OBJECTIVES

a) To determine the dryness fraction of steam.

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES
a) Understand the concepts of dryness fraction.
b) Implement and analyse the required data collectively within
member of group.
c) Produce good technical report according to the required
standard.
3.0 INTRODUCTION
3.1 Dryness Fraction
The dryness fraction is defined as the quantity of dry vapour
present in any wet vapour mixture.
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦
𝐷𝑟𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Bucket or Barrel Calorimeter:

The Bucket/Barrel Calorimeter consists of a copper vessel which
contains cold water. The copper vessel is insulated from the
surrounding so as to prevent any heat transfer from or to the
system. The top of the vessel is also covered by some detachable
insulating medium. A thermometer is inserted in the water to
record the temperature of it.
Procedure:
Before steam sampling: Note down the following observations
• Mass of empty copper vessel = m1(say)
• Mass of cold water of vessel = m2(say)
• Temperature of cold water and copper vessel = t1(say)
• Specific heat of copper vessel = Cp,copper(say)
• Specific heat of water = Cp,water(say)

During steam sampling: Open the valve in sampling tube and

allow steam sample from main steam pipe of boiler to discharge
into cold water of vessel through fine exit holes. The steam
coming in contact with water gets condensed, giving out its entire
latent heat and part of its sensible heat. This heat transfer results
in an increase in the temperature of water. The mass of water in
the calorimeter increases by the amount of steam condensed. As
a precautionary measure, enough steam should be passed into
the calorimeter so that there is a marked rise in the temperature
so as to minimizing the error in the experiment. Now, the supply-
of steam is closed.
• During sampling, pressure of steam in steam pipe
recorder with pressure gauge = p (say)
• From Steam Table against pressure ‘p’ note down the
saturation temperature of steam and latent heat of
vaporization= tsat and hfg(say) , respectively.
After steam sampling: Note down the following observations
• Mass of warm water in vessel = m3 (say)
• Temperature of warm water and copper vessel after
mixing of steam sample in cold water= t2 (say)
Calculations to find dryness fraction, x:
Mass of wet steam sample condensed in cold water = m3 – m2 =
m (say)
Mass of dry steam in wet steam sample = x × m
If there is no heat lost then according to conservation of energy,
Heat lost by mass of wet steam sample = Heat gain by copper
vessel and cold water …..….(25.1)
Where,
Heat lost by mass of wet steam sample = Latent heat lost by
mass of dry steam in wet steam sample + Sensible heat lost
mass of wet steam sample

……..(25.2)
Heat gain by copper vessel and cold water = Sensible heat gain
by mass of copper vessel + Sensible heat gain by mass of cold
water

…..….. (25.3)
By using equations (25.2) and (25.3) in equation (25.1), we have
Drawback
• It is to be noted that this method for determining the
dryness fraction is approximate.
• The increase in temperature of cold water after steam
sampling should neither be too low nor too high. If the
rise in temperature is large there is always a chance for
heat losses due to radiation.

3.2 Separating Calorimeter

This is mechanical process where the incoming steam to
the calorimeter is made through a series of obtuse angle
the inertia of the water droplets causes them to separate
from steam flow. If

Wi = quantity of dry steam discharged from calorimeter

Ws = quantity of water separated in the calorimeter in the
same time interval;

then the dryness fraction as measured by the

separating calorimeter (Xs)
 𝑊𝑡
𝑋𝑠 = (1)
𝑊𝑡 + 𝑊𝑠

Throttling calorimeter
Consider a fluid flowing through a throttling orifice from
higher pressure P1 to a lower pressure P2. From the steady
flow energy equation, it can be shown that adiabatic
throttling is a constant enthalpy process. The wet steam
before the throttling will become superheated steam at the
lower pressure after throttling.

Enthalpy of wet steam P1 before throttling;

𝐻1 = ℎ𝑓1 + 𝑋𝑡 ℎ𝑓𝑔1

Where, ℎ𝑓1 = specific enthalpy of saturated liquid

(sensible heat) corresponding to pressure
P1
 𝑋𝑡 = dryness fraction of steam measured by throttling
calorimeter
ℎ𝑓𝑔1 = specific enthalpy of vaporisation (latent heat)
corresponding to pressure P1
Enthalpy of superheated steam at P2 after throttling
𝐻2 = ℎ𝑔2 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑠2 )
Where, ℎ𝑔2 = specific enthalpy of saturated vapour
corresponding to pressure P2
𝐶𝑝 = specific heat at constant pressure
𝑡2 = steam temperature at throttling calorimeter
𝑡𝑠2 = saturated steam temperature corresponding to
pressure P2

Since H1 = H2,
ℎ𝑓1 + 𝑋𝑡 ℎ𝑓𝑔1 = ℎ𝑔2 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑠2 )

ℎ𝑔2 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑠2 ) − ℎ𝑓1

𝑋𝑡 = (2)
ℎ𝑓𝑔1
3.3 Combined Separating and Throttling
If w = quantity of water in steam leaving the separating
calorimeter and entering the throttling calorimeter, then of
dryness fraction
𝑊𝑡 − 𝑤
𝑋𝑡 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 = 𝑊𝑡 (1 − 𝑋𝑡 )
𝑊𝑡

But the separating calorimeter has already removed WS

water, therefore total quantity of water is (WS + w) in wet
steam (WS + Wt)

Applying this to the definition of dryness fraction

(𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑡 ) + (𝑊𝑠 + 𝑤)
𝑋=
𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑡

(𝑊𝑡 + 𝑤)
=
𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑡

But w = Wt (1 – Xt)

(𝑊𝑡 − 𝑊𝑡 )(1 − 𝑋𝑡 )
=
𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑡
 𝑊𝑡
= 𝑥 𝑋𝑡
𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑡

𝑊𝑡
From equation (1), 𝑋𝑠 =
𝑊𝑡 −𝑊𝑠

Therefore:
True dryness fraction,
X = XS x Xt (3)

Fig. 26.2. Combined Separating and Throttling Calorimeter

Fig. 26.2. Combined Separating and Throttling

Calorimeter