FOUNDATION ENGINEERING LECTURE III

Rigid Body or Uniform Settlement

Tilt or Distortion

Non-uniform or Differential Settlement

Figure 1. Types of Settlement
 RIGID BODY OR UNIFORM SETTLEMENT
Most damage from uniform settlement is limited to
surrounding drainage systems, attached buildings, and
utilities
 NON-UNIFORM SETTLEMENT
Also called Differential Settlement, may lead to serious
structural problems such as cracking and structural
distress in members.
 TILT OR DISTORTION
Is caused by Differential Settlement and is quantified by
the ratio δ/l where δ is the maximum differential
settlement and l is the length over which the maximum
differential settlement occurs. Thus, distortion is an
angular measurement (radians) and is often referred to as
angular distortion. While distortion may not cause serious
structural distress, it can cause the building to be
unserviceable.
Because of the variability of soils and the complexity of their
behavior, it is difficult to estimate settlement unless simplifying
assumptions are made. One of these assumptions is that the soil
is an ELASTIC MATERIAL.

An ELASTIC SOIL is an IDEALIZATION.

Elastic materials return to their initial geometry upon unloading.

A linear elastic soil is one that has a linear stress-strain
relationship.
The shear modulus G, links shear stress τ to shear strain γ based
on figure 3. G is related to E and this relationship allows you to
estimate E if you know G. Recall that shear distorts a material.
Similar to the interpretation of Young’s modulus, the shear
modulus for a linear elastic soil is G and the secant shear modulus
is Gsec. The shear modulus is related to Young’s modulus as
𝐸
𝐺=
2(1 + 𝜇)
The assumption of elastic behavior allows us to calculate
settlement from just knowing the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s
ratio, μ. When the letter E or μ is followed by a prime, it denotes
effective stress condition. Table 1 gives typical values of E and G
(based on effective stress) for soils.
Table 1. Typical values of E’sec and Gsec (Muni Budhu, Soil Mechanics Fundamentals)
Thus, any excess POREWATER PRESSURE developed by loading can
easily DISSIPATE relatively (relative to fine-grained soils) quickly.

Furthermore, most of the settlement of these soils occurs during

construction (short term loading condition).
Settlement of Free-draining Soils

Elastic settlement or Immediate

Settlement of foundations occurs
directly after application of a load,
without change in moisture content. This
depends on the flexibility of the
foundation and the type of material on
which it is resting.
Immediate Settlement

Elastic settlement also is the settlement

of a geosystem that can be recoverable
upon unloading.
Immediate Settlement of foundation
resting on the ground surface of an elastic
material of finite thickness is given by:
𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐
∆𝑯𝒊 = 𝒑𝑩 𝑰𝒇
𝑬
where p – net pressure applied
B – width or diameter of foundation
μ – Poisson’s ratio
E – modulus of elasticity of soil
If – influence factor
 If
Shape m1 Flexible
Rigid
Center Corner
Circle - 1.00 0.64 0.79
1 1.12 0.56 0.88
1.5 1.36 0.68 1.07
2 1.53 0.77 1.21
3 1.78 0.89 1.42
Rectangle 5 2.10 1.05 1.70
10 2.54 1.27 2.10
20 2.99 1.49 2.46
50 3.57 1.8 3.00
100 4.01 2.0 3.43

Table 2. Influence Factors for Foundations

The influence factor for the corner of a
flexible rectangular footing given as

1 1 + 1 + 𝑚12
𝐼𝑓 = 𝑚1 ln + ln 𝑚1 + 1 + 𝑚12
𝜋 𝑚1

where m1 – ratio of the length to the width of

the foundation
 E
Type of Soil
psi kPa
Soft Clay 250 - 500 1,725 – 3,450
Hard Clay 850 - 2,000 5,865 – 13,800
Loose Sand 1,500 - 4,000 10,350 – 27,600
Dense Sand 5,000 – 10,000 34,500 – 69,000
Table 3. Values of Modulus of Elasticity (DIT Gillesania, Geotechnical Engineering)

Type of Soil μ
Loose Sand 0.2 – 0.4
Medium Sand 0.25- 0.4
Dense Sand 0.3 – 0.45
Silty Sand 0.2 – 0.4
Soft Clay 0.15 – 0.25
Medium Clay 0.2 – 0.5
Table 4. Values of Poisson’s Ratio (DIT Gillesania, Geotechnical Engineering)
Sample Problem 1

A rigid column footing 1.2m in diameter is

constructed on unsaturated clay layer. The
load on the footing is 170 kN. Compute for
the immediate settlement. Assume the clay
has E = 6900 kPa and μ = 0.2.
Sample Problem 1

Given: Find:
B = 1.2m ΔHi
F = 170kN
E = 6900 kPa
μ = 0.2
Sample Problem 1
Sol’n:
Solve for p first,
𝑄 170𝑘𝑁
𝑝= = 2
= 150.31𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐴 0.25𝜋(1.2)
From table 2.1, If = 0.79 (rigid, circle)
1 − 𝜇2
∆𝐻𝑖 = 𝑝𝐵 𝐼𝑓
𝐸
1 − 0.22
= 150.31𝑘𝑃𝑎 1.2𝑚 0.79
6900
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖𝟑𝒎𝒎
 Excess POREWATER PRESSURE developed during loading can take
decades to dissipate.

Thus, the settlement of fine-grained soils is time-dependent and

occurs over the life of the geosystems (long term loading condition).
 COMPACTION CONSOLIDATION

Densification of soils by Densification of soils by

the EXPULSION OF AIR. the EXPULSION OF WATER.
Settlement of Non-Free-draining Soils

Two common modes

➢ SELF-WEIGHT CONSOLIDATION. Natural
drainage of water from the soil due to a
hydraulic gradient.
➢ EXCESS POREWATER PRESSURE. The
application of a load that immediately
increases the porewater pressure above its
current value.
When this excess porewater pressure drains from the soil,
the soil fabric is forced into a denser configuration.
Geoengineers are particularly concerned with the vertical
movement (settlement) because the footprints of human-
made structures generally apply loads over a very small
portion of the Earth’s surface.
Example, a column transmitting loads from a building to the
soil may do so through a concrete slab that is only say 1m by
1m in plan. This is extremely small compared with the
lateral dimensions of the Earth’s surface. Any displacement
in the lateral direction will result in very small lateral strains
that can be neglected. Of course, there are exceptions such
as excavations and embankment works.
Thus, the settlement of non-free-draining soils consists of
three parts:
1. Elastic Settlement
2. Primary Consolidation
3. Secondary Compression or Creep
Consolidation
Is the time-dependent settlement or densification of
soils resulting from the expulsion of water from the
soil pores.
 Primary Consolidation – is the change in volume
of a fine-grained soil caused by the expulsion of
water from the voids and the transfer of stress
from the excess pore-water pressure to the soil
particles.
 Secondary Compression – is the change in
volume of a fine-grained soil caused by the
adjustment of the soil fabric (internal structure)
after primary consolidation has been completed.
Consolidation

Laboratory tests on undisturbed saturated clay

specimens can be conducted by ASTM Test
Designation D-2435 to determine the consolidation
settlement caused by various incremental loadings.
Consolidation

Based on the laboratory tests, a graph can be

plotted showing the variation of the void ratio e at
the end of consolidation against the corresponding
vertical effective stress σ’.

On a semi-logarithmic graph, e is plotted on the

arithmetic scale and σ’ on the logarithmic.
The nature of the variation of e against log σ’ for a
clay specimen is shown.
After the desired consolidation pressure has been
reached, the specimen gradually can be unloaded,
which will result in the swelling of the specimen.
From the curve shown, parameters of
preconsolidation pressure (σ’c), compression index
(Cc) and swelling index (Cs) can be determined.
Preconsolidation Pressure

The Preconsolidation pressure σ’c, is the maximum

past effective overburden pressure to which the soil
specimen has been subjected. It can be determined
by using a simple graphical procedure propose by
Casagrande in 1936.

Natural soil deposits can be normally consolidated

or over consolidated. If σ’ = σ’c , the soil is normally
consolidated but if σ’ < σ’c , then it is
overconsolidated.
Compression Index

The compression index Cc, is the slope of the

straight line portion of the loading e log σ’ curve,
mathematically stated as,

𝒆𝟏 − 𝒆𝟐 𝒆𝟏 − 𝒆 𝟐
𝑪𝒄 = =
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝝈′𝟐 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝝈′𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝝈′ 𝟐
𝝈′ 𝟏
Where e1 and e2 are the void ratios at the end of
consolidation under effective stresses σ’1 and σ’2,
respectively.
Compression Index

SKEMPTON (1944)
𝐶𝐶 = 0.009(𝐿𝐿 − 10)

For undisturbed clay layer with known liquid limit.

Swelling Index

The swelling index Cs, also known as the

recompression index is the slope of the unloading
portion of the e log σ’ curve. It is defined as

𝑒3 − 𝑒4
𝐶𝑆 =
σ’4
log
σ’3
In most cases, the value of the swelling index is ¼ to
1/5 of the compression index.
Primary Consolidation Settlement

The one-dimensional primary consolidation

settlement caused by an additional load of a clay
layer having a thickness of H may be calculated as

𝐻∆𝑒
∆𝐻𝑃 =
1 + 𝑒𝑜
Primary Consolidation Settlement
For normally consolidated clay (σ’ = σ’c)

σ’ + ∆σ’ σ’𝑓
∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝐶 log = 𝐶𝐶 log
σ’ σ’

Thus,
𝐻 σ’𝑓
∆𝐻𝑃 = 𝐶𝐶 log
1 + 𝑒𝑜 σ’
Primary Consolidation Settlement
For overconsolidated clay (CASE 1: σ’f < σ’c)

σ’ + ∆σ’ σ’𝑓
∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑆 log = 𝐶𝑆 log
σ’ σ’

Thus,
𝐻 σ’𝑓
∆𝐻𝑃 = 𝐶𝑆 log
1 + 𝑒𝑜 σ’
Primary Consolidation Settlement
For overconsolidated clay (CASE 2: σ’ < σ’c < σ’f)

σ’𝐶 σ’𝑓
∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑆 log + 𝐶𝐶 log
σ’ σ’𝐶

Thus,
𝐻 σ’𝐶 σ’𝑓
∆𝐻𝑃 = 𝐶𝑆 log + 𝐶𝐶 log
1 + 𝑒𝑜 σ’ σ’𝐶
Sample Problem 2
The soil profile at a site of a proposed
office building is shown. The groundwater
table was observed at 3m below ground
level. The void ratio of the sand is 0.76
and the water content of the clay is 34%.
The building will impose a vertical stress
increase of 80kPa at the middle of the
clay layer. Compute the primary
consolidation settlement of the clay.
Assume the soil above the water table to
be saturated, CC = 0.3 and Gs = 2.7.
Sample Problem 2
The soil profile at a site of a proposed Step 1. Compute for σ’ and e0 at
office building is shown. The groundwater the center of the clay layer.
table was observed at 3m below ground SAND:
level. The void ratio of the sand is 0.76 𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒 2.7 + 0.76
and the water content of the clay is 34%. 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝛾𝑤 = (9.81)
1+𝑒 1 + 0.76
The building will impose a vertical stress 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟐𝟗 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
increase of 80kPa at the middle of the
clay layer. Compute the primary CLAY:
consolidation settlement of the clay. 𝑒0 = 𝐺𝑠 𝑤 = 2.7 0.34 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟖
Assume the soil above the water table to
be saturated, CC = 0.3 and Gs = 2.7. 𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒 2.7 + 0.918
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝛾𝑤 = (9.81)
1+𝑒 1 + 0.918
𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟓 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
Sample Problem 2
The soil profile at a site of a proposed
office building is shown. The groundwater
table was observed at 3m below ground
level. The void ratio of the sand is 0.76
and the water content of the clay is 34%.
The building will impose a vertical stress
increase of 80kPa at the middle of the
clay layer. Compute the primary
consolidation settlement of the clay.
Assume the soil above the water table to
be saturated, CC = 0.3 and Gs = 2.7.
Porewater pressure at center of
clay is
𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ = 9.81 7.5𝑚 = 𝟕𝟑. 𝟓𝟖𝒌𝑷𝒂
The vertical total stress at the mid-
height of the clay layer is
𝜎 = 19.29 × 10 + 18.5 × 0.5
𝜎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟐. 𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝑷𝒂
The vertical effective stress is
𝜎 ′ = 202.11 − 73.58 = 𝟏𝟐𝟖. 𝟓𝟑𝒌𝑷𝒂
Sample Problem 2
The soil profile at a site of a proposed Step 2. Calculate the increase pf
office building is shown. The groundwater stress at the mid-height clay layer.
table was observed at 3m below ground
level. The void ratio of the sand is 0.76
and the water content of the clay is 34%. But, Δσ is given as 80 kPa.
The building will impose a vertical stress
increase of 80kPa at the middle of the
clay layer. Compute the primary
consolidation settlement of the clay.
Assume the soil above the water table to
be saturated, CC = 0.3 and Gs = 2.7.
Sample Problem 2
The soil profile at a site of a proposed Step 3. Calculate σ’f
office building is shown. The groundwater
table was observed at 3m below ground 𝜎′𝑓 = 𝜎 ′ + ∆𝜎
level. The void ratio of the sand is 0.76 𝜎′𝑓 = 128.53 + 80
and the water content of the clay is 34%.
𝝈′𝒇 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖. 𝟓𝟑 𝒌𝑷𝒂
The building will impose a vertical stress
increase of 80kPa at the middle of the
clay layer. Compute the primary
consolidation settlement of the clay.
Assume the soil above the water table to
be saturated, CC = 0.3 and Gs = 2.7.
Sample Problem 2
The soil profile at a site of a proposed Step 4. Compute for ΔHP
office building is shown. The groundwater
table was observed at 3m below ground 𝐻 σ’𝑓
level. The void ratio of the sand is 0.76 ∆𝐻𝑃 = 𝐶𝐶 log
1 + 𝑒𝑜 σ’
and the water content of the clay is 34%. 1 208.53
The building will impose a vertical stress ∆𝐻𝑃 = 0.3 log
1 + 0.918 128.53
increase of 80kPa at the middle of the
clay layer. Compute the primary
consolidation settlement of the clay. ∆𝑯𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟕𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝟑𝟐. 𝟖𝟕𝒎𝒎
Assume the soil above the water table to
be saturated, CC = 0.3 and Gs = 2.7.
Sample Problem 3
Assume the same soil stratigraphy
as per previous example. But now
the clay is overconsolidated with
a maximum vertical effective
stress of 321 kPa, w = 38% and Cc
of 0.05. All other soil values given
in the previous example remain
unchanged. Determine the
primary consolidation settlement
of the clay.
Sample Problem 3
Assume the same soil stratigraphy Step 1. Compute for σ’ and e0 at the
as per previous example. But now center of the clay layer.
the clay is overconsolidated with
a maximum vertical effective
stress of 321 kPa, w = 38% and Cc CLAY:
of 0.05. All other soil values given 𝑒0 = 𝐺𝑠 𝑤 = 2.7 0.38 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐𝟔
in the previous example remain
unchanged. Determine the 𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒 2.7 + 1.026
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝛾𝑤 = (9.81)
primary consolidation settlement 1+𝑒 1 + 1.026
of the clay. 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
Sample Problem 3
Assume the same soil stratigraphy The vertical total stress at the mid-
as per previous example. But now height of the clay layer is
the clay is overconsolidated with 𝜎 = 19.29 × 10 + 18.04 × 0.5
a maximum vertical effective 𝜎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟏. 𝟗𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂
stress of 321 kPa, w = 38% and Cc The vertical effective stress is
of 0.05. All other soil values given 𝜎 ′ = 201.92 − 73.58 = 𝟏𝟐𝟖. 𝟑𝟒𝒌𝑷𝒂
in the previous example remain
unchanged. Determine the
primary consolidation settlement
of the clay.
Sample Problem 3
Assume the same soil stratigraphy Step 2. Calculate σ’f
as per previous example. But now
the clay is overconsolidated with 𝜎′𝑓 = 𝜎 ′ + ∆𝜎
a maximum vertical effective 𝜎′𝑓 = 128.34 + 80
stress of 321 kPa, w = 38% and Cc
𝝈′𝒇 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖. 𝟑𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂
of 0.05. All other soil values given
in the previous example remain
unchanged. Determine the Since final is less than the
primary consolidation settlement preconsolidated pressure, use case 1
of the clay.
Sample Problem 3
Assume the same soil stratigraphy Step 3. Compute for ΔHP
as per previous example. But now
the clay is overconsolidated with 𝐻 σ’𝑓
a maximum vertical effective ∆𝐻𝑃 = 𝐶𝑠 log
1 + 𝑒𝑜 σ’
stress of 321 kPa, w = 38% and Cc 1 208.34
of 0.05. All other soil values given ∆𝐻𝑃 = 0.05 log
1 + 1.026 128.34
in the previous example remain
unchanged. Determine the
primary consolidation settlement ∆𝑯𝑷 = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟗 𝒎𝒎
of the clay.