Contents

Contents ........................................................................................................................ 1

Experiment No.7 ............................................................................................................ 4

Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 4

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 4

7.1.1 Equipment ......................................................................................................... 4

7.1.2 F1-22 Energy Losses in Bends and Fittings Apparatus ......................................... 4

7.1.3 Theory ............................................................................................................... 5

7.2 Methodology ............................................................................................................ 6

7.2.1 Procedure .......................................................................................................... 6

7.3 Observation and Calculation ..................................................................................... 7

7.4 Result and Discussion ............................................................................................ 11

7.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 11

Experiment No.8 .......................................................................................................... 12

Objectives ................................................................................................................... 12

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 12

8.1.1 F1-18 Pipe Friction Apparatus .......................................................................... 12

8.1.2 Equipment ....................................................................................................... 13

8.1.3 Theory ............................................................................................................. 13

8.2 Methodology .......................................................................................................... 14

8.2.1 Procedure ........................................................................................................ 14

8.3 Observation and Calculation ................................................................................... 14

8.4 Result and Discussion ............................................................................................ 15

8.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 16

Experiment No.9 .......................................................................................................... 17

Objective ..................................................................................................................... 17

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 17

9.1.1 Flat Bottom Pontoon ........................................................................................ 17

9.1.2 Equipment ....................................................................................................... 17

9.1.3 Theory ............................................................................................................. 18

9.2 Methodology .......................................................................................................... 18

9.2.1 Procedure ........................................................................................................ 19

9.3 Observation and Calculation ................................................................................... 19

9.4 Result and Discussion ............................................................................................ 19

9.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 20

Experiment No.10 ........................................................................................................ 21

Objectives ................................................................................................................... 21

10.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 21

10.1.1 F1-14 Free Vortex Apparatus .......................................................................... 21

10.1.2 Equipment...................................................................................................... 22

10.1.3 Theory ........................................................................................................... 22

10.2 Methodology ........................................................................................................ 23

10.2.1 Procedure ....................................................................................................... 23

10.3 Observation and Calculation ................................................................................. 24

10.4 Result and Discussion ........................................................................................... 25

10.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 25

Experiment 11 ............................................................................................................. 26

11.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 26

 11.1.1 Equipment...................................................................................................... 26

11.1.2 Theory ........................................................................................................... 27

11.2 Methodology ........................................................................................................ 30

11.2.1 Procedure ....................................................................................................... 30

11.3 Observations and calculations ............................................................................... 31

11.4 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 32

Experiment No.7
To Demonstrate the Loss Factors for the Flow through a Range of Pipe
Fittings Including Bends, Contraction, Enlargement and Gate-Valve
Objectives
 To calculate the loss coefficient across a range of pipe fittings.
 To plot the graph between the loss coefficient and volumetric flow rate across each
pipe fitting.

7.1 Introduction
Our main purpose of this experiment is to find the loss coefficient across bends,
contractions, enlargement, mitre, elbow, short bend and gate valve. It is important to
determine because different energy losses occur in different pipe fittings. Two types of
energy loss predominate in fluid flow through a pipe network, major and minor losses. Major
losses are associated with frictional energy loss that is caused by the viscous effects of the
medium and roughness of the pipe wall. On the other hand, minor losses are due to pipe
fittings, changes in the flow direction, and changes in the flow area. Due to the complexity
of the piping system and the number of fittings that are used, the head loss coefficient (K)
is empirically derived as a quick means of calculating the minor head losses.

7.1.1 Equipment
The following equipment is used to perform this experiment:

 F1-10 hydraulic bench that allows for determining flow rate.

 F1-22 Energy Losses in Bends and Fittings apparatus.
 A stopwatch to determine the volume collected for a specific time interval.
 Clamps for pressure-tapping connection tubes.

7.1.2 F1-22 Energy Losses in Bends and Fittings Apparatus

The energy loss in the fittings apparatus consists of a series of fittings, a flow control valve,
twelve manometers, a differential pressure gauge, and an air -bleed screw valve. The
manometers are tapped into the pipe system (one before and one after each fitting, except
for the gate valve) to measure the pressure head difference caused by each fitting. The
pressure difference for the valve is directly measured by the differential pressure gauge.
The air-bleed valve facilitates purging the system and adjusting the water level in the
manometers to a convenient level, by allowing air to enter them. Two clamps, which close
off the tappings to the mitre, are introduced while experiments are being performed on the
gate valve. The flow rate is controlled by the flow control valve.

Fig.1 (F1 -22 Energy Losses in Bends and Fittings Apparatus)

7.1.3 Theory
Now, we have to find out the relation for loss co -efficient. According to Bernoulli’s
equation:

1 1
𝑃𝑖 + 𝜌𝑣𝑖2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑖 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌𝑣𝑜2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ0
2 2

But in reality,

1 1
𝑃𝑖 + 𝜌𝑣𝑖2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑖 > 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌𝑣𝑜2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ0
2 2

So,
1 1
𝑃𝑖 + 2 𝜌𝑣𝑖2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑖 = 𝑃𝑜 + 2 𝜌𝑣𝑜2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ0 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 (1)
Dividing equation (1) by 𝜌𝑔 on both sides, we get

𝑃𝑖 1 𝑣𝑖2 𝑃𝑜 1 𝑣𝑜2 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

+ = + +
𝜌𝑔 2 𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2 𝑔 𝜌𝑔

𝑃𝑖 1 𝑣𝑖2 𝑃𝑜 1 𝑣𝑜2
+ = + + ∆ℎ
𝜌𝑔 2 𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2 𝑔

1 𝑣𝑖2 1 𝑣𝑜2
𝐻𝑖 + = 𝐻𝑜 + + ∆ℎ
2𝑔 2𝑔

For sections of constant cross -section

∆𝐻 = 𝐻𝑖 − 𝐻𝑜

2∆ℎ𝑔
𝑘= (2)
𝑣2

Where,

k= loss co-efficient and v=mean velocity of the flow into the fitting

7.2 Methodology
7.2.1 Procedure

 The apparatus was set up on the hydraulics bench and ensured that its base was
horizontal.
 The apparatus inlet was connected to the bench flow supply, and run the outlet
extension tube to the volumetric tank.
 The bench valve, the gate valve, and the flow control valve were opened and started
the pump to fill the pipe system and manometers with water. Ensure d that the air-
bleed valve is closed.
 The air was purged from the pipe system and manometers, connect ed a bore tubing
from the air valve to the volumetric tank, remove d the cap from the air valve, and
opened the air-bleed screw to allow flow through the manometers. Tighten ed the air-
bleed screw when no air bubbles were observed in the manometers.
  For flow measurement, the dump valve was closed and used a stopwatch to measure
the time that it took to accumulate a known volume of fluid in the tank, which was
read from the hydraulics bench sight glass.
 The air-bleed screw was opened slightly to allow air to enter the top of the
manometers; re-tightened the screw when the manometer levels reach ed a convenient
height.
 The height readings were taken from all manometers after the levels were steady.

7.3 Observation and Calculation

d=0.0196m d=0.024m

The variation of loss coefficient with flowrate in a range of pipe fittings is shown below:

Table1. (The variation of loss coefficient in a range of pipe fittings)

Group Fitting h1 h2 h1-h2 Volume Time Flow Rate Velocity v2/2g k
(m) (m) (m) (m3) (s) (m3/s) (m/s) (m)
Mitre 0.32 0.30 0.03 0.353 0.0063 3.95
Elbow 0.37 0.34 0.02 0.353 0.0063 3.47
1 Short bend 0.38 0.37 0.01 0.353 0.0063 1.11
0.001 9.4 0.00011
Long bend 0.40 0.39 0.00 0.353 0.0063 0.47
Enlargement 0.39 0.39 0.00 0.353 0.0120 0.25
Contraction 0.39 0.38 0.01 0.235 0.0180 0.56

Table2. (The variation of loss coefficient in a range of pipe fittings)

Group Fitting h1 h2 h1-h2 Volume Time Flow Rate Velocity v2/2g k
(m) (m) (m) (m3) (s) (m3/s) (m/s) (m)
Mitre 0.34 0.28 0.058 0.448 0.010 5.66
Elbow 0.38 0.33 0.047 0.448 0.010 4.59
2 Short bend 0.39 0.38 0.013 0.448 0.010 1.27
0.001 7.39 0.00014
Long bend 0.42 0.41 0.007 0.448 0.010 0.68
Enlargement 0.41 0.41 0.006 0.448 0.015 0.37
Contraction 0.41 0.39 0.014 0.299 0.023 0.63
Table3. (The variation of loss coefficient in a range of pipe fittings)
Flow
Group Fitting h1 h2 h1-h2 Volume Time Velocity v2/2g k
Rate
(m) (m) (m) (m3) (s) (m3/s) (m/s) (m)
Mitre 0.30 0.296 0.008 0.25 0.003 2.42
Elbow 0.33 0.322 0.005 0.25 0.003 1.51
3 Short bend 0.34 0.332 0.003 0.25 0.003 0.91
0.001 13 7.7E-05
Long bend 0.35 0.344 0.001 0.25 0.003 0.30
Enlargement 0.34 0.345 0.001 0.25 0.009 0.15
Contraction 0.34 0.333 0.006 0.17 0.013 0.44

Table4. (The variation of loss coefficient in a range of pipe fittings)

Group Fitting h1 h2 h1-h2 Volume Time Flow Rate Velocity v2/2g k
(m) (m) (m) (m3) (s) (m3/s) (m/s) (m)
Mitre 0.31 0.28 0.035 0.39 0.0077 4.52
Elbow 0.36 0.33 0.030 0.39 0.0077 3.87
4 Short bend 0.37 0.36 0.009 0.39 0.0077 1.16
0.001 8.5 0.00012
Long bend 0.39 0.39 0.004 0.39 0.0077 0.52
Enlargement 0.39 0.39 0.004 0.39 0.0133 0.27
Contraction 0.39 0.37 0.011 0.26 0.0199 0.57

The graphs between loss coefficient and flowrate for a range of pipe fittings are shown
below:

Fig.2(Variation in loss coefficient with flowrate in mitre)

 Fig.3(Variation in loss coefficient with flowrate in elbow)

Fig.4(Variation in loss coefficient with flowrate in short bend)

 Fig.5(Variation in loss coefficient with flowrate in long bend)

Fig.6(Variation in loss coefficient with flowrate in enlargement)

 Fig.7(Variation in loss coefficient with flowrate in contraction)

7.4 Result and Discussion

Since the flow is continuous it means that water first passes through the long bend then
enlargement and the end from the mitre moreover the bending angle is 90 ° that is why the
friction loss is maximum through the mitre bend as compared to the others so its “K” because
of very sharp turning angle. The loss coefficient is maximum for contraction and minimum
for enlargement. The graph between “Q” and “K” is a straight line w hich shows that the loto
ss is increasing with the flow rate as discussed earlier at high speed the flow becomes
turbulent. 70° is the optimum angle at which major and minor losses are minimum if the
angle is decreased the minor loss will decrease but you will need a longer pipe to make the
transition laminar which means more frictional losses.

7.5 Conclusion
From this experiment, we can conclude that Loss coefficient “K” is directly proportional to
the flow rate “Q” i.e., by increasing the flow rate the lo ss coefficient will also increase
because at high speeds. The loss coefficient is maximum for contraction and minimum for
enlargement. The graph between “Q” and “K” is a straight line which shows that the loto ss
is increasing with the flow rate as discuss ed earlier at high speed the flow becomes
turbulent. 70° is the optimum angle at which major and minor losses are minimum if the
angle is decreased the minor loss will decrease but you will need a longer pipe to make the
transition laminar which means more frictional losses.
Experiment No.8
To Investigate the Head Loss Due to Friction in the Flow of Water
through a Pipe and to Determine the Associated Friction Factor over
the Range of Flow rates
Objectives
 To determine the head loss of the flow through a pipe of constant cross-section.
 To determine the friction factor corresponding to Reynolds’ number.
 To plot the graph between the friction factor and Reynolds’ number.

8.1 Introduction
The total energy loss in a pipe system is the sum of the major and mino r losses. In laminar
flows, f is only a function of the Reynolds number and is independent of the pipe’s surface
roughness. In fully turbulent flows, f depends on both the Reynolds number and the relative
roughness of the pipe wall.

8.1.1 F1-18 Pipe Friction Apparatus

The pipe friction apparatus consists of a test pipe (mounted vertically on the rig), a constant
head tank, a flow control valve, an air-bleed valve, and two sets of manometers to measure
the head losses in the pipe. The apparatus’ flow control valve is used to regulate flow
through the test pipe. This valve should face the volumetric tank, and a short length of the
flexible tube should be attached to it, to prevent splashing. The air -bleed valve facilitates
purging the system and adjusting the water level in the water manometers to a convenient
level, by allowing air to enter them.
 Fig.1 (F1-18 Pipe Friction Apparatus)
8.1.2 Equipment
The equipment that is required to perform this experiment is given below:

 F1-10 Hydraulic bench to provide water supply.

 F1-18 Pipe friction apparatus
 Stopwatch to record the time taken for finding the volumetric flow rate.

8.1.3 Theory
We have to find the friction factor for the flow through the pipe of constant cross -section.
We can find the friction factor by using the Darcy-Weisbach equation:

2∆ℎ𝑔𝑑
𝑓=
𝑙𝑣 2

For turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, a well -known curve fit to the Moody diagram is given
by: (Blasius equation)

𝑓 = 0.316𝑅𝑒−0.25

For laminar flow, the Darcy-Weisbach coefficient (or friction factor f ) is only a function
of the Reynolds number (Re) and is independent of the surface roughness of the pipe, i.e.
 64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒

Reynolds’ number can be found by:

𝑝𝑑𝑣
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

8.2 Methodology
8.2.1 Procedure

 The bench supply tube was connected to the head tank inflow, run the pump, and
opened the bench valve to allow flow. When outflow occurred from the head tank
snap connector, attached the test section supply tube to it, ensuring that no air is
entrapped.
 When outflow occured from the head tank overflow, fully opened the control valve.
 The clamps were removed from the water manometer tubes and closed the control
valve.
 The air bleed screw was opened and allowed flow through the manometers to purge
all of the air from them. Then tightened the air bleed screw.
 The control valve was fully opened and slowly opened the air bleed valve, allowing
air to enter until the manometer levels reach a convenient height (in the middle of the
manometers), then closed the air vent.
 With the flow control valve fully opened, measured the head loss shown by the
manometers.
 The flow rate was calculated and the friction factor was determined.

8.3 Observation and Calculation

The friction factor and head loss are calculated in the given table.
Table1. (Head loss and friction factor correspond to different flowrates)
Group Voulme Time h1 h2 h Q Velocity Re f(exp) f(theo) %error
0.000092 20 0.349 0.24 0.109 0.0000046 0.65 1950 0.030 0.033 7.77
1 0.000086 20 0.34 0.251 0.089 0.0000043 0.61 1823 0.028 0.035 19.44
0.000103 20 0.366 0.217 0.149 0.0000052 0.73 2183 0.033 0.040 16.51
2 0.000098 20 0.357 0.229 0.128 0.0000049 0.69 2016 0.031 0.040 22.02
0.000101 20 0.357 0.229 0.128 0.0000051 0.71 2141 0.029 0.040 25.70
3 0.00009 20 0.345 0.248 0.097 0.0000045 0.64 1908 0.028 0.034 16.10

4
The relation between friction factor and R e is shown in the graph below:

Fig2. (Variation in losses with flow regime)

8.4 Result and Discussion

It is obvious from the graph that with the increase in flow rate, Reynold’s number increases,
hence major losses increases in the pipe. As in the start, losses were reasonable but with the
increase in Reynold’s number, the increase in losses is quite large. The point lies very away
from the line of best fit.
8.5 Conclusion
Our experiment concludes that with the increase in flow rate, Reynold’s number increases,
hence major losses increases in the pipe. As in the start, losses were reasonable but with the
increase in Reynold’s number, the increase in losses is quit e large. The point lies very away
from the line of best fit.
Experiment No.9
To Determine the Metacentric Height of a Floating Object
Objective
 To determine the metacentric height of a floating object.

9.1 Introduction
It is crucial to find out the metacentric height of any boat before designing. It determines
whether the body will sink or float. If the metacentre lies above the centre of gravity, the
buoyant force will produce the overturning couple. If the metacentre lies below the cen tre
of gravity, the buoyant force will produce the restoring couple. According to Archimedes’
principle, the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the displaced volume of the water by
the body.

9.1.1 Flat Bottom Pontoon

A scale is attached to the flat bottom pontoon. The scale determines the rotating angle and
the displacement of the body when it rotates to its original position. The mass is attached
to a rod that is fixed to the sides of the pontoon. When we move the transverse mass, the
pontoon rotates. The buoyant force produces the restoring couple.

Fig.1 (Flat Bottom Pontoon)

9.1.2 Equipment

Following the equipment are required to perform this experiment:

 F1-10 hydraulic bench

  Flat bottom pontoon

9.1.3 Theory

The point about which the body starts os cillating is called the centre of buoyancy. The
distance between the centre of gravity of the floating body and the metacentre. If M lies
above a righting moment is produced, equilibrium is stable and GM is regarded as positive.
If M lies below an overturning moment is produced, equilibrium is unstable and GM is
regarded as negative. As the body is totally submerged, the shape of displaced fluid is not
altered when the body is tilted and so the centre of buoyancy remains unchanged relative to
the body.

We can determine the GM (theoretical) and GM (experimental) by using the following

equation.

𝑏2 𝑑𝑖
𝐺𝑀𝑡ℎ = − (𝑦 − )
12𝑑𝑖 2

𝑃𝑥
𝐺𝑀𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
𝑊

9.2 Methodology
Here is the F1-14 armfied pontoon shown below:

Fig2. (F1-14 armfield pontoon)

 9.2.1 Procedure

 The pump was switched on and opened the bench valve and filled the volumetric tank
until the required level.
 The flat bottom pontoon was placed onto the water, it does not sink due to the greater
buoyant force than the weight of the body.
 The transverse mass was moved, it takes some angle and showed the displacement.
 The transverse mass was moved 8 times and different angles and displacement was
measured corresponding to each time.
 The metacentric height was calculated using the above -given formulas.

9.3 Observation and Calculation

Table1. (Metacentric height for different displacement and angles)
No.
l b W P di Angle Theoretical Experimental
of d (m) y (m) x (m) % Error
(m) (m) (kg) (kg) (m) (deg) GM GM
obs.
1 0.095 0.014 2.8 0.051223828 8.347026999
0.055888889
2 0.095 0.024 4.8 0.051144657 8.488685293
3 0.103 0.020 5 0.040907556 14.57819014
0.047888889
4 0.103 0.030 7.1 0.043100259 9.999459059
0.35 0.2 0.075 1.71 0.306 0.024
5 0.100 0.025 5.7 0.044820536 11.92471145
0.050888889
6 0.100 0.035 7.7 0.046323315 8.971652068
7 0.09 0.015 2.9 0.052987097 12.97739583
0.060888889
8 0.09 0.025 4.5 0.056843548 6.643808844

9.4 Result and Discussion

The centre of gravity height there is a decrease in the metacentric height it shows that there
is inverse relation between y and GM. On the other side change in affect the stability of
metacentric body. The general angle is 20 degrees. By increasing more than 20 it goes
toward sinking. Finally, the difference between the theoretical and experimental value is
due to the ability to measure the exact angle as the body is floating and some uncertainty in
readings may occur.
9.5 Conclusion
Our experiment concludes that if the point of buoyancy lies above the point of centre of
gravity, the body is stable and it is the floating condition. The restoring couple will produce
in this case. If M lies above the G, the body will remain stable. If M lies below the G, the
overturning couple will produce and the body will sink.
Experiment No.10
To Determine the Surface Profile of a Forced Vortex
Objectives
 To determine the surface profile of a forced vortex.
 To determine the height of the profile from the datum.

10.1 Introduction
Vortices can occur naturally or be produced in a laboratory. There are two types of vortices:
free vortices and forced vortices. A free vortex is formed, for example, when water flows
out of a vessel through a central hole in the base. No external force is required to rotate the
fluid, and the degree of rotation is dependent upon the initial disturbance. Whirlpools in
rivers and tornadoes are examples of natural free vortices. A forced vo rtex, on the other
hand, is caused by external forces on the fluid. It can be created by rotating a vessel
containing fluid or by paddling in the fluid. Rotational flow created by the impellers of a
pump is an example of a forced vortex in turbomachinery.

10.1.1 F1-14 Free Vortex Apparatus

The forced vortex is created by positioning a
bushed plug in the central hole of the vessel and
introducing the flow through 9 mm inlet tubes
that are angled at 60° to the diameter. The water
inflow from these tubes impinges on a two -blade
paddle. The water exits the vessel via the 12.5
mm angled inlet tubes that are used as entry
tubes for the free vortex experiment. The two -
bladed paddle rotates on a vertical shaft
supported by the bushed plug. A bridge piece
Fig.1 (Forced Vortex Apparatus)
mounted on top of the vessel houses a series o f
needles to determine the coordinates of the forced vortex profile . A 3-way valve allows
water to be diverted through the 12.5 mm inlet tubes for the free vortex experiment, and 9
mm inlet tubes for the forced vortex experiment.

10.1.2 Equipment

The following equipment is required to perform this experiment:

 F1-10 Hydraulic Bench

 Force vortex apparatus
 Stopwatch to count the revolutions of the propeller.

10.1.3 Theory
When water is forced to rotate at a constant speed the velocity will be also constan t and
equal to:

𝑣 = 𝑟𝑤 (1)

The velocity head (or kinetic energy) can be calculated as:

𝑣2
ℎ𝑐 = (2)
2𝑔

Substitute eq. (1) into eq. (2), we have;

𝑟 2𝑤 2
ℎ𝑐 =
2𝑔

If the horizontal plane passing through the lowest point of the vortex is selected as the
datum, the total energy is equal to:

𝐻 = ℎ𝑜 + ℎ𝑐

𝑟 2𝑤 2
𝐻 = ℎ𝑜 + (3)
2𝑔

At r=0: H=0 , therefore, h o =0, and

𝑟 2𝑤 2
𝐻 =
2𝑔

The forced vortex profile is shown below:

 Fig.2 (Velocity profile of a forced vortex

10.2 Methodology
Several forced and free vortices are used in this experiment, and the water surface profiles
of each are measured in order to compare the results. We will investigate the profiles of free
vortices that are created when water is forced through orifices positioned at the base of
tanks that range in diameter. The flow rate varies as the orifice size is changed, which alters
the size and rotating speed of the vortex profile. In order to explore the theoretical and
experimental correlations between the vortex surface profile and angular velocity, as forced
vortices are produced as a result of external forces, we shall increase the rotational speed
throughout the experiment.

10.2.1 Procedure

 The two-blade paddle wheel was mounted on the shaft with the tapered sides pointing
upward. The bushed plug was inserted into the vessel's outlet.
 The 3-way valve was adjusted in such a way that water entered the vessel through the
outlets at a 60-degree angle. In order to fill the vessel with water, the pump was
turned on, opened the bench control valve, and waited until the water was just started
to overflow through the cutouts. Water passed through these ports, hit the paddle
wheel, and then exited the device through the two 15-degree openings.

 After the vessel was filled with water, adjusted the outlet valve so that the water
level remained stable.
 The vortex surface profile was measured after the water level was stabilised. The
measuring bridge was mounted to the vessel, and the needles were then lowered until
 they were in contact with the vortex's profile. Lock ed them in place, then took the
bridge off to gauge how tall each ne edle is.
 The time was recorded that the paddles took to make 10 revolutions in the vessel.
 The inflow rate was increased to achieve higher angular velocity and repeat ed the
same process to get the four distinct vortex profiles.

10.3 Observation and Calculation

Table1. (Forced vortex profile height and percentage error between theoretical and experimental)
Radius hm ho hc
No. of Time 𝜔
Group (r) (Theoretical) (Datum) (Experimental) %Error
revolutions
(s) rad/s (m) (m) (m) (m)
0.11 -0.125 -0.1246 0.32
0.09 -0.128 -0.13135 2.61
10 0.07 -0.133 -0.13674 2.81
1 10.92 5.75 -0.145
0.05 -0.137 -0.14079 2.76
0.03 -0.144 -0.14348 0.40
0 -0.145 -0.145 0

Table2. (Forced vortex profile height and percentage error between theoretical and experimental)
Radius hm ho hc
No. of Time 𝜔
Group (r) (Theoretical) (Datum) (Experimental) %Error
revolutions
(s) rad/s (m) (m) (m) (m)
0.11 -0.115 -0.117 1.73
0.09 -0.123 -0.125 1.30
0.07 -0.13 -0.131 0.52
2 15 15.43 6.11 -0.14
0.05 -0.135 -0.135 0.18
0.03 -0.138 -0.138 0.21
0 -0.14 -0.140 0.00

Table3. (Forced vortex profile height and percentage error between theoretical and experimental)
Radius hm ho hc
No. of Time 𝜔
Group (r) (Theoretical) (Datum) (Experimental) %Error
revolutions
(s) rad/s (m) (m) (m) (m)
0.11 -0.129 -0.121 6.22
0.09 -0.138 -0.133 3.95
0.07 -0.141 -0.142 0.58
3 12 10 7.54 -0.156
0.05 -0.146 -0.149 1.89
0.03 -0.149 -0.153 2.95
0 -0.156 -0.156 0.00
Table4. (Forced vortex profile height and percentage error between theoretical and experimental)
Radius hm ho hc
No. of Time 𝜔
Group (r) (Theoretical) (Datum) (Experimental) %Error
revolutions
(s) rad/s (m) (m) (m) (m)
0.11 -0.135 -0.136 0.50
0.09 -0.145 -0.144 0.88
0.07 -0.15 -0.150 0.10
4 10 10 6.28 -0.16
0.05 -0.1534 -0.155 1.03
0.03 -0.154 -0.158 2.72
0 -0.16 -0.160 0.00

10.4 Result and Discussion

With the increase in flowrate, there is a rise to the wall of the water. Due to which height
from the surface of water increase. Also, the angular velocity of the propeller increases.
The datum height is also increasing with the increase n angular velocity.

10.5 Conclusion
Our experiment concludes that With the increase in flowrat e, there is a rise to the wall of
the water. Due to which height from the surface of water increase. Also, the angular velocity
of the propeller increases. The datum height is also increasing with the increase n angular
velocity.
Experiment 11
To determine the surface profile of a free vortex
11.1 Introduction
Vortices can occur naturally or be produced in a laboratory. There are two types of
vortices: free vortices and forced vortices. A free vortex is formed, for example, when water
flows out of a vessel through a central hole in the base. No external force is required to
rotate the fluid, and the degree of rotation is dependent upon the initial disturbance.
Whirlpools in rivers and tornadoes are examples of natural free vortices. A forced vort ex,
on the other hand, is caused by external forces on the fluid. It can be created by rotating a
vessel containing fluid or by paddling in fluid. Rotational flow created by impellers of a
pump is an example of a forced vortex in turbomachinery. Studying natural phenomena such
as hurricanes, tornadoes, and whirlpools (free vortices) requires a full understanding of
vortex behavior. It is also critical for engineers and designers to be able to characterize
forced vortices generated in machinery, such as cent rifugal pumps or turbines. Vortices
often have adverse effects, as have been seen during hurricanes, tornadoes, or scour holes
created downstream of a dam outlet; however, understanding vortex behavior has enabled
engineers to design turbomachinery and hyd raulic structures that take advantage of these
phenomena. For example, hydrodynamic separators have been developed, based on vortex
behavior (swirling flow), to separate solid materials from liquids. This type of separator is
used in water treatment plants.

11.1.1 Equipment
The following equipment is required to perform the free and forced experiment:

 F1-10 hydraulics bench, and

 Free and forced vortices apparatus.
 Fig1. (Free and Forced vortices apparatus)

11.1.2 Theory

By using Bernoulli’s theorem, we will derive a relation between depth and radius of vortex
produce.

1
p + ρv 2 + ρgz = constant
2

Where,

p is the constant pressure

ρ is the density of fluid

z is the depth of the vortex

Since pressure is constant, so

1 2
ρv + ρgz = constant
2

Now by dividing the whole above equation with product of ρg

v2
+ z = constant
2g
 v2
= constant − z
2g

Since,

1
vα
r
𝑘
v=
r

So,

𝑘2
= constant − z
2gr 2

1
Depth α
r2

This is the relation we will derive between depth and radius so as greater the depth smaller
is the radius and vices versa.

A free vortex is formed when water flows out of a vessel through a central hole in the base.
The degree of the rotation depends on the initial disturbance. In a free cylindrical vortex,
the velocity varies inversely with the distance from the axis of rotation.
The equation governing the surface profile is derived from the Bernoulli’s theorem:

𝑘2
𝐶 = +𝑧
2𝑔𝑟 2

𝑘2
𝐶−𝑧=
2𝑔𝑟 2

which is the equation of a hyperbolic curve of nature. This curve is asymptotic to the axis
of rotation and to the horizontal plane through z=c which is the equation of a hyperbolic
curve of nature. This curve is asymptotic to the axis of rotation and to the horizontal plane
through z=c.
11.2 Methodology
This experiment is performed by measuring the water surface profiles of a number of
free and forced vortices, and observing the differences. We will study the profiles of free
vortices that are produced when water flows from orifices of different diameters that are
installed at the base of a tank. Varying the size of the orifice creates changes in the flow
rate, thereby changing the rotational speed and size of the vortex profile. Forced vortices
are created due to external forces, so we will incr ease the rotational speed throughout the
experiment to study the theoretical and experimental relationships between the vortex
surface profile and angular velocity.

11.2.1 Procedure

 Positioned the apparatus on the hydraulics bench so that the central ou tlet in the
base of the vessel was located over the weir trough.
 Adjusted the feet to ensure that the apparatus is level.
 Pushed the 24 mm diameter orifice into the central outlet located in the base of the
apparatus.
 Connected the inlet pipe of the apparatus to the hydraulics bench outlet, using the
flexible pipe provided.
 Closed the bench outlet valve, and turn ed on the pump.
 Gradually opened the bench valve, and allowed the vessel to fill with water until
water began to overflow through the cutouts.
 After the vessel was slightly overflowing, slowly opened the outlet valve so that the
water level maintained a stable height.
 After a constant water level h ad been achieved, measured the water surface profile,
by adjusting the measuring caliper to a desired radius, and then lower ed it into the
vortex until the needles evenly touch the walls of the vortex. At this point, record ed
the height indicated by the caliper and repeat ed the procedure for the remaining
radii.
 After completing your measurements, close d the bench valve, turned off the pump,
drained the apparatus, and repeated the process for the remaining two orifices.
11.3 Observations and calculations
Table1. (Free vortex profile measurements)
No. of Radius of Vortex(r) Squared Radius(r 2 ) Depth of Vortex(z) C = z*r 2
Obs. (mm) (mm 2 ) (mm) (mm 3 )
1 50 2500 25.5 63750
2 45 2025 26.5 53663
3 40 1600 29 46400
4 35 1225 36.5 44713
5 30 900 45.5 40950
6 25 625 55.5 34688
 Free Vortex Profile
60

55

50 y = 2648.4x-1.204
Depth-z (mm)
45

40

35

30

25

20
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Radius-r (mm)

Fig.2 (Free vortex profile)

11.4 Conclusions
Our experiment concludes that with the increase in depth, the radius is decreasing. Because
of the drainage from the centre, water surface form has maximum radius at the start and
then after certain depth, it becomes constant.