 1. In the space provided, write the correct answer being asked in the following
statements:
_________________ 1. What presidential decree is the water code of the Philippines?
_________________ 2. The flow of water occurring on the ground surface when excess rainwater,
stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil.
_________________ 3. Any of the entire range of natural waters that occur on the Earth, regardless of
their state (i.e., vapor, liquid, or solid), is of potential use to humans.
_________________ 4. What is the penalty for non-observance of any standard of beneficial use of
water?
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_________________ 5. In the Philippines, ________ as a whole is the greatest consumer of water.
_________________ 6. What is the penalty for misrepresentation of citizenship in order to qualify for
water permit?
_________________ 7. What is the penalty for unauthorized obstruction of a river or waterway, or

occupancy of a river bank or seashore without permission?
_________________ 8. It involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-Atmosphere

system.
_________________ 9. Is a rapidly growing concern around the globe, but little is known about how
it has developed over time.
_________________ 10. What is the penalty for unauthorized obstruction of an irrigation canal?
Let’s Analyze!
Activity 1. Create an essay at least 200 words per topic about the present problems on water
resources given below. Also cite the references to avoid plagiarism.
1. Does the Water Code of the Philippines help our country to resist the problems on
water resources? How? In what way?
2. How can you help to minimize the scarcity of water in our country?
3. How climate change affects the supply of potable water in the Philippines?
4. Discuss your forecast about our water resources in the Philippines by the year 2031 or
ten years from now.
In A Nutshell!
Activity 1. Create a Tiktok Video discussing the steps/ways in helping conserve and preserve
water at your home. Maximum of 1 minute. Submit your work in Google drive that provided by
your instructor.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b. Evaluate the peak runoff estimation
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PEAK RUNOFF ESTIMATION
The process in which rainfall accumulates on the ground and runs toward streams and rivers is
complicated. One of the key parameters in the design and analysis of soil and water
conservation structures is the resulting peak runoff or runoff variations with time (hydrograph)
at the watershed outlet. The runoff generates from rainfall excess drains through the channels of
a different order and finally reaches the watershed outlet. The flow at the outlet starts with
minimum flow called base flow (sometimes its value is zero) and attains the maximum flow
after some time and then recedes to base flow again. This time variation of flow is called
hydrograph. The maximum flow at the outlet thus attained is called peak flow of runoff. This
peak flow also includes base flow which should be separated to obtain net peak flow due to
rainfall excess. In many instances, however, measurement of runoff is not possible, and
therefore, it is estimated through different hydrologic models/methods.
TIME OF CONCENTRATION
When the size of the drainage basin has been determined, the next step in finding Q is to
compute the time of concentration, tc. Time of concentration is a measure of the time needed for
runoff to flow from the upper end of the watershed to the lower end, or point of analysis. Time
of concentration is an essential parameter in finding peak runoff, Q. If runoff takes a long time to
reach the point of analysis, the resulting peak flow will be lower than it would be if the runoff
takes a short time. So, if two watersheds have the same area and ground cover, but different
shapes so that they have different times of concentration, then for identical rainfall they will
have different peak Q’s at their respective points of analysis. There are a number of methods for
calculating the time of concentration. The following provides an overview of Kirpich’s Formula
and Kraven’s Formula. FCSEC (2010) recommends the use of Kirpich’s Formula over Kraven’s
Formula.
Kirpich’s Formula
Kirpich’s formula is applicable for agricultural catchments.
Kraven’s Formula
This methodology divides the time of concentration into an inlet time and a flow time. It is
applicable for rural catchments.
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Time of Concentration – Urban Catchments
For Urban Catchments, the minimum time of concentration should be no less than 5 minutes.
One method of calculating the time of concentration for urban catchments is to divide the time
of concentration into three components:
The total time of concentration then represents the addition of each of these values.
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Example 1: Determine the time of concentration of the agricultural catchments whose length is
1500 m and the difference of elevation between the inlet and outlet point is 100m.
Solution: Use Kirpich Method
L = 1500 m, S = H/L = 120 m/1500 m = 0.08
0.019(1500)0.77
t c=
(0.08)0.385
t c =14.02 minutes
Example 2: Determine the time of concentration of the rural catchments whose length of the
river 3000 m, area of catchment is 1.5 km2 and the difference of elevation between the inlet and
outlet point is 100m.
Solution: Use Kraven’s Method
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A = 1.5 km2
30 √1.5
t i=
√2
t i=25.98 minutes
L
tf =
V
L = 3000 m
V = Based on Riverbed Gradient on Table 3-2.
H 120 m 1 1
Sb = = = > ( steep slope ) ,V =3.5 m/s
L 3000 m 25 100
3000 m
tf =
3.5 m/s
t f =857.143 seconds∨14.28 minutes

t c =t i+t f
t c =25.98 minutes+14.28 minutes=40.26 minutes
Example 3: Determine the time of concentration of the urban catchments whose length of the
overland flow is 100 m, curb and gutter flow length of 750 m and drain flow length of 1250 m.
Other data are given below:
 Slope for overland flow surface = 4.2%
 Longitudinal slope of gutter = 6%
 Friction slope = 1/1000
 The land surface for overland and curb and gutter flow is paved while in the drain flow is
averaged grass.
 Cross-section of the river.
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Solution: Use Urban Catchments Method
t c =t o+ t g +t d
107 n L1/ 3
t o=
S1 /5
n = 0.015 (paved land surface)
L = 100 m
S = 4.2%
107(0.015)(100)1/ 3
t o= 1/ 5
(4.2)
t o=5.59 minutes
L
t g=
40 √ S
L = 750 m
S = 6%
(750)
t g=
40 √6
t g=7.65 minutes
nL
t d= 2 /3 1/ 2
60 R S
n = 0.045
L = 1250 m
R = Area of the cross-section/Wetted Perimeter = 3.6 m2/5.083m = 0.708 m
S = 1/1000
(0.045)(1250)
t d= 1 /2
1
60(0.708)2 /3 ( )
1000
t d=37.321minutes
t c =t o+ t g +t d
t c =5.59 mins+7.65 mins+ 37.321mins=50.531 minutes
RATIONAL METHOD
Many methods to compute runoff have been developed over the years, and the first and most
enduring of these is the Rational Method. Most methods are based on empirical relationships
among drainage area, time of concentration, rainfall, and other factors. However, the Rational
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Method, introduced in England in 1889, has its genesis in pure reasoning, from which it received
its name.
The Rational Method is used to compute the peak runoff, Qp, following a rainfall event. It makes
no attempt to estimate runoff before or after the peak but simply estimates the one quantity of
flow that is greatest. Originally, the Rational Method formula for peak runoff was given as.
Q p= Ai
Where: Q p= peak runoff
A=drainage area
i=average rainfall intensity
This was based on a completely impervious drainage basin in which all rainfall is converted to
runoff. Later, a proportionality factor, c, called the runoff coefficient, was added in an attempt to
account for infiltration into the ground and for evapotranspiration. So the formula became
Q p=CiA
where c is the dimensionless runoff coefficient. Values of c vary between 0.0 and 1.0.
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The Rational method is appropriate for estimating peak discharges for small drainage areas of
up to about 200 acres (80 hectares) with no significant flood storage. The method provides the
designer with a peak discharge value, but does not provide a time series of flow nor flow
volume.
Assumption and Limitation for Rational Method
Use of the rational method includes the following assumptions and limitations:
 The method is applicable if tc for the drainage area is less than the duration of peak
rainfall intensity.
 The calculated runoff is directly proportional to the rainfall intensity.
 Rainfall intensity is uniform throughout the duration of the storm.
 The frequency of occurrence for the peak discharge is the same as the frequency of
the rainfall producing that event.
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 Rainfall is distributed uniformly over the drainage area.

 The minimum duration to be used for computation of rainfall intensity is 10
minutes. If the time of concentration computed for the drainage area is less than 10
minutes, then 10 minutes should be adopted for rainfall intensity computations.
 The rational method does not account for storage in the drainage area. Available
storage is assumed to be filled.
The above assumptions and limitations are the reason the rational method is limited to
watersheds 200 acres or smaller. If any one of these conditions is not true for the watershed of
interest, the designer should use an alternative method.
Rainfall Intensity
The rainfall intensity (I) is the average rainfall rate for a specific rainfall duration and a selected
frequency. The duration is assumed to be equal to the time of concentration. Also, you can
compute by using IDF (intensity duration frequency) curve.
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b
I=
(t c + d)e
Where:
I =rainfall intensity
t c =time of concentration
e ,b , d=coefficients based on IDF data
Example 4: Compute the peak runoff, Qp using the Rational Method given the following
parameters and use minimum runoff coefficients:
- Drainage Area = 80 hectares

Paved Areas = 50 hectares
Grass Areas = 30 hectares
IDF Data Coefficients

e = 0.15, b = 20.4, d = 2.7
Time of Concentration
Overland Flow:
 Length = 100 m
 The land surface for overland is paved
Curb and gutter flow:

 Length =750 m
 The land surface for curb and gutter flow is paved
Drain flow:
 Length = 1250 m
 The land surface for drain flow is averaged grass.
Solution: Use Urban Catchments Method
t c =t o+ t g +t d
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107 n L1/ 3
t o=
S1 /5
n = 0.015 (paved land surface)
L = 100 m
S = 4.2%
1/ 3
107(0.015)(100)
t o= 1/ 5
(4.2)
t o=5.59 minutes
L
t g=
40 √ S
L = 750 m
S = 6%
(750)
t g=
40 √6
t g=7.65 minutes
nL
t d= 2 /3 1/ 2
60 R S
n = 0.045
L = 1250 m
R = Area of the cross-section/Wetted Perimeter = 3.6 m2/5.083m = 0.708 m
S = 1/1000
(0.045)(1250)
t d= 1 /2
2 /3 1
60(0.708) ( )
1000
t d=37.321minutes
t c =t o+ t g +t d
t c =5.59 mins+7.65 mins+ 37.321mins=50.531 minutes
Solve for I.
b
I= e
(t c + d)
20.4
I=
(50.531+2.7)0.15
I =11.24 mm /hr
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Solve for cave.
c for paved areas = 0.90

c for grass areas = 0.50
C paved ( A paved ) +C grass ( A grass )

C ave =
A total
(0.90) ( 50 )+(0.50) (30 )

C ave =
80
C ave =0.75
Solve for Qp
Q p=CiA
2
mm 1 hr 1m m
Q p=(0.75)(11.24 x x )(80 hectare x 10,000 )
hr 3600 sec 1000 mm hectare
3
m
Q p=1.873
s
NRCS METHOD
The NRCS Method is a procedure for computing a synthetic runoff hydrograph based on
empirically determined factors developed by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS). Originally
called the SCS Method, it is now named for the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS),
which is descended from the SCS. The method was first developed by SCS in the 1950s and
published as part of the SCS National Engineering Handbook. After undergoing several
revisions, the method was formulated as a design manual, Urban Hydrology for Small
Watersheds, Technical Release 55, also known as TR-55. The manual underwent major
revisions in 1986. As a design manual, TR-55 contains charts and graphs that allow the user to
compute peak runoff and runoff hydrographs for watersheds located within the United States.
In 2002, TR-55 was replaced by WinTR-55, which is a software version of the paper manual.
WinTR-55 is designed to be used interactively on a PC and has eliminated the charts and graphs
of the paper version.
The NRCS Method is widely used in the design of hydraulic structures such as culverts,
detention basins, stream relocation, and large drainage ditches. These structures generally have
tributary drainage areas ranging from a few acres to about 25 square miles. For drainage areas
larger than a few square miles, the validity of the NRCS Method, or of any synthetic hydrograph
method, diminishes because the variety of basin characteristics becomes too diverse and
because the rainfall pattern might not cover the entire drainage area.
NRCS Computations
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To compute a runoff hydrograph (or only the peak runoff) using the NRCS Method, first
determine the design storm frequency. This usually depends on the size of the structure to be
designed. Next, follow the five steps described below. The steps shown here are based on the
charts and graphs of TR-55 (1986), but use of WinTR-55 is similar.
Step 1. Delineate and measure the drainage area tributary to the point of analysis. This is done
in the same manner as for the Rational Method.
Step 2. Determine the cover number, CN, for the watershed. If the watershed consists of a
variety of CNs, which is nearly always the case, compute a composite CN, which is a weighted
average of the individual CN values. A table of CN values is shown in Appendix D. In computing
CN, first determine the “hydrologic soil group” that describes the soils in the drainage basin.
Generally, this is done by use of an NRCS Soil Survey of the local region, usually the county
within which the drainage area is situated. Each soil type is assigned a hydrologic soil group of
A, B, C, or D, depending on its characteristics of infiltration and antecedent moisture condition.
Hydrologic soil group A represents the highest rate of infiltration (sandy soil), while D
represents the lowest rate (clay soil or rock outcrops). A list of selected soil types together with
their respective hydrologic soil group designation is shown in Appendix D-2. These should be
referred to in computing runoff by the NRCS Method.
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Example 5: A 400-acre drainage basin contains the following soils:
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Solution:
Use hydrologic soil group B, since it predominates. Next, determine CN for each cover condition,
Example 6: A 250-acre drainage basin contains the following soils:
Solution:
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Step 3. Determine the rainfall excess, measured in inches. It is the amount of rainfall available
for runoff after subtracting initial losses and infiltration and is computed from the following
empirical formula:
Note: The symbol Q is used for runoff depth in inches to be consistent with symbols used in TR-
55. Be sure not to confuse this parameter with Q used for runoff rate in the Rational Method.
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Example 7: Find the runoff depth, Q, for a drainage basin with CN of 78 using the NRCS Method.
Design rainfall is 6.5 inches.
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Step 4. Compute time of concentration.
Note: The term s is used to denote the slope of the ground for computation of overland flow and
shallow concentrated flow. This should not be confused with the term for slope of the EGL in
open channel flow.
The maximum value of L, based on NRCS research, is 100 feet. After this distance has been
reached, sheet flow usually becomes shallow concentrated flow. If overland flow encounters a
swale before reaching a distance of 100 feet, then flow type changes to shallow concentrated
flow at that point.
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Example 8: Find the overland travel time Tt for the drainage basin shown in Figure 11-10,
located in St. Louis, Missouri.
Assume Two Year, 24 hour rainfall map, precipitation P2. P2 = 3.5 inches.
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Step 5. Compute the hydrograph or the peak runoff.
Unit peak discharge, qu, is another empirical parameter that depends on rainfall pattern, time of
concentration, rainfall, and initial losses.
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1. Gribbin, J. E. (2014). Introduction to hydraulics and hydrology with applications

for storm water management (4th Ed.). Albany, N.Y.: Delmar; Andover: Cengage
Learning [distributor]
2. DPWH (2015). Design, Guidelines, Criteria and Standards. Volume 3
3. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1044171.pdf
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Let’s Check!
statements:
_______________1. is a procedure for computing a synthetic runoff hydrograph based on

empirically determined factors developed by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS).
_______________2. is a measure of the time needed for runoff to flow from the upper end of the
watershed to the lower end, or point of analysis.
_______________3. is used to compute the peak runoff, Qp, following a rainfall event.
_______________4. If the inlet catchment area is greater than 2 km 2, the inlet time should be _____.
_______________5. For Urban Catchments, the minimum time of concentration should be no less
than _________.
_______________6. What is the minimum runoff coefficient for concrete or asphalt pavement?
_______________7. is the average rainfall rate for a specific rainfall duration and a selected
frequency.
_______________8. This methodology divides the time of concentration into an inlet time and a flow
time. It is applicable for rural catchments.
_______________9. The Rational method is appropriate for estimating peak discharges for small
drainage areas of up to about _______ with no significant flood storage.
_______________10. What “CN” stands for?
Let’s Analyze!
Activity 1. Answer the following problems below. Write your solutions neatly and submit in
PDF Form.
1. Compute the peak runoff, Qp using the Rational Method given the following parameters
and use minimum runoff coefficients:
Drainage Area = 120 hectares

Rocky Surface Areas = 70 hectares
Farmland Areas = 50 hectares
IDF Data Coefficients

e = 0.22, b = 25.6, d = 3.2
Time of Concentration
Overland Flow:
 Length = 100 m
 The land surface for overland is bare soil.
Curb and gutter flow:

 Length =800 m
 The land surface for curb and gutter flow is poor grass.
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Drain flow:
 Length = 1450 m
 The land surface for drain flow is averaged grass.
(Add 0.Last two digit of your id number to 1.20 meters)
(Add 0.First two digit of your id number to 2.40 meters)
2. Determine the time of concentration of the rural catchments whose length of the river
4000 m, area of catchment is 1.67 km2 and the difference of elevation between the inlet
and outlet point is 150m.
3. Find the runoff depth, Q, for a drainage basin with CN of 70 using the NRCS Method.
Design rainfall is 5.0 inches.
4. Find the overland travel time Tt for the drainage basin data.
L = 90 ft
Outlet Elevation = 110 ft
Inlet Elevation = 170 ft
n = 0.015
P2 = 2.2 inches
5. From problem 4, CN = 56 and Drainage area is 1.5 mi 2. Determine the peak runoff.
In a Nutshell!
Activity 1. Find your area on google map. Delineate the watershed of your respective site. Find
the river of your watershed and solve the time of concentration. Get a hydrograph from
PAGASA and solve the peak runoff using Rational Method of your area. Submit the delineated
watershed, cross-section of the river, surface of the river, hydrograph, and solutions in PDF
Form.
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Big Picture
a. Understand the different types of pump and pipeline systems and its
function.
b. Evaluate the design of drainage channels according to DPWH standards.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2a. Understand the different types of pump and
pipeline systems and its function.
Metalanguage
Pump A pump is a mechanical device used to force a fluid (a liquid

or a gas) to move forward inside a pipeline or hose.
Pipe A tube of metal, plastic, or other material used to convey
water, gas, oil, or other fluid substances.
Pipe System A piping system is a network of pipes, fittings and valves
intended to perform a specific job i.e. to carry or transfer
fluids from one equipment to another.
Friction The resistance that one surface or object encounters when
moving over another.
Head Loss Refers to a measurement of the energy dissipated in a fluid
system due to friction along the length of a pipe or
hydraulic system, and those due to fittings, valves and
other system structures
Bends shape or force (something straight) into a curve or angle.
Valves A device for controlling the passage of fluid or air through a
pipe, duct, etc., especially an automatic device allowing
movement in one direction only.
Connection The connecting pipelines that are used to transport
working fluids by the action of a pressure differential.
Power Means piping systems and their component parts, that are
not building services piping systems, and that may be
installed within electric power generating stations,
industrial and institutional plants, utility geothermal
heating systems, and central and district heating and
cooling systems.
Channel Is defined as a piping system open to the atmosphere and
used to transport fluids in which it is displaced by its own
weight and the slope of the structure.
Shear Stress Refers to a type of shear which makes the shearing
surfaces to glide toward each other in opposite directions.
Hydraulic Section Ratio between cross-sectional area of pipe or channel and
wetted perimeter.
Channel Slope Means longitudinal stream bed profile or the vertical drop
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of the stream bed from upstream to downstream in

relationship to adjacent floodplain features.
Freeboard Refers to the vertical distance between either the top of
the channel or the top of the channel lining and the water
surface.
Rigid Linings Are non-erosive structures or surfaces placed in a channel
or ditch that may be used to prevent erosion resulting from
high velocities of water.
Flexible Linings provide a means of stabilizing roadside channels.
Essential Knowledge
The function of a water distribution system is to deliver water to all customers of the
system in sufficient quantity for potable drinking water and fire protection purposes, at the
appropriate pressure, with minimal loss, of safe and acceptable quality, and as economically
as possible. A water-distribution pipe is located inside a building and delivers
potable water to the fixtures. The supply system delivering water from the potable source to
the building is the "water service" pipe. The water distribution system includes normally both
hot and cold water.
A drainage system is accountable for getting rid of the surplus water either on the floor's
surface or the root area of any property. It is also possible for surplus water to accumulate from
the rainwater or the usage of an excessive amount of irrigation water. This is the most
important use of a good drainage system; it allows the free flow of water and in most cases
prevents accumulation that can lead to flooding. Drainage systems also prevent the
accumulation of stagnant water, which can encourage mosquitoes to breed. Accumulated water
over time can lead to soil degradation which brings about a muddy ground surface which in
turn will result in soil erosion. But with an effective drainage system you don’t have to worry
about the washing away of your garden’s top soil and help maintain the balanced moisture too.
MANOMETRIC HEAD
Total manometric head is the difference in pressure (in metres) between the pump’s inlet and
outlet points. This value is always higher than the actual difference in elevation between these
two points; when pumping is going on, the pump needs also to overcome friction losses
occurring as the water flows through the intake and outlet pipes.
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HEAD LOSS DUE TO FRICTION
In fluid flow, friction loss (or skin friction) is the loss of pressure or “head” that occurs in pipe
or duct flow due to the effect of the fluid's viscosity near the surface of the pipe or duct. By
Darcy-Weisbach equation, we can solve the head loss due to friction.
2
fL V
hl =
2 gD
Where: L = length of the pipe

f = friction factor
V = velocity of the fluid
D = diameter of the pipe
g = gravitational acceleration
Value of f:
For Laminar flow
64
f=
Re
Reynold’s Number, Re
For Turbulent flow
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Example 9: Oil having specific gravity of 0.869 and dynamic viscosity of 0.0814 Pa-s flows
through cast iron pipe at a velocity of 1 m/s. The pipe is 50 meter long and 150 mm in diameter.
Find the head lost due to friction.
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Solution:
vDρ
Re =
μ
(1)(0.15)(1000 x 0.869)
Re =
(0.0814)
Re =1,601>2,000(laminar flow)
64
f=
Re
64
f=
1601
f =0.04
2
fL V
hl =
2 gD
(0.04)(50)(1)2
hl =
2( 9.81)(0.15)
hl =0.68 m
HEAD LOSS DUE TO CONNECTIONS, BENDS AND VALVES
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PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
Pumps are devices that impart energy to a fluid thereby raising its hydraulic head. Pumps are in
many different types. Centrifugal pumps are popular in piped water supply systems. In a water
distribution system (WDS), they could be required in a number of situations including:
 Where the elevation of the source is such that the water will not flow by gravity;
 Where the pressure in water mains needs to be increased; or
 Where water must be raised from one level to another.
The initial cost of a pump is high and its operation is expensive as it runs on either fuel or
electricity. The selection of a pump should be carefully done to ensure that it operates efficiently
in order to save cost and also prolong its life.
To select a pump that will suit a Water Distribution System, one would have to know the
following:
 The total head or pressure against which it must operate

 The desired flow rate
 The suction lift
 Characteristics of the fluid
 Pump curve & Pump efficiency curve
A Pump Curve represents the relationship between the head and flow rate that a pump can
deliver at its nominal speed setting. An Efficiency Curve determines pump efficiency as a
function of pump flow rate. Efficiency should represent wire-to-water efficiency which takes
into account mechanical losses in the pump itself as well as electrical losses in the pump's
motor. The curve is used only for energy calculations. This is obtainable from a prospective
supplier. Having known these, selecting a proper pump is achieved by superimposing the
system curve on the pump curve and ensuring that the operating points are within the good
hydraulic performance range.
Many different types of pumps can be used with the selection depending on the work that needs
to be done. One type would be used for transferring water from a well to a tower; another
would be better suited for pumping sludge containing a lime byproduct from a softening plant;
still another would be used for feeding a chemical into the water for treatment. Among the
considerations in selecting a pump are the maximum flow needed in gallons per minute (gpm),
the head it needs to pump against, and the accuracy needed for flow control.
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POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
The positive displacement pump is commonly used to feed chemicals into the water or to move
heavy suspension, such as sludge. One type of positive displacement pump consists of a piston
that moves in a back and forth motion within a cylinder. It is used primarily to move material
that has large amounts of suspended material, such as sludges. The cylinder will have check
valves that operate opposite to each other, depending on the motion of the piston. One check
will be located on the suction side of the piston and will open as the piston moves back, creating
a larger cylinder area. After the piston has reached the longest stroke position, the motion of the
piston will reverse. This action will open the discharge check valve and close the suction check.
The contents of the piston are then discharged to discharge piping. After the discharge, the
motion of the piston will reverse and the suction stroke will begin. This action will take place as
long as power is applied to the pump. Sticks and stones and other material can become lodged
in the check valves of a piston pump, reducing the pump’s rate or stopping it completely. When
this happens, the check covers must be taken off and the material removed. GREAT CAUTION
SHOULD BE EXERCISED WHEN REMOVING THE COVERS SINCE PRESSURE MAY HAVE BUILT
UP IN THE CHAMBER.
Another type of positive displacement pump used in the water industry is the diaphragm pump.
This pump operates the same way as the piston pump except that, in place of a piston that
moves in a cylinder, a flexible diaphragm moves back and forth in a closed area. The check
valves operate in the same fashion as they feed or move liquid in the pump. This type of pump is
used when high accuracy is required. Most of these pumps are operated by the use of a solenoid
that will pulse a set number of times per minute. This pulsing, which is termed frequency, is
variable and can be set by the operator or by a control signal. The length of the stroke can also
be adjusted in order to vary the size of chamber that fills with liquid. Larger diaphragm pumps
may be operated by mechanical means in a fashion similar to the piston pump. The biggest
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difference is the replacement of the piston with a flexible diaphragm. The diaphragm is attached
to a metal rod that is operated by an eccentric cam driven by an electric motor.
Large diaphragm pumps--used to move sludge or other liquids that contain large amounts of
suspended materials--may be driven hydraulically with either oil or air used as the driving
force. The material to be pumped will be on one side of the diaphragm with the air or oil on the
opposite side. The problem with using this type of pump is that the driving material and the
liquid could mix if the diaphragm ruptured.
Another drawback of the diaphragm pump is the pulsing action that the diaphragm imparts to
the pumped material. This can often be overcome by the use of air chambers on the discharge
side of the pump. One more disadvantage is that, if the pump is running slowly and discharging
directly into a flow line, the chemical may not be mixed into the water. The reason being that
water is running continuously at the injection point, but the chemical is added in pulses.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Because it delivers a constant flow of water at a constant pressure for any given set of
conditions, the centrifugal pump is ideal for delivering water to customers. Most well pumps are
centrifugal pumps. They are ideal for use in the distribution system since they do not produce
pulsating surges of flow and pressure.
This pump operates on the theory of centrifugal force. As the impeller rotates in the pump case,
it tends to push water away from the center of the rotation. As the water is pushed away from
the center of the impeller, additional water is pulled into the eye, or center, of the impeller. The
water that has been pushed to the outside of the impeller is removed from the pump through
the discharge piping. This water will have a pressure that is determined by the pitch of the
impeller and the speed at which the impeller is turning. There are many types of centrifugal
pumps, but they all have major parts in common.
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Pump Case - The pump case or volute is designed to allow the liquid being pumped to move to
the center of the impeller as well as to allow the water to be removed from the pump through
the discharge. The case, which fits closely around the impeller on all but the discharge side, is
made of cast iron or brass. If the liquid is abrasive or corrosive, other materials, such as a rubber
lining, may be used.
Impellers - The impeller generates the centrifugal force that moves the liquid. Variations in the
impeller are based on whether a particular application calls for large quantities of water, high
pressure, or both. The design of the impeller is important to the development of pressure and
flow.
Impellers in centrifugal pumps can be classified by size, type, and speed. There are three types
of impellers for centrifugal pumps:
Open Impeller - An open impeller has its vanes exposed on the bottom side, a design that allows
the pump to move liquids that contain large solids. Open impellers are used in propeller pumps
in which the head is low (usually less than 20 feet) and the volume of water pumped is high. The
rate of flow can easily be set by adjusting the clearance of the bottom of the impeller to the
pump casing. The larger the clearance is, the less will be pumped.
Semi-Open Impeller - This design contains many of the same characteristics of the open
impeller. The semi-open impeller has a shroud, or cover, on one side. It is used to pump liquids
that contain medium-size solids.
Closed Impeller - This is the impeller of choice in most pump designs and is used in cases where
the liquid being pumped has few solids since it will pump the liquid with less wasted energy.
With this design, there is a cover on both sides of the impeller with the vanes completely
enclosed. The eye of the impeller is surrounded by a skirt, which fits into a recess in the pump
casing and ensures that the water from the discharge side of the impeller does not recirculate
back to the suction side. The impeller is set in the center of the pump casing.
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The skirt of the impeller is surrounded by a wear ring to reduce problems which can seriously
affect pump performance and the life of the impeller. The pressure inside the volute of the pump
increases when the pump is operating. A zone of high pressure in the volute and low pressure in
the suction eye is set up.
Centrifugal pumps can have more than one impeller, often called stage. Each additional stage
increases the head that the pump can pump against. If one impeller will pump against 60 feet of
head, two will pump against approximately 120 feet, three against 180 feet, etc. The rate of the
flow in gpm will not be affected by additional impellers since that is dictated by the diameter of
the impeller. It will be no greater than what the first impeller can deliver.
TYPES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
VERTICAL TURBINE PUMPS
A line shaft turbine pump is one of the most common pumps to be used in the water industry.
The pump consists of bowls that contain the impellers, which are connected with each other
through the pump shaft bearings. A turbine pump will usually be staged with more than one
impeller to overcome the head conditions that are encountered in the operation. The water
from one stage will be discharged into the suction eye of the next stage, a process that will
continue until the head is overcome. The size or diameter of the first impeller dictates the
volume capacity of the pump in gpm. The vertical turbine pump contains the following parts:
power source, discharge head, pump column, pump shaft, shaft bearings, and the pump itself.
Discharge Head - The discharge head is designed to support the weight of the pump and column
pipe along with the shafting. It connects the pump column to the discharge piping and contains
the stuffing box that allows the pump shaft to pass into the column pipe. It is designed to
contain the pressure the pump is creating.
Pump Column - The pump column, a pipe that connects to the bottom of the discharge head and
supports the pump below, is generally ten feet long with a bearing contained in each coupling.
The bearing, which is lubricated with the water being pumped, is made of brass and has a
rubber insert in the retainer.
Pump Shafting - Pump shafting transfers the energy from the power source to the pump. It is
generally made of steel and has stainless-steel shaft sleeves every ten feet. The pump shaft runs
in the retainer bearings located between the column couplings. If the water is very corrosive,
the entire shaft may be made of stainless steel or another corrosion-resistant material. The size
of the shaft will vary with the size of the pump.
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SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS
The submersible pump is especially suited to deepwell and booster service for industrial,
commercial, and municipal water systems. The pump utilizes a submersible motor coupled
directly to the bowl assembly and is designed to operate completely submerged in the fluid
being pumped. Power is supplied to the motor by waterproof electrical cable. In deepwell
applications the pump motor and cable are suspended in the well by the riser pipe. Booster
applications involve installing the unit in a steel suction barrel or horizontally in a pipe line.
Since the entire unit is either enclosed or below the surface of the ground, there are several
applications where the submersible pump has many advantages.
 Extremely deep wells where problems with shafting are likely to be encountered (such
as in crooked wells).
 In installations where flooding would damage standard above ground motors.
 Applications such as boosters pumps which require quiet operation.
 Installations where there is little or no floor space.
 Horizontal pipeline booster pumps placed directly in the pipeline where conditions
require a minimum amount of excavation or use of land surface.
 Dewatering applications
Submersible pumps may be operated and controlled in the same manner as any other type of
turbine pump in similar applications. No special consideration peculiar to the submersible is
generally necessary, with the exception of the motor starting equipment. The motor, being
installed in the pumped fluid, may not be subjected to the same ambient temperature as the
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overload relays in the starter. It is usually best to use current sensing type overload relays
under this condition rather than the thermal type.
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
Surface Mounting Plate - The surface mounting plate holds the weight of the suspended unit
and incorporates an elbow or fitting connected to the discharge piping. The surface plate also
provides a junction box for terminating the electrical cable from the pump motor.
Rise Pipe - The riser pipe connects the submersible pump to the surface plate. The pump
discharges through this pipe to the surface. It may be several hundred feet long in a deep well
application or a short connection piece in a booster pump.
Electrical Cable - The waterproof electrical cable extends from the top of the unit to the surface.
Pump Bowl Assembly - The Pump Bowl Assembly consists of single or multiple stages to meet
exact system head requirements. A wide range of bowl sizes is available to meet system
capacity requirements. Standard construction includes cast iron bowls with bronze impellers
on a stainless steel pump shaft. A suction strainer is used to prevent foreign objects from
entering the pump.
Electric Motor - The submersible Electric Motor is attached to the lower end of the bowl
assembly becoming an integral part of the submersible unit. The motor thrust bearing carries
the thrust load of the pump.
Suction Barrel - For booster service a Suction Barrel may be utilized. Its size will depend on
specific installation requirements. For high pressure allocations the suction barrel is extended
to accommodate additional bowls.
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PUMP SELECTION AND PUMP CURVE
The selection of a pump for a particular condition should be approached with as much
information as possible about the conditions under which it will operate. One piece of
information necessary is the total dynamic head, which consists of the sum of all heads that the
pump must overcome in its operation, the gpm to be moved, size of well casing (if needed), the
revolutions per minute (rpm) of the power source, and the depth of setting. With this
information, the operator can make a decision of the type of impeller that would be the most
efficient and use the least energy.
The following information may be found on a pump curve:

Size of Bowl - The pump curve contains the diameter of the bowl. If the bowl is too large, it may
not fit into the well casing.
Size of Impeller - The size of the impeller will also be on the pump curve sheet. Shown by an A,
B, or C on the curve, this indicates the trim, or size, of the impeller. The A curve shows the
characteristics of a pump with the largest diameter impeller, with the impeller for the B and C
curves decreasing in size.
Bowl Head - The curve indicates the head that one impeller will overcome. This information is
contained along the right-hand side of the graph and is calibrated in feet rather than pounds per
square inch (psi).
Capacity - The flow in gallons per minute is along the bottom of the graph.
Pump Efficiency - Efficiency should be a top priority in the selection of a pump. The pump
efficiency is found by drawing a line from the gpm that is expected from the pump and a line
from the head, in feet, that is expected. If the head is greater than one impeller can overcome,
the bowls will have to be staged with additional bowls. This can change the pump’s efficiency. A
pump with only one bowl usually has a greater loss than a pump with many bowls, or a staged
pump.
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PUMP DRIVES
The pump needs a means of rotating the impellers. The most common source of power is the
electric motor, which is often the squirrel-cage type with a constant speed and torque. Electric
motors are an attractive choice due to their reliability. Information needed to select the correct
size of electric motor for a particular application is the gpm, total head, motor efficiency, and
pump efficiency. As the motor rotates the shaft, it lifts a quantity of water from the well or
reservoir to a higher elevation or pressure zone. The horsepower required is in direct
proportion to the weight of the water being lifted each minute. One horsepower is equal to
33,000 foot pounds per minute. This means that one horsepower will lift 33,000 pounds of
water one foot in one minute. This formula is shown below (remember that a gallon of water
weighs 8.34 pounds):
The highest voltage available in the area should be used when selecting the motor since this will
lower the amperage which, in turn, reduces the size of all the wiring that is required to operate
it.

1. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/selecting-proper-centrifugal-pump-water-
distribution-ebenezer
2. https://www.mrwa.com/WaterWorksMnl/Chapter%208%20Pumps.pdf
3. Gillesania, D. I. (1997). Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics. 4th Edition.
4. Swamee, P. K., Sharma, A. K. (2008). Design of Water Supply Pipe Networks. 1 st
Edition
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Let’s Check!
statements:
_____________1. The flow in gallons per minute is along the bottom of the graph.
_____________2. This is the impeller of choice in most pump designs and is used in cases where the
liquid being pumped has few solids since it will pump the liquid with less wasted energy.
_____________3. is designed to allow the liquid being pumped to move to the center of the impeller
as well as to allow the water to be removed from the pump through the discharge.
_____________4. is found by drawing a line from the gpm that is expected from the pump and a line
from the head, in feet, that is expected.
_____________5. consists of single or multiple stages to meet exact system head requirements.
_____________6. is the difference in pressure (in metres) between the pump’s inlet and outlet
points.
_____________7. The most common source of power.
_____________8. is commonly used to feed chemicals into the water or to move heavy suspension,
such as sludge.
_____________9. is one of the most common pumps to be used in the water industry.
_____________10. holds the weight of the suspended unit and incorporates an elbow or fitting
connected to the discharge piping.
Let’s Analyze!
PDF Form.
1. Calculate friction loss in a cast iron (CI) pipe of diameter 300 mm carrying a discharge of
200 L per second to a distance of 1000 m.
2. A pumping system with different pipe fitting as shown. Calculate residual pressure head at
the end of the pipe outlet if the pump is generating an input head of 50 m at 0.1 m 3/s
discharge. The CI pipe diameter D is 0.3 m. The contraction size at point 3 is 0.15 m, pipe
size between points 6 and 7 is 0.15 m, and cofusor outlet size d = 0.15 m. The rotary valve at
point 5 is fully open. Consider the following pipe lengths between points.
Points 1 and 2 = 100 m, points 2 and 3 = 0.5 m, and points 3 and 4 = 0.5 m
Points 4 and 6 = 400 m, points 6 and 7 = 20 m, and points 7 and 8 = 100 m
3. Air at 1450 kPa abs and 100 °C flows in a 20-mm diameter tube. What is the maximum
laminar flow rate? Use R = 287 J/kg-K, μ = 2.17 x 10-5 Pa-s.
4. Glycerin (sp.gr. = 1.26 and μ = 1.49 Pa-s) flows through a rectangular conduit 300 mm by
450 mm at the rate of 160 lit/sec.
a. Is the flow laminar or turbulent?
b. Determine the head lost per kilometer length of pipe.
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In a Nutshell!
Activity 1. Create a simple level 3 water pumping distribution system manually based on your
community/area. Submit your design in PDF Form.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2b. Evaluate the design of drainage channels according
to DPWH standards.
DRAINAGE CHANNEL
Drainage Channel means a natural or constructed watercourse or channel, having a definite bed

and sides or banks, through which water flows.
The design of a stormwater drainage system should consider both the minor and major
drainage systems:
 The minor drainage system consists of the components that have been historically
considered as part of the “storm drainage system” (FHWA, 2001), such as culverts,
pipes and drainage channels. The key aim of the minor system is to minimize relatively
frequent and nuisance flooding.
 The major drainage system is intended to provide relief for stormwater flows
exceeding the capacity of the minor drainage system (FHWA, 2001). Design should
allow for the conveyance of these larger flows along overland flowpaths such as roads,
parks, drainage reserves and other features. The major drainage system is intended to
protect the community from larger flood events that exceed the minor drainage system
capacity.
Capacity of Drainage Infrastructure
The capacity of different drainage infrastructure should ideally be based on a drainage master
plan or a risk assessment.
Upstream and Downstream Impacts
Any proposed drainage works should ensure that there are no adverse impacts upstream or
downstream of the study area. Potential impacts include:
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 Increases in flood levels upstream or downstream of a culvert on existing properties.

 Increases in flood levels or ponding levels on areas of existing development.
 Increases in discharge into an existing drainage infrastructure downstream of the study
area and works.
Open Drains & Channels
There are three key types of channels that are typical utilized (based on FHWA, 2005):
 Channels with rigid linings, including:

- Concrete
- Concrete blocks
- Masonry blocks
- Partially grouted rip rap
 Channels with flexible linings, including:
- Vegetative (e.g. grass)
- Rock rip rap / Dry boulder
- Wire enclosed rock (mattresses and gabions)
- Turf reinforcement matting (TRM) and reinforced grass
- Coconets with vegetation
 Composite channels, where a combination of the above are used.
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Permissible Velocities and Channel Types
Channels should be capable of carrying the design discharge at velocities which do not result in
excessive scouring or erosion. Indicative permissible velocities for different channels are
provided in Table 6-5. Permissible velocities for rigid and vegetated channels are discussed in
the subsequent sections
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Channels with Rigid Linings
The maximum average flow velocity of 4 – 5 m/s is recommended for hard lined channels.
Other considerations in the design of channels with rigid linings, such as concrete, include:
 Contraction and expansion joints to minimize the risk of cracking and seepage and
potential undermining. Note that if a hydraulic jump is intended to move over a joint,
then additional joint reinforcing may be required.
 Pressure relief weep holes in impermeable linings both within the channel invert and
within the channel side slopes. The extent and density of pressure relief weep holes
should be sufficient to prevent hydraulic uplift of the channel.
 Lateral protection against surface flows undermining the side slopes. A minimum hard
faced strip of width 0.5 m on both sides at the top of the channel is recommended.
 Vertical cut-off walls should be included at the upstream and downstream extents of a
lined channel. These cut-off walls should be provided along the channel invert and up
the channel side slopes. The required depth of cut-off walls is dependent on a number of
factors including channel flow rate, flow velocity, and type of natural material upstream
and downstream of the lined section. A minimum depth of 0.6 m should be adopted.
 Designers should ensure that scour beyond the downstream end of lined channels is
prevented, or at least reduced to an acceptable level. To avoid the scour problems, it is
desirable to pass the discharging water over a roughened surface before releasing it
into a vegetated channel. This is normally achieved by placing a rock scour pad at the
exit of the smooth-bed channel.
Vegetated Channels
For channels with flexible linings, there are generally two approaches:
 Permissible velocity approach
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 Permissible shear stress approach
A key concern for vegetated channels is what happens when the grass cover cannot be maintained,
such as during drought, after fire etc. This aspect should be considered and if there is a reasonable
risk of occurrence and channel scour is likely / not desirable, then design should be undertaken
assuming bare-earth design values. In designing vegetated / bare-earth channels the following must
be considered.
The material the channel is to be constructed in

 A suitable grass species for the channel (where applicable)
 An appropriate Manning’s n-value
A suitable grass species for a channel should (DTMR, 2010):

 Be quick to establish
 Be able to self-repair
 Have a relatively short blade length (< 50 mm). Longer blade lengths can increase flow
resistance and subsequently result in a reduction in capacity of the channel
 Be able to survive short durations of inundation
 Be able to withstand proposed design velocities, and
 Be native to the area
Reinforced Grass & Turf Reinforcement Matting
Turf reinforcement matting (TRM) and reinforced grass (using products such as coconet and
numerous proprietary polypropylene products) provides additional protection from erosive
forces. The concept of turf reinforcement is to provide a structure to the soil/vegetation matrix
that will both assist in the establishment of vegetation and provide support to mature
vegetation (FHWA, 2005). As an indication, reinforced grasses may have a permissible velocity
in the order of 4 m/s, but this should be confirmed by manufacturer specifications.
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Riprap or Dry Boulder Channels
Rock lined channels, or rip rap, is a conventional treatment for channels to provide erosion
resistance. Typically, the hydraulics of the channel is determined, and then an appropriate rock
size is adopted. Some iteration may be required, as the rock size will affect the Manning’s ‘n’
value adopted. For mild channel slopes (less than 5%), angular rock and a specific gravity of 2.6,
the following simplified equation can be adopted to determine an appropriate rock size (QUDM,
2013):
A more refined version of the equation is provided below, which allows for different types of
rock and flow conditions:
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Rock Filled Wire Mattress or Gabion Box or Mattress
Rock filled wire mattresses or gabions may also be used to line the channel bank or bed.
Smaller sized rocks can be used because the wire basket surrounding the rock in the mattress
or gabion tends to make the mass act as a unit while retaining flexibility. Some specific design
considerations include:
 The potential for damage to the baskets from debris.
 Deterioration of the wire baskets due to pollution or saline environments. This can
result in a reduction in the design life and require more frequent maintenance. Plastic
coated wire can provide some benefits.
 The establishment of vegetation over the baskets can limit some of the issues identified
above.
 Maintenance of the wire baskets needs to be considered, particularly in regards to
access. Maintenance needs to be incorporated into future maintenance programs to
ensure that they are checked and repaired as necessary.
Design and construction of gabion protection should be in accordance with manufacturer’s

specifications and shall be consistent with the latest Standard Specifications.
Side Slopes
Recommended side slopes for design of different types of channels are provided in Table 6-7. In
specifying a side slope, consideration should also be made for maintenance and safety. For
channels adjacent to highways, the following should apply:
 Generally not more than 1V:5H, for traffic safety
 Where the above cannot be achieved, or the depth is greater than 3 m, then a safety
barrier is required
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Freeboard
Freeboard refers to the height from the top of the channel to the water surface at the design
capacity (refer to Figure 6-2). A freeboard is allowed to account for effects like waves and water
surface fluctuations, sedimentation and water surface estimation errors. A freeboard should be
selected that is 15% of the depth of flow in the channel at the design capacity, with a
minimum of 100 mm.
Minimum Velocities
In hard lined channels, a minimum velocity of 0.8 m/s should be maintained in the channel to
prevent deposition and sedimentation. This also has the added advantage of minimizing
stagnant water and associated mosquito growth. During dry weather flows, it may become
difficult to maintain this velocity. In such situations, it is possible to introduce a smaller channel
in the bottom of the drain to confine these smaller flows to a smaller cross section.
Sub-Critical Flow
Flows between a Froude number of 0.8 to 1.2 are unstable and unpredictable and should be
avoided (UDFCD, 2008). As general practice, Froude numbers below 0.8 should be adopted for
design.
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Transitions
Changes from one channel cross section to another cross section should be undertaken
smoothly, with no sudden changes in cross section. An expansion rate (Figure 6-4) of 1 on 4 is
recommended as a minimum, while a contraction of 1 on 1 is recommended as a minimum.
Safety
The recommended inclusions for safety in channels are provided in Table 6-9.
Closed Conduit Network (Pipe Network)
Minimum Size
The minimum size of pipe to be adopted shall be 910 mm in order to allow the passage of
debris and minimize the risk of blockage.
Minimum Velocity
In order to encourage self-cleaning, and minimize sediment build up, pipes should be designed
to ensure a minimum flow velocity of 0.8 m/s at pipe full.
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Maximum Velocity
The maximum velocity to be adopted for piped drainage systems is 5 m/s.
Cover
Cover refers to the distance from the top of the pipe to the surface. A minimum cover of 600
mm should typically be adopted. For pipes under highways, or heavily trafficked areas, a cover
of 900 mm should be adopted. A cover depth of 450 mm may be adopted on private property or
under open space that experiences only occasional traffic.
Alignment
Pipes should run straight between pits wherever possible. Where curves in the pipe are
absolutely required, standard curved pipes from suppliers should be adopted. Deflecting joints
to achieve curvature is not recommended.
Culverts
Culverts are a relatively short length of pipe or closed conduit used to convey stormwater
through an embankment or road, connected at each end to an open channel.
Minimum Sizing
For culverts crossing under local roads, a minimum internal width and clear depth of 910 mm is
required. For culverts crossing under expressways, a minimum internal width and clear depth
of 1 m is required.
Minimum Velocity
In order to encourage self-cleaning, and minimize sediment build up, culverts should be
designed to ensure a minimum flow velocity of 0.8 m/s at pipe full.
Maximum Velocity
The maximum velocity to be adopted for culverts is 5 m/s.
Cover
The cover for a culvert depends on the concrete/ loading class. In general, a minimum cover of
600 mm should typically be adopted. A cover depth of 300 mm may be adopted on private
property or under open space that experiences only occasional traffic.
Inlet and Outlet Structures
Inlet and outlet structures are provided to direct the flow between the open channel and the
culvert. Typical structures are shown in Figure 6-6.
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Outlet Scour Control
Outlet scour control may be required at outlets to reduce flow velocities prior to discharging to
watercourses in order to reduce the risk of erosion. Outlet protection may be required where:
 The outlet velocity exceeds the scour velocity of the bed or bank material
 The outlet channel and banks are actively eroding
 There is a bend in the channel a short distance downstream Protection requirements
may range from a riprap apron to stilling basins and concrete structures. In all cases, a
concrete cut-off wall is required at the end of the culvert to prevent undermining.
Rock pad outlets or dry boulder outlets are commonly adopted for culvert outlets (refer to
Figure 6-7). These should generally be considered where outlet velocities are less than 5 m/s
and the Froude number of the flow is less than 1.7.
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1. DPWH (2015). Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards. Volume 3. Water Engineering
Projects
Let’s Check!
statements:
_____________1. The maximum velocity to be adopted for culverts is.
_____________2. These should generally be considered for outlet scour control outlet velocities.
_____________3. Culverts should be designed to ensure a minimum flow velocity.
_____________4. Refers to the height from the top of the channel to the water surface at the design
capacity
_____________5. Is a conventional treatment for channels to provide erosion resistance.
_____________6. The maximum average flow velocity of _______ is recommended for hard lined
channels.
_____________7. means a natural or constructed watercourse or channel, having a definite bed and
sides or banks, through which water flows.
_____________8. provides additional protection from erosive forces.

_____________9. may also be used to line the channel bank or bed.
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_____________10 Froude numbers below ______ should be adopted for design for subcritical flow.
Let’s Analyze!
PDF Form.
1. A trapezoidal canal has a base width of 4 m and side slope of 1:1. The velocity of flow is 0.65
m/s.
a. Determine the discharge if the canal section with minimum seepage is used.
b. Determine the discharge if the most efficient canal section is used.
c. Determine the discharge if the canal depth is 2/3 of its based width.
2. A trapezoidal canal has bottom width of 3 m and side slope of 3H to 4V. The channel is laid
on a slope of 3 m per kilometer and has a roughness coefficient n = 0.014. The depth of flow
is 1.60 m. Use Manning’s Formula for open channel flow.
a. What is the flow on this channel?
b. What is the flow stage?
c. What is the critical depth?
3. A rectangular canal is 5.2 meters wide and 1.2 meters depth. The canal is laid on a uniform
slope of 0.001 and roughness coefficient of 0.012.
a. Calculate the discharge in the canal, in m3/s.
b. What saving in lining per meter length of canal could have been effected if the most
efficient rectangular section were used for the same discharge and slope?
c. What saving in earth excavation per meter length of canal could have been effected if
the most efficient rectangular section were used for the same discharge and slope?
In a Nutshell!
Activity 1. You are the civil engineer assigned to design a drainage system for a specific
location. Using the fundamental understanding of creating a system, quantitatively measuring,
estimating, and analyzing, you need to gather the data required to produce a scenario model
and report your respective area of choice. The chosen location must be located anywhere here
in the Philippines. No individual shall have the same place. Create a report and provide an
appropriate presentation of graphs and calculations printed in A4 bond paper following the
content and present it to the client.
1. Spiral bind copy of the following contents:
I. Cover Page
II. Table of Contents
III. Executive Summary
IV. Introduction
V. Body (Key Issues/Goal/Problem, Assumptions, Data Analysis, Results/Outcome
VI. Conclusions and Recommendations
VII. References
VIII. Appendices
IX. Tables
X. Figures
Big Picture
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a. Understand the different types of frequency analysis.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3a. Understand the different types of frequency

analysis.
Metalanguage
Frequency Analysis is the analysis of the frequency of occurrence of values of a

phenomenon less than a reference value.
Normal Distribution is a probability distribution that is symmetric about the
mean, showing that data near the mean are more frequent
in occurrence than data far from the mean. In graph form,
normal distribution will appear as a bell curve.
Gumbel Distribution is used to model the distribution of the maximum (or the
minimum) of a number of samples of various distributions.
Lognormal is a statistical distribution of logarithmic values from a
Distribution related normal distribution.
Gamma Distribution is a two-parameter family of continuous probability
distributions.
Log Pearson Type III tells you the likely values of discharges to expect in the
Distribution river at various recurrence intervals based on the available
data.
Essential Knowledge
Frequency analysis is used to predict how often certain values of a variable

phenomenon may occur and to assess the reliability of the prediction. It is a tool for
determining design rainfalls and design discharges for drainage works and drainage
structures, especially in relation to their required hydraulic capacity. Frequency analysis is an
aid in determining the design discharge and design rainfall. In addition, it can be used to
calculate the frequency of other hydrologic (or even non-hydrologic) events.
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
The most important continuous probability distribution in the entire field of statistics is the
normal distribution. Its graph, called the normal curve, is the bell-shaped curve which
approximately describes many phenomena that occur in nature, industry, and research
especially meteorological experiments and rainfall studies in the field of hydrology.
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A continuous random variable X having the bell-shaped is called a normal random variable.
The mathematical equation for the probability distribution of the normal variable depends on
the two parameters, the mean and the standard deviation.
x−μ
z=
σ
Where:
z = z normal score
x = raw data
μ = mean
σ = standard deviation
Example 10: Suppose x is a random variable that describes the monthly rainfall of a particular
city. We find that x is normally distributed with a mean of 7 inches and a standard deviation of
2 inches.
a. What is the probability the monthly rainfall is less than 2 inches?

b. What is the probability the monthly rainfall is more than 8 inches?
Solution:
a. For monthly rainfall less than 2 inches:
x−μ
z=
σ
2−7
z=
2
z=−2.5
Based on the normal distribution table, the equivalent area under the normal curve with z = -
2.5 is 0.0062 or the probability that the monthly rainfall is less than 2 inches is 0.0062 or
0.62%.
b. For monthly rainfall more than 8 inches:
x−μ
z=
σ
8−7
z=
2
z=0 .5
Based on the normal distribution table, the equivalent area under the normal curve with z = 0.5
is 0.6915 or the probability that the monthly rainfall is more than 8 inches is(1-0.6915) =
0.3085 or 30.85%.
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GUMBEL DISTRIBUTION
The extreme value type I distribution has two forms. One is based on the smallest extreme and
the other is based on the largest extreme. We call these the minimum and maximum cases,
respectively. Formulas and plots for both cases are given. The extreme value type I distribution
is also referred to as the Gumbel distribution.
Steps Involved in Frequency Analysis:
Various steps involved in frequency analysis by the Gumbel method are as follows:
1. List and arrange annual floods (x) in descending order of magnitude.
2. Assign rank ‘m’, m = 1 for highest value and so on.
3. Calculate return period (T) and/or probability of exceedence (P) by equations n + 1/m
and m/n +1 respectively. These values together with respective flood magnitude give
plotting positions.
4. Using tabular form calculate x2 and ∑x and Ex2.
5. Now calculate mean x; squared mean x2; mean of squares x2 and standard deviation S.
6. From the Table 5.6 of frequency factors for Gumbel method read if values for desired
return periods (7) and the available sample size.
7. Using relation x = x + KS calculate flood values for various return periods.
8. Using the extreme value probability paper plot the x values against respective return
periods or P values and join the points to obtain the required frequency curve.
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Another procedure using Chow’s Formula:

y T =−[0.834 +2.303 log log ( T
T −1
])
Where:
T = Return Period
yT = reduced variable
Then,
( yT − yn )
k T=
Sn
Where:
k T = equivalent factor
yT = reduced variable
yn = equivalent mean based on the gumbel distribution table
Sn = equivalent standard deviation based on the gumbel distribution table
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GUMBEL DISTRIBUTION TABLE
Lastly,
x T =μ+(k T x σ )
Where:
x T = corresponding magnitude at the given return period
μ = mean
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k T = equivalent factor
σ = standard deviation
Example 11: The annual flood series for a river is available for 21 years. The observed flood
peaks are as given below. Calculate the 100-year flood using Gumbel’s method and plot the
theoretical frequency curve obtained by using frequency factor and compare it with the
frequency curve of observed data.
Solution:
Rank can be assigned as shown in column 3 and T, P(X > x) and xP calculated in subsequent
columns.
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Now, using equation x = x + KS and adopting values of x and S from above and different K and T
values from Table 5.6 flood flows (i.e., x values) of various return periods can be calculated as
shown in Table 5.8.
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From Table 5.8, 100 year flood comes out to be 23,397 say 23400 cumec. Using extreme value
probability paper (Fig. 5.9) flood (x values) flows of column 6 from Table 5.8 are plotted against
Return period (T) of column 1 of the same table. Plotted points are joined to obtain a straight
line shown firm in Fig. 5.9.
To compare the fitting of this line to observed data, on the same graph (x values) observed flood
flows from column 2 of Table 5.7 are plotted against return period (T) values from column 4 of
the same table. It may be seen that on the whole observed data fits the frequency curve
satisfactorily. Hence, selected distribution is satisfactory.
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Example 12: From the previous example, Compute the annual peak discharge for 50 return
period using Chow’s Formula.
From the previous example:
μ = 85.19
σ = 39.00
(
y T =−[0.834 +2.303 log log
T
T −1
])
T = 50 year return period
y 50=−[0.834+2.303 log log ( 50

50−1
] )
y 50=3.9028
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( yT − yn )
k T=
Sn
From Gumbel Distribution Table, n = 30, yn = 0.5362, Sn = 1.1124
( yT − yn )
k T=
Sn
(3.9028−0.5362)
k 50=
1.1124
k 50=3.1578
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x T =μ+(k T x σ )
x 50 =85.19+(3.1578 x 39.00)
3
x 50=208.344 m
LOGNORMAL DISTRIBUTION
The general equation for flood quantile estimation (from Chow, 1951) is:
Where is the frequency factor that depends on the distribution of the flood data and the
probability of interest, and are the mean and standard deviation.
Example 12: Annual maximum discharges of the Saint John River at Fort Kent, New Brunswick
for the 37 years from 1927 to 1963 have a mean of 81,000 cfs and a standard deviation of
22,800. Estimate the 100-year flood.
Solution:
μ = 81,000 cfs
σ = 22,800 cfs
K 100 =2.33(based onthe table)

x T =μ+ K t σ
x 100 =81000+(2.33)(22800)
x 100 =134 ,124 cfs
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LOG PEARSON TYPE III DISTRIBUTION
The Pearson type III distribution, or such variations of it as are expressed in the Hazen and
Foster methods (Jarvis, 1936), was at one time widely used in probability studies of peak
discharge. The Pearson type III distribution is more flexible than either the logarithmic normal
or Gumbel distributions and can be more closely fitted to the data because it is defined not only
by the mean and the standard deviation of the array of flood peaks but also by the coefficient of
skew of the array. Only those stations with 10 or more years of peak-discharge record are used
in the analysis.
Example 13: Find the magnitude of 50-year event given the following data:
YEAR Q (cfs)
1960 1157
1961 453
1962 1530
1963 2852
1964 1382
Solution:
1. Change Q into Log Q
YEAR Q (cfs) Log Q
1960 1157 3.063
1961 453 2.656
1962 1530 3.185
1963 2852 3.455
1964 1382 3.141
2. Get the mean, and standard deviation of Log Q
μ=3.10
σ =0.289
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3. Calculate the coefficient of skewness using the formula below,
Where:
N = number of years of record
g = coefficient of skewness
X = magnitude of peak discharge
S = Standard Deviation
YEAR Log Q X2 X3
(X)
1960 3.063 9.382 28.737
1961 2.656 7.054 18.736
1962 3.185 10.144 32.309
1963 3.455 11.937 41.242
1964 3.141 9.866 30.989
∑ x =15.5, ∑ x 2=48.383, ∑ x 3=152.013

( 5 2) ( 152.013 )− (3 )( 5 ) ( 15.5 ) ( 48.383 ) +2(15.5)3
g= 3
5(5−1)(5−2)(0.289)
g=−0.7
4. By using the log pearson type III distribution table, get the value of k. T = 50 years and g
or Cw = -0.7
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k = 1.663
5. Calculate yT = μ + kσ
y T =μ+kσ
y T =3.10+1.663 ( 0.289 )
y T =3.581
6. Lastly, compute the peak of flood using the formula, xT = 10yT

yT
X T =10
3.581
X T =10
X T =3810.658 cfs
Therefore, the magnitude or the peak flow for a 50 year return period is 3810.658 cfs.
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1. https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1580e/report.pdf
2. Jain, S. K., Singh, V. P. (2019). Engineering Hydrology: An Introduction to Processes,
Analysis and Modeling. 1st Edition
3. Walpole, Myers, Myers, and Ye. (2014). Probability and Statistics: For Engineers and
Scientists. 9th Edition
Let’s Check!
statements:
_____________1. is the analysis of the frequency of occurrence of values of a phenomenon

less than a reference value.
_____________2. is a probability distribution that is symmetric about the mean, showing

that data near the mean are more frequent in occurrence than data far from the mean.
In graph form, normal distribution will appear as a bell curve.
_____________3. is used to model the distribution of the maximum (or the minimum) of a
number of samples of various distributions.
_____________4. is a statistical distribution of logarithmic values from a related

normal distribution.
_____________5. is a two-parameter family of continuous probability distributions.
_____________6. tells you the likely values of discharges to expect in the river at various
recurrence intervals based on the available data.
Let’s Analyze!
PDF Form.
1. The data below is the monthly rainfall of Davao City and it is under a normal distribution.
Determine the following.
a. Probability of monthly rainfall that is less than 5 inches.
b. Probability of monthly rainfall that is more than 8 inches.
c. Probability of monthly rainfall that is in between 4 inches to 9 inches.
Month Rainfall (inches)
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January 4.2
February 5.4
March 3.8
April 3.6
May 4.9
June 6.2
July 7.6
August 8.3
September 7.4
October 8.8
November 9.4
December 9.7
2. The annual flood series for a river is available for 15 years. The observed flood peaks are as
given below. Calculate the 10, 20, 50, and 100-year flood using Gumbel’s method,
LogNormal, and Log Pearson Type III Distribution.
3.
YEAR PEAK FLOOD (m3)
2001 875.41
2002 925.74
2003 704.69
2004 772.33
2005 968.05
2006 1058.66
2007 1103.95
2008 930.17
2009 995.28
2010 1087.30
2011 1126.54
2012 1320.19
2013 1217.35
2014 1288.36
2015 1267.89
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In a Nutshell!
Activity 1. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of different types of frequency analysis.
Also, cite at least one article per type that the type is used in the case study. Submit it in PDF
Form.
Big Picture
a. Design a water distribution system in accordance with the code.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4a. Design a water distribution system in accordance

with the code.
Metalanguage
Water Demand Water demand is defined as the volume of water requested

by users to satisfy their needs.
Fire Demand Fire Demand is the function of population. but with a
minimum limit, because greater the population, greater the
number of buildings and greater the risk of fire.
Design Flows Design flow is the total flow, including dry weather flow,
process. wastewater or industrial contribution, and all wet
weather flow (e.g. I&I), expected to be. received in
the design year divided by 365 days
Components part that combines with other parts to make a machine or
piece of equipment:
Criteria The standard by which something is judged or assessed.
Distribution The way in which something is shared out among a group
or spread over an area.
System a set of principles or procedures according to which
something is done; an organized framework or method.
Essential Knowledge
The function of a water distribution system is to deliver water to all customers of the
system in sufficient quantity for potable drinking water and fire protection purposes, at the
appropriate pressure, with minimal loss, of safe and acceptable quality, and as economically
as possible.
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Protecting and maintaining water distributions systems is crucial to ensuring high

quality drinking water. Distribution systems -- consisting of pipes, pumps, valves, storage
tanks, reservoirs, meters, fittings, and other hydraulic appurtenances -- carry drinking water
from a centralized treatment plant or well supplies to consumers’ taps.
WATER DEMAND
The estimation of water demand for the sizing of any water supply system or its component is
the most important part of the design methodology. In general, water demands are generated
from residential, industrial, and commercial developments, community facilities, firefighting
demand, and account for system losses. It is difficult to predict water demand accurately as a
number of factors affect the water demand (i.e., climate, economic and social factors, pricing,
land use, and industrialization of the area). However, a comprehensive study should be
conducted to estimate water demand considering all the site-specific factors. The residential
forecast of future demand considering all the site-specific factors. The residential forecast of
future demand can be based on house count, census records, and population projections.
The industrial and commercial facilities have a wide range of water demand. This demand can
be estimated based on historical data from the same system or from comparable users from
other systems. The planning guidelines provided by engineering bodies/regulatory agencies
should be considered along with known historical data for the estimation of water demand.
Average Day Water Demand: ADD = Daily average water demand
Maximum Day Water Demand: MDD = 1.6 x ADD
Peak Hour Water Demand: PHD = 2.5 x ADD
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FIRE DEMAND
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COMPONENTS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Distribution system infrastructure is generally considered to consist of the pipes, pumps, valves,
storage tanks, reservoirs, meters, fittings, and other hydraulic appurtenances that connect
treatment plants or well supplies to consumers’ taps. The characteristics, general maintenance
requirements, and desirable features of the basic infrastructure components in a drinking water
distribution system are briefly discussed below.
1. Pipes
The systems of pipes that transport water from the source (such as a treatment plant) to the
customer are often categorized from largest to smallest as transmission or trunk mains,
distribution mains, service lines, and premise plumbing. Transmission or trunk mains usually
convey large amounts of water over long distances such as from a treatment facility to a storage
tank within the distribution system. Distribution mains are typically smaller in diameter than
the transmission mains and generally follow the city streets. Service lines carry water from the
distribution main to the building or property being served. Service lines can be of any size
depending on how much water is required to serve a particular customer and are sized so that
the utility’s design pressure is maintained at the customer’s property for the desired flows.
Premise plumbing refers to the piping within a building or home that distributes water to the
point of use. In premise plumbing the pipe diameters are usually comparatively small, leading to
a greater surface-to-volume ratio than in other distribution system pipes.
The three requirements for a pipe include its ability to deliver the quantity of water required,
to resist all external and internal forces acting upon it, and to be durable and have a long life
(Clark and Tippen, 1990). The materials commonly used to accomplish these goals today are
ductile iron, pre-stressed concrete, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), reinforced plastic, and steel.
2. Pipe Network Configuration
The two basic configurations for most water distribution systems are the branch and grid/loop.
A branch system is similar to that of a tree branch, in which smaller pipes branch off larger
pipes throughout the service area, such that the water can take only one pathway from the
source to the consumer. This type of system is most frequently used in rural areas. A
grid/looped system, which consists of connected pipe loops throughout the area to be served, is
the most widely used configuration in large municipal areas. In this type of system there are
several pathways that the water can follow from the source to the consumer. Looped systems
provide a high degree of reliability should a line break occur because the break can be isolated
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with little impact on consumers outside the immediate area (Clark and Tippen, 1990; Clark et
al., 2004). Also, by keeping water moving looping reduces some of the problems associated with
water stagnation, such as adverse reactions with the pipe walls, and it increases fire-fighting
capability. However, loops can be dead-ends, especially in suburban areas like cul-de-sacs, and
have associated water quality problems. Most systems are a combination of both looped and
branched portions.
Design of water networks is very much dependent on the specific topography and the street
layout in a given community. A typical design might consist of transmission mains spaced from
1.5 to 2 miles (2,400 to 3,200 m) apart with dual-service mains spaced 3,000 to 4,000 feet (900
to 1,200 m) apart. Service mains should be located in every street.
3. Storage Tanks and Reservoirs
Storage tanks and reservoirs are used to provide storage capacity to meet fluctuations in
demand (or shave off peaks), to provide reserve supply for fire-fighting use and
emergency needs, to stabilize pressures in the distribution system, to increase operating
convenience and provide flexibility in pumping, to provide water during source or pump
failures, and to blend different water sources. The recommended location of a storage
tank is just beyond the center of demand in the service area (AWWA, 1998). Elevated
tanks are used most frequently, but other types of tanks and reservoirs include in-
ground tanks and open or closed reservoirs. Common tank materials include concrete
and steel.
An issue that has drawn a great deal of interest is the problem of low water turnover in
these facilities resulting in long detention times. Much of the water volume in storage
tanks is dedicated to fire protection, and unless utilities properly manage their tanks to
control water quality, there can be problems attributable to both water aging and
inadequate water mixing. Excessive water age can be conducive to depletion of the
disinfectant residual, leading to biofilm growth, other biological changes in the water
including nitrification, and the emergence of taste and odor problems. Improper mixing
can lead to stratification and large stagnant (dead) zones within the bulk water volume
that have depleted disinfectant residual. As discussed later in this report, neither
historical designs nor operational procedures have adequately maintained high water
quality in storage tanks (Clark et al., 1996). Security is an important issue with both
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storage tanks and pumps because of their potential use as a point of entry for deliberate
contamination of distribution systems.
4. Pumps
Pumps are used to impart energy to the water in order to boost it to higher elevations or
to increase pressure. Pumps are typically made from steel or cast iron. Most pumps used
in distribution systems are centrifugal in nature, in that water from an intake pipe
enters the pump through the action of a “spinning impeller” where it is discharged
outward between vanes and into the discharge piping. The cost of power for pumping
constitutes one of the major operating costs for a water supply.
5. Valves
The two types of valves generally utilized in a water distribution system are isolation
valves (or stop or shutoff valves) and control valves. Isolation valves (typically either
gate valves or butterfly valves) are used to isolate sections for maintenance and repair
and are located so that the areas isolated will cause a minimum of inconvenience to
other service areas. Maintenance of the valves is one of the major activities carried out
by a utility. Many utilities have a regular valve-turning program in which a percentage of
the valves are opened and closed on a regular basis. It is desirable to turn each valve in
the system at least once per year. The implementation of such a program ensures that
water can be shut off or diverted when needed, especially during an emergency, and that
valves have not been inadvertently closed.
6. Hydrants
Hydrants are primarily part of the fire fighting aspect of a water system. Proper design,
spacing, and maintenance are needed to insure an adequate flow to satisfy fire-fighting
requirements. Fire hydrants are typically exercised and tested annually by water utility
or fire department personnel. Fire flow tests are conducted periodically to satisfy the
requirements of the Insurance Services Office or as part of a water distribution system
calibration program (ISO, 1980). Fire hydrants are installed in areas that are easily
accessible by fire fighters and are not obstacles to pedestrians and vehicles. In addition
to being used for fire fighting, hydrants are also for routine flushing programs,
emergency flushing, preventive flushing, testing and corrective action, and for street
cleaning and construction projects (AWWA, 1986).
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Most of the water supplied to residences is used primarily for laundering, showering, lawn
watering, flushing toilets, or washing cars, and not for consumption. Nonetheless, except in a
few rare circumstances, distribution systems are assumed to be designed and operated to
provide water of a quality acceptable for human consumption. Normal household use is
generally in the range of 200 gallons per day (757 L per day) with a typical flow rate of 2 to 20
gallons per minute (gpm) [7.57–75.7 L per minute (Lpm)].
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Besides providing drinking water, a major function of most distribution systems is to provide
adequate standby fire flow, the standards for which are governed by the National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA, 1986). Fire-flow requirements for a single-family house vary
from 750 to 1,500 gpm (2,839–5,678 Lpm); for multi-family structures the values range from
2,000 to 5,000 gpm (7,570–18,927 Lpm); for commercial structures the values range from 2,000
to 10,000 gpm (7,570–37,854 Lpm), and for industrial structures the values range from 3,000 to
over 10,000 gpm (11,356–37,854 Lpm) (AWWA, 1998). The duration for which these fire flows
must be sustained normally ranges from three to eight hours.
To satisfy this need for adequate standby capacity and pressure, most distribution systems
use standpipes, elevated tanks, and large storage reservoirs. Furthermore, the sizing of water
mains is partly based on fire protection requirements set by the Insurance Services Office
(AWWA, 1986; Von Huben, 1999). (The minimum flow that the water system can sustain for a
specific period governs its fire protection rating, which then is used to set the fire insurance
rates for the communities that are served by the system.) It found that although the amount of
water used for firefighting is generally a small percentage of the annual water consumed, the
required rates of water delivery for firefighting have a significant and quantifiable impact on the
size of water mains, tank storage volumes, water age, and operating and maintenance costs.
Generally, nearly 75 percent of the capacity of a typical drinking water distribution system is
devoted to firefighting (Walski et al., 2001).
Distribution of Water in the Philippines
Rainfall within the Philippines varies significantly both in time and location. Increased
rainfall volumes also leads to an increase in surface water due to runoff, and an increase in
groundwater recharge through infiltration.
There are four broad rainfall categories for the Philippines
 Type I: Two pronounced seasons: dry from November to April and wet during the rest
of the year. These areas are shielded by mountain ranges but are open to rains brought
in by southwest monsoons (Habagat) and tropical cyclones.
 Type II: Characterized by the absence of a dry season but with a very pronounced
maximum rain period from November to January. Regions with this climate are
located along or very near the eastern coast.
 Type III: Seasons are not very pronounced but are relatively dry from November to
April and wet during the rest of the year. These areas are partly sheltered from the
trade winds but are open to Habagat and are frequented by tropical cyclones.
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 Type IV: Characterized by a more or less even distribution of rainfall throughout the
year.
WATER SOURCES
1. Rainwater
Rainwater, or atmospheric water, is water vapour that has condensed in the atmosphere and
fallen to earth as rain, where it becomes runoff. Rainwater may be harvested through collecting
the runoff from impervious surfaces (such as roofs and pavements) during rain events.
Rainwater is typically of a reasonable quality. The greatest risk to rainwater quality is the vessel
used to store the collected water. Rainwater tanks need ongoing inspections and maintenance
to ensure that the water is not contaminated by microbial or chemical pollutants.
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2. Surface Water
Surface water is exposed to the atmosphere and includes water bodies such as lakes and ponds,
rivers and streams, reservoirs, seas and oceans. Surface water occurs either through the runoff
from rains or the surcharge of ground water systems. The primary determinate of the amount
of surface water available is the amount of rainfall experienced by the region, and is also
affected by the climate, vegetation, geographical and topological characteristics of the
catchment area.
3. Groundwater
Groundwater is water that has filtered through the soil layer from rainfall or surface water to
create underground water reservoirs. The upper surface of the groundwater storage is termed
the water table. Groundwater is typically of a good quality due to the filtering effects of the soil
having removed microorganisms, sediments and organic matter. However, it may contain
dissolved natural salts and substances, some of which may be harmful, so testing is still
recommended before use.
Groundwater may be extracted using:

 Springs – a point at which ground water naturally flows onto the surface, which occurs
when the water table is higher than the terrain. Springs may be intermittent or
continuous, and can be developed to improve their ability to service a population.
 Wells – a hole dug down through the soil to reach the water table, so that the bottom of
the well fills with water. Water may be extracted from the base of the well through
buckets (raised by hand or via mechanical means) or through pumping.
 Infiltration Galleries – are horizontal wells, formed by digging horizontal, perforated
pipes into water bearing soils. The pipes collect water from the soil and discharge it to a
storage structure.
WATER TREATMENT
Water sources with poor quality may undergo a treatment process to ensure they are suitable
for their end use. Treatment processes are expensive, both in their set up and ongoing
operation, and ideally water treatment should be avoided by selecting appropriate water
sources with good quality water.
Where suitable, clean water supplies are not available, water treatment may be appropriate.
Treatment options are varied, and will depend on the quality issues that need to be rectified.
Common treatment options include:
 Sedimentation
 Filtration
 Aeration
 Disinfection
Water treatment systems should be designed such that:

 They are as simple as possible
 They minimize mechanical and electronic operated systems
 They minimize chemical inputs into the system
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SERVICE LEVELS
Water service levels in the Philippines are classified into three types, depending on how the
water is provided to consumers:
 Type 1: Point Source – A well or developed spring, without a distribution system. Users
come to the point source to collect their water. Best suited to rural areas where
affordability is low and houses are not crowded. Typical serves an average of 15
households, within 250m of the point source.
 Type 2: Communal Faucet or Stand Post – Still a communal system, where people come
to collect water, but this system includes a distribution network. The network delivers
water from the source to a number of stand posts located in the township. Each stand
post serves 4 to 6 houses, within a radius of 25m. Best suited to urban fringe areas
where population densities justify a simple piped system.
 Type 3: Individual Connections – A fully piped and distributed network that delivers
water to individual households. Best suited to densely populated areas that can be
offered the additional costs that this system requires.

1. https://www.nap.edu/read/11728/chapter/3#25
2. https://winnipeg.ca/waterandwaste/dept/waterdemand.stm
3. Swamee, P.K., Sharma A. K. (2008). Design of Water Supply Pipe Networks. 1st Edition
4. DPWH (2015). Design Guidelines, Criteria, and Standards. Volume 3. Water Engineering
Projects
Let’s Check!
statements:
_____________1. The network delivers water from the source to a number of stand posts located in
the township.
_____________2. A point at which ground water naturally flows onto the surface, which occurs
when the water table is higher than the terrain.
_____________3. is exposed to the atmosphere and includes water bodies such as lakes and ponds,
rivers and streams, reservoirs, seas and oceans.
_____________4. Characterized by the absence of a dry season but with a very pronounced
maximum rain period from November to January.
_____________5. are primarily part of the fire fighting aspect of a water system.
_____________6. that transport water from the source (such as a treatment plant) to the customer
are often categorized from largest to smallest as transmission or trunk mains, distribution
mains, service lines, and premise plumbing.
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_____________7. A hole dug down through the soil to reach the water table, so that the bottom of
the well fills with water.
_____________8. A hole dug down through the soil to reach the water table, so that the bottom of
the well fills with water.
_____________9. Is water vapour that has condensed in the atmosphere and fallen to earth as rain,
where it becomes runoff.
_____________10. Are used to provide storage capacity to meet fluctuations in demand (or shave
off peaks), to provide reserve supply for fire-fighting use and emergency needs, to stabilize
pressures in the distribution system, to increase operating convenience and provide flexibility
in pumping, to provide water during source or pump failures, and to blend different water
sources.
In A Nutshell!
Activity 1. Design a water distribution system for a specific location. Using the fundamental
understanding of creating a system, quantitatively measuring, estimating, and analyzing, you
need to gather the data required to produce a scenario model and report your respective area
of choice. The chosen location must be located anywhere here in the Philippines. No
individual shall have the same place. Create a report and provide an appropriate presentation
of graphs and calculations printed in A4 bond paper following the content and present it to
the client.
Spiral bind copy of the following contents:
XI. Cover Page
XII. Table of Contents
XIII. Executive Summary
XIV. Introduction
XV. Body (Key Issues/Goal/Problem, Assumptions, Data Analysis, Results/Outcome
XVI. Conclusions and Recommendations
XVII. References
XVIII. Appendices
XIX. Tables
XX. Figures
COURSE SCHEDULE:
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This section calendars all the activities and exercises including readings and lectures as well as
time for making assignments and doing other requirements in a programmed schedule by days
and weeks, to help the students in SDL pacing, regardless of mode of delivery (OBD or DED):
ACTIVITY DATE WHERE TO SUBMIT

ULO 1a: Let’s Check Activity August 05, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
ULO 1a: Let’s Analyze Activity August 06, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
ULO 1a: In a Nutshell Activity August 07, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
ULO 1b: Let’s Check Activity August 17, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
ULO 1b: Let’s Analyze August 17, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
Activity
ULO 1b: In a Nutshell Activity August 18, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
1st Quiz August 19, 2021 BB LMS Quiz Section
1st Exam August 20, 2021 BB LMS Exam Section
ULO 2a: Let’s Check Activity August 26, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
ULO 2a: Let’s Analyze Activity August 27, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
ULO 2a: In a Nutshell Activity August 28, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
ULO 2b: Let’s Check Activity September 01, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
ULO 2b: Let’s Analyze September 01, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
Activity
ULO 2b: In a Nutshell Activity September 02, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
2nd Quiz September 02, 2021 BB LMS Quiz Section
2nd Exam September 03, 2021 BB LMS Exam Section
ULO 3a: Let’s Check Activity September 13, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
ULO 3a: Let’s Analyze Activity September 14, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
ULO 3a: In a Nutshell Activity September 15, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
3rd Quiz September 16, 2021 BB LMS Quiz Section
3rd Exam September 17, 2021 BB LMS Exam Section
ULO 4a: Let’s Check Activity September 27, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
ULO 4a: Let’s Analyze Activity September 28, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
ULO 4a: In a Nutshell Activity September 29, 2021 BB LMS Assignment Section
4th Quiz September 30, 2021 BB LMS Quiz Section
Final Exam October 01, 2021 BB LMS Exam Section
---------End----------
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College of Engineering Education

2nd Floor, B&E Building

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Course/Subject: BCER 2 (Water Resources Engineering)

Course Outline: BCER 2 - (WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING)

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

Since this course is included in the licensure

your course coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

However, if the late submission of assessment paper

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

disapproval of the request.

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

For students who have not created their student email,

Help Desk Contact CEE Blackboard Administrator

Library Contact LIC

Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS

CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:

CO 1. You are expected to be familiar with the concepts of frequency analysis.

a. Develop a knowledge and understanding concepts about water resources,

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a. Develop a knowledge and understanding concepts

Hydrology The branch of science concerned with the properties of the

Introduction to the subject matter:

DEFINITION OF WATER RESOURCES

WATER CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES

Declaration of Objectives and Principles

ARTICLE 2. The objectives of this Code are:

c. To adopt a basic law governing the ownership, appropriation, utilization, exploitation,

d. To identify the administrative agencies which will enforce this Code.

ARTICLE 3. The underlying principles of this code are:

a. All waters belong to the State.

d. The utilization, exploitation, development, conservation and protection of water resources

ARTICLE 5. The following belong to the State:

a. Rivers and their natural beds;

c. Natural lakes and lagoons;

f. Subterranean or ground waters; and

a. Continuous or intermittent waters rising on such lands;

b. Lakes and lagoons naturally occurring on such lands;

c. Rain water falling on such lands;

d. Subterranean or ground waters; and

e. Water in swamps and marshes.

ARTICLE 10. Water may be appropriated for the following purposes:

ARTICLE 13. Except as otherwise herein provided, no person, including government

a. Appropriation of water by means of hand-carried receptacles; and

b. Bathing or washing, watering or dipping of domestic or farm animals, and navigation of

Upon approval of an application, a water permit shall be issued and recorded.

Administration of Waters and Enforcement of the Provisions of This Code

ARTICLE 85. No program or project involving the appropriation, utilization, exploitation,

a. Appropriation of subterranean or ground water for domestic use by an overlying landowner

b. Non-observance of any standard of beneficial use of water.

c. Failure of the appropriator to keep a record of water withdrawal, when required.

h. Unauthorized sale, lease, or transfer of water and/or water rights.

j. Drilling of a well without permission of the Council.

k. Utilization of an existing well or ponding or spreading of water for recharging subterranean

l. Violation of or non-compliance with any order, rules, or regulations of the Council.

_________ 5. In the Philippines, as a whole is the greatest consumer of water.