Professional Documents
Culture Documents
طيبة .. النساء والديمقراطية
طيبة .. النساء والديمقراطية
طيبة .. النساء والديمقراطية
: 15
26
: 8 34
:
:
:
: 61
:
: 67
:
: 108
:
: 124
: 133
8 ,
V .
V
.
.
.
:
/ .
8 8
.
8 :
: V
.
.
: 8
V
.
. :
: 8 8
.
:
8 8
/
/
/ / /
.
:
. 8
.
8
.
:
.
.
8 8
/
.
:
.
.
.
V8
.
:
:
.
.
"8" .
8 8
8 8
.
.
.
.
. 8 8
.
V 8
.
.
.
/
8
8 .
- - .
.
- -
.
.
.
.
.
. 8 V
.
.
.
.
. .
""
"" 8 8 .
VV
.
.
8
V V V .
.
V .
.
V .
.
8 .
.
V V
V
. .
.
1956
. 1954
.
.
.
.
.
1958
" " 2003
.
8 8
. 8 8
.
8
-
.
2005
.
.
.
.
" " 8
.
(
).
.
.
%18
%25
.
.
.
.
8 .
8 8 .
.
.
.
.
:
.
8 8 .
8
.
8 8
. 8 .
.
.
.
(/ /
/ / ). 8 .
8
.8
8
.
.
.
.
.
.
8 .
.
:
.
:
-
.
.
-1- 1
2004
.
:
-
.
-
: (18)
.
-
""
( )...
-
"" ""
-1-2
2002 35 ( 10)
(1
( 30)
( )
.
2
" " :
.
8
.
-2-1
8 8
.
( ) ()1999-1998
( )1995 8 .
- -
.
-
.
-
"
" 200
". "
12 2000
.
V
.
2000 2003 :
2002
( .)2001
.
" ".
-2-2
.
. :
-
" "
( )
.
,
.
,
.
-2-3
2001 " " 9 ( 30)
.
.
.
:
.
.
-
8 :
.
.
8
( ) .
.
. 8 10
.
( )...
/
.
:
8 .
"" .
.
.
.
.
:
(
.)...
( 8 )
" " 8
.
8 8 8
V .
.
t
" ".
( ) ( )
.
8
.
. 2000
.
( )
.
.
.
" " 65.5
26.9
(4
37.44
(5
62.56
3
.
: . 8
.
... .
()
()
.
. 8 8 :
8 " ".
:
.
. ()1
()2
.
( )3 " " 1000
8 .2009
: 2006 ()4
[ " " 50 1[ .2025
[ : )5( 1[ .2007
: 8
:
. 1995-1974
V
( )
39 117 . 1995
117
123( ) .
(2
)*( .
" "
V
(3
))
( ) .
V
.
.
(6
(5
V V
( :
) .
V
- . V
V
V V .
V
( )
:
....
. V
(8
...
:
V V .
. V
. " "
.. "
" ( ) .
V
(10
. (
)
(11
) .
. .
.
125
. 1998
.
.
.
(12
) .
. .
.
.
.
.
.
V .
(13
1983 .
V .
. 1961
.
.
.
.
.
( )
.
.
. V
.
.
.
. .
.
. V
( ) .
1981
y
V .
.
V
V .
.
.
.1973
, , .
V
.
.
1994 :
()i
V .
(14
8 ()i
.
1981
( ) ,
" " .
.
. V V
.
( )
. .
.
(15
" "
1987
(16
) . 1982
V
.
V .
.
" "
V
{ V V
( )
( : ) . V
(17
"
"
.
1989
.
V
.
V
1991
(
)1991 -1990
.
.
.
. V
.
. V
(18
1963 .
.
V V
.
.
)1985-1976
.
(19
1994
.
V
(20
.
.
( )1991-1990
.
:
.
. 1995
" "
.
.
1947
.
.
.
:
.
V
.
. 1980
.
" " V
1974 .
.
. 1976
V .
. .
V
(21
1994
(22
.
1971
.
%20 %30 .
.
V
:
. 1989
V V
.
. V . V
V
.
.
.
V .
.
. V
.
.
. V
y
.
.
V
( ) V
.
V
.
V
.
V
V
V V
.
V 1998
V .
1999
1999 .
. 1999
(23
) .
(24
.
.
(25
.
V
(26
() " "
(27
.
.
.
(28
(29
(30
2005
. 2005
" " .
2006
2008 2006
()iii
()ii
. V
2006 2008 .
2008
2006
- .
2003 2006 ()ii
. ( ) 2006
2006
2006
. 2007 2006
. 2008
.
2006 ( ) ()iii
.
""
. ( )
. 2006
.
2006
V .
V
.
.
(31
V V V
(32
( )
) .
.
.
.
.
(33
(34
) .
8
.
:
)1(
)2008(: 1-9.
. )33( 8 ,
"In Democracy Kuwait Trusts. But Not Much ".New York Times )May 6, . ()34
(*) :
Islam, Democracy and the Status of Women: The Case of Kuwait. Routledge Press, 2005.
.
8
. 8
.
8 .
V 8 .
.) (1975
V
.
.
.
.
.
.
:
.
. "
V ) (".
" " .
31 1945
(3
. V
"
(4
".
8 .
(5
""
" ( ) ".
(7
.
.
.
1975 .
( ) .
.
V
" ".V
V ( ) .
.
.
( )
. (
) 8 ( )
(10
(11
" "
.
V .
(12
) . - -
.
.1978 :
. 8 .
8
.
(13
.
" ".
) 1(
Samuel Huntington. The Third Wave of Democratization in the Twentieth Century. )Norman:
University of Oklahoma Press, 1992(.
.Tiziana Agnati. Politica al Femminile )Milano: Guerini e Associati, 2001(, 43 )2(
) 3(
Miriam Mafai. L'apprendistato della politica: La donne italiane nel dopoguerra )Rome: Editori
.60 ) Rinuiti, 1979
)4( Leslie Caldswell, "Reproducers of the Nation: Women and the Family in Fascist Policy," in
Rethinking Italian Fascism: Capitalism, Populism, and Culture ed. David Forgacs )London:
)5( Grant Amyot, "Non-Parliamentary Opposition in Italy: The New Social Movements," in
Opposition in Western Europe ed. Eva Kolinsky )New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987(, 364.
365 -364 ) 7(
)8( Francis Gardiner, "La Unin Europea? Hada Madrina para las Mujeres?" in Mujeres en
poltica ed. Edurne Uriarte and Arantxa Elizondo )Barcelona: Editora )Ariel S.A., 1997(, 249.
Dificuldades," in Participacin politica de las mujeres CSI 109 ed. Judith Astelarra )Madrid:
Political Parties and Interest Groups ed. Clive S. Thomas )Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner
2003
8 .
( ) . -
35 % 45
.
()
)Dahlerup, 2004(. ""
%. 48.8
.
: Women in African Parliaments. Edited by Gretchen Bauer and Hanah E. Britton.
Publishers,
London: Lynne Riemer
- 2006.
. 1994
8 8 ( 25) . 2004
8 % 32 .
2005 - : -
%24 .
.
% 6 % 18
( %40 )( ) . V V V
(3
()
.
- -
() .
-
! V V
.
25
.
( ) . V
.
( )
: Ross )2002( Tremblay )2005() (
V
(5
) .
()6
(Bauer 2004
2004( .
.
V () y .
8
.
" : (Ann Phillips )1998-228
" . ( )238-228 1998 V
" "
. ""
( ) -
)Dahlerup 1988 Reynolds 1999 Lindberg 2004(.
V
"" ( ) " -" (
)( ) . ( )5 2003
" " " " . ()201 1997
:
V (
) .
... V
... V
.
( )5 2003 ()
V . "
".
. ( )718 1997
"
8 V
" . V
V .
& Thomas 1991 Hyland Byrne 1997 Matland (
Taylor 1997 Bochel and Briggs 2000 Sainsbury 2004(.
( )100 2003
" V
"
"
".
%45
. V V
( Dian Sainsbury )2004 65
" . "
.
". t " -
.
t
".
%30 - - .
Drude Dahlerup
Dahlerup .1988 ( )2 2002
" :
8 8 .
" .
(8
8 .
t
. t
() 2000
50/50 V %50
.
" : V
.
) . 12 ". )WEDO -
50/ 50 .
.
V V
: V
.
(
)
.
8
.
- -V
( -%36.9 %37.5 % 38.2 % 45.3
-)2005 8 8 t
( ) (
"
... V
" Matland )2002 5(: Gray 2003 55(." (
". V V 8 t
"
(" )Meintjes & Simons " (
- 2002 167(.
( ) " .
V .8
.
() 8
.
".
( -)
V . " 8
V ... 8 ()
" ( )17 2004 - ( )1 2004
.%40-30
.
( .)18 2004
. 1983
" % 40
" . 1994
( .)2002 ( )77 2002 "
" .
- 12
. (94
)1999 "
". 8
"
V " .
.
.
8 8 . V ( ) 42004
. ( ) 155-154 2000
(
) .
.
( 1992 .)1992 V
( )14 2000
" V "
. 1986
. 1990
V ()
V .
1992 - -
1994
() . 1994
" " 8
.
1994 8 " "
" "
.
- 2000
1960
2001 8 8.
-
. -
-
.
.
V V V .
V
.
.
. ()
.
()
.
. V
.
.
. 1964 V .
1970 8
.
y y ( )
.
.
8
(10
V V
8
.
. V
.
( ) 8
.
V V
. V 8
/
. .V
.
8 . 8
. 8
8 8 .
(11
8 "
8 " .
V 8 ( .)127 2002
) 8
.
"
"
.
( )124 2002
() (
) .
" t
"
8 .
.
.
.
V .
8 . .
. 8
.
t . "" -
.
.
19928 .
.
. 1994 V
.
.
.
.
.
. 8 8
1985 .
8 8
. 1991
" "
.
" " .
" " (
) .
. 1989 " "
(
)
.
. :
8 t . V
8
t t . "
" .
" " % 30
1994 1999 2004
.
8 . 1999
% 30 .
8 ( )
. ()
. "
" . 1999 2004
% 30 .
.
8 V .
1989 .2003
. 30
. V
. 2001 56
13 6
. 2003
15 V ( 80 .)V
V . " "
.
%19 2001
.
. V 2002
% 30
.
8 V
. ( )10 2003
" "
8 .
8 t .
8
.
8 . t
8 8
8 8 ( .)11-10 2003
,
.
8 .
V
.
8 .
. V
( )1997 .
.
) Aili Mari Tripp )2001-
. ""
1986
.
.
.
.
""
.
.
.
.
.
/ .
.
V .
V 8
"" .
. " "
.
( 1997 )2003 1997
8 V . 8
. 1989
. .
.
( )1985 ()1995
V V
. 8
.
8 : ""
-
- .
V "" - -
.2002
8 8 8 . "
" ( ) %30
2005 . 2002
( )
.
8 .
( 8 )
.
8
.
- (/
) .
( 1997 1996 )1990
8
.
.
V
. .
. 8
.
.
. 8
.
V 8 ()
. V
1994 - -
. V
. " " ( )
8 8
.
.
8 8 .
.
8 t 8 .
V .
V
V .
.
V
. V
8 .
( )2000 " "
... .
( )1995
( 1998 2000
.)2001 V
8 8 ( .)1989
V
V
.
. V
" "
. " "
" " " "
" "
. " "8 V ""
" "
. V
.
8
8 .
8
.
()1985
(12
) .
.
.
.
.
.
.
. V
() .
-
y
. 8
V
.
.
.
- -
""
.
.
.
.
.
.
8 8 .
.
. 8
""
.
.
.
.
()
. "
" . 1998
.
.
V .
.
. -
V t
.
.
. . "
"
. V
() .
.
.
.
.
y .
.
V
.
.
.
( )1994 V
.
V
.
8 .
() .
V
.
.
.
. V
.
.
V .
. V
V
.
t
8
.
.
.
.
:
8 t 8 t
.
.
.
-
.
. ""
8 .
. 8
8 .
V .
. t 8 8
. "" V -
. 8
.
V
. 50/50
.
V .
.
8 8
.
8
.
8 . 8
.
.
"" 8 t
.
.
1994
V t .
V
( ) . ""
-
- .
. - -
.
.
. V -
. V
. V
.
.
.
8 .
.
( ) /
.
-
.
. V
.
8
.
V
V .
.
V
. V
.
8 . V
8 .
V
.
V t
.
V .
V
.
8 t 8
. 8
.
V
.
V . 8
V .
8
.
.
8
(13
) .
.
8
. 8
.
8
.
8
.
-1
" "
.
2-
www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm
3-
2001 15 18
() .
5.4 -2000
4-
30 2005
% 19.2 8
. % 15 %14.2
. www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm
-5
8 .
.
6-
- .
. (Ballington )2004
7-
" "
. ( Hyland Byne )1997 .
8-
9-
.
.
.
. " V " -
.
( ) .
)Matland 2002,2 -
( -3(.
10-
.
11-
( Ballington )2004 .
( Morna )2004 .
V Morna .
V
. 8
Molyneux
12-
( )
.
Molyneux
()
.
" " ( Ranchod-Nilsson )1998-274
13-
1999
.
(*)
:
:
t t .
: V .
8.
t
( )
The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1, 2003
y y . 8
.
8 V .
/ 8 -
.
.
8 8 V
" - )American Citizenship " ( )Smith .
..." : Laws( -
"
" )Smith, 1997, p. 1(.
" "
- -
" )p. 3(.
)Zinn,
1995; Higgibotham, 1978(.
" " V
8
)Zinn, 1991(.
8
, -
.
.
.
8 - -
y .
.
42 10925 1961
" "
.
" "
)Curry, 1998(.
.
.
.
8 .
)Farmer, 2003; Fields and Wolff, 2000,
Gibelman, 2003(.
-
- "" (
)
.
( )Michigan case )Hopwood, 1998( )Bakke, 1978(
.
. ""
.
.
.
V
"" . .
.
.
"
. (" )Smedley, 1993
)Goldberg, 1999; Harris, 1855(.
. .
8 t .
y
)Rice, 2001; Steele 1998; McWhorter, 2000,
2002, 2003(.
V
V .
"" 8
)Moynihan, ""
1965; Staples, 1986; Murray, 1984(.
.
y .
)Center for Individual Rights; National Association of
Scholars(.
8 .
" " V 8
)Dawson, 1994(.
.
.
. -
- y
. 8
-
.
( )John ( )Abigail Adams
1776 " " " "
. 8 " :
...
...
" .
.
)Guinier, 1997(. V
" "
" )Lewis, 2003(.
8 8
: " "
8
y
( )
V
.
.
8 "8 8
" )Guinier, 1997(."
V
" )Lively, p. 2(.
8 8 .
"
8 " )P. Smith 1993, p. 1(
( )Frederick Douglass -
)Philip Foner, 1976(.
8
. 8
; )Murray, 1984; Staples, 1986
8 8 y Tucker and Mitchell-Kernan, 1995(. 19
: .
.
" )Birth of a Nation(. y "
)Farmer, 2003; Hinton, 2003(.
. 8
8 ... ... "
.
" )Smith, 1993, p. 12(.
y
" " .
%35.4 %30.2
" " .2002
)EEOC Charge Statistics(.
.
. V ""
( )
"" .
"" )P. Smith, 1993, ...
p. 3(.
.
.
.
.
.
"
)Louis" . .
(Farrakhan
. " "
8
.
.
.
V 8 .
. - -
.
.
.
y .
----------
.
----------
Andrews, Pat )1995(. Voices of Diversity Perspectives on American Political Ideals and
Institutions. Connecticut: The Dushkin Publishing Group, Inc.
Bergmann, Barbara R. )1996(. In Defense of Affirmative Action. New York: Basic Books
Burbridge, Lynn C. )1995( "Policy Implications of a Decline in Marriage Among African
Americans," in The Decline in Marriage Among African Americans, M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia
Mitchell-Kernan, ed. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 323-344.
Carbado, Devon W., ed. )1999(. Black Men on Race, Gender, and Sexuality--A Critical Reader.
New York: New York University Press.
Center for Individual Rights. Website available at: http://www.cir-usa.org/.
Curry, George E., ed. )1996(. The Affirmative Action Debate. Massachusetts: Perseus Books.
Davis. Angela Y. )1983(. Women, Race & Class. New York: Vintage Books.
Dawson, Michael C. )1994(. Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African American Politics. New
Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Farmer, Melanie Austria )2003(. "Asian Americans Divided Over Michigan Affirmative-Action
Cases," DiversityInc.Com, April 1. )accessed May 20, 2003(. Available at
http://www.diversityinc.com/members/4707print.cfm
Farmer, Melanie Austria )2003(. "Race-Based Discrimination in Housing Market Rises,"
DiversityInc.com, April 18, 2003 )accessed March 19. 2003(. Available at
http://www.diversityinc.com/members/4802print.cfm
Fields, Judith and Edward N. Wolff )2000(. "Gender Differentials in Industry Wage Premia,
Affirmative Action, and Employment Growth on the Industry Level," Gender Issues, Fall, Vol. 18,
3-24.
Flax, Jane )1998(. The American Dream in Black and White--The Clarence Thomas Hearings.
New York: Cornell University Press.
Foner, Philip S., ed. )1976(. Frederick Douglass on Women's Rights. Connecticut: Greenwood
Press.
Gibelman, Margaret )2003(. "So How Far Have We come? Pestilent and Persistent Gender Gap
in Pay," Social Work, Vol. 48, 22-33.
Goldberg, Steven )1999(. "The Logic of Patriarchy," Gender Issues, Summer, Vol. 17, 19.)accessed May 30, 2003(. Available through InfoTrac One File, the Gale Group.
Guinier, Lani. Michelle Fine, and Jane Balin )1997(. Becoming Gentlemen--Women, Law School,
and Institutional Change. Massachusetts: Beacon Press.
Guinier, Lani and Gerald Torres )2002(. The Miner's Canary: Enlisting Race, Resisting Power;
Transforming Democracy: Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Gutman, Herbert G. )1977(. The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom 1750-1925. New York:
Vintage Books.
Harris, John )1855(. Patriarchy. New York: Sheldon, Lamport & Blakeman. Electronic Access
available at: http://80-www.hti.umich.edu.proxy.library.vcu.edu /cgi/t/text/textidx?c=moa;idno=AED6473
Hine. Darlene Clark )2000(. "Paradigms, Politic. and Patriarchy in the Making of a Black History:
Reflections on From Slavery to Freedom," Journal of Negro History, Winter-Spring, Vol. 85, 1821.
Higginbotham, A. Leon, Jr. )1978(. In the Matter of Color--Race & The American Legal Process:
The Colonial Period. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hinton, Eric L. )2002(. "Blacks Denied Mortgages Twice as Often as Whites." DiversityInc.com,
October 2, 2002, )accessed March 19, 03(. Available at
http://www.diversityinc.com/members/3610print.cfm
Humphreys, Kcith and Eric G. Hamilton )1995(. "Alternating Themes: Advocacy and SelfReliance," Social Policy, Winter. Vol. 26, 2, 24 33.
Jennings. James )2003(. Welfare Reform and the Revitalization of Inner City Neighborhoods.
Michigan: Michigan State University Press.
Lens, Vicki )2003(. "Reading Between the Lines: Analyzing the Supreme Court's Views on Gender
Discrimination in Employment, 1971-1982," Social Science Review, Vol. 77, March, 25-52.
Lewis, Adrienne )2)103(. "Threats to College Diversity Programs Pose Risks for Boys." USA
Today, May 23, 14A.
Lively, Donald E. )1992(. The Constitution and Race. New York: Praeger.
Lords, Erik )2003(. "Taking Sides: Legal Scholars May Be Divided on the Possible Outcome of
the University of Michigan's Affirmative Action Cases, But They All Agree It Will Be Historic," Black
Issues in Higher Education, February 27, 2003 )accessed May 15, 2003(. Available through
LexisNexis.
MacDonald, John A. )2003(. "Diversity or Racism? High Court Will Hear University of Michigan
Bias Case," Hartford Courant, March 30, 2003, A1.
McWhorter, John H. )2000(. Losing the Race: Self Sabotage in Black America. New York: Free
Press.
-- )2002(. "Need for Race Preferences Is Long Past," Richmond Times Dispatch. December 15,
2002, E1.
Moynihan, D.P. )1965(. The Negro Family: The Case for National Action. Washington, D.C.:
Office of Policy Planning and Research, U.S. Department of Labor.
Mullings, Leith )1997(. On Our Own Terms Race. Class, and Gender in the Lives of African
American Women. New York: Routledge.
Murray, Charles )1984(. Losing Ground--American Social Policy 1950-1980. New York: Basic
Books, Inc. Publishers.
National Association of Scholars. Website available at: http://www.nas.org/.
Rice, Joy K )2001(. "Poverty, Welfare, and Patriarchy: How Macro-Level Changes in Social Policy
Can Help Low-Income Women," Journal of Social Issues, Summer, vol. 57,355 )accessed May
30, 2003(. Available through InfoTrac One File, the Gale Group.
Smedley, Audrey )1993(. Race in North America--Origin and Evolution of a Worldview. Colorado:
Westview Press.
Smith, Patricia, ed. )1993(. Feminist Jurisprudence. New York: Oxford University Press.
Staples, Robert, ed. )1986(. The Black Family Essays and Studies. 4th ed. California: Wadsworth
Publishing.
Steele, Shelby )1998(. A Dream Deferred--The Second Betrayal of Black Freedom in America.
New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
Zinn, Howard )1995(. A People's History of the United States 1492 Present. New York: Harper
Perennial.
-- )1991(. Declarations of Independence--Cross-Examining American Ideology. New York:
Harper Perennial.
:
157 .
.
.
[ .
[1
8 1994 8
V 8 1999
. %30
.
.
.
.
: . 1790
. .
.
" " 1837 -1835 ""
""
. /
1940
.
8
.
.
.
" " .
.
" " .
.
. .
.
.
"
"
.
.
1970 1990
.
1980 1990 V
%26 .
ANC 1931y8
1943
. FEDSAW ANCWL
WNC
.
%30
.
.
1994 1999
%50 .
.
8
.
:
.
:
-1 .
-2 .
-3 .
-
. 8 8
.
-
.
.
- .
-
.
.
.
" "
.
. 8
( 9)
. 1998
8 .
. 8 t
.
The National
. (Gender Machinery )NGM
:
.
(
)
%50
.
8 8 t 8.
.
.
.
:
-1 .
-2 .
-3 .
-4 .
-5 .
-6 .
-7 .
-
8 ,
, .
, 8 ,
.
:
- .
( ).
. . . .
8 ,
, , ,
, . ,
, .
. ( ). . . . . .
-
,
,
, , ,
.
, , , 8
, V8 .
:
. . . . . .