International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 107 (2021) 102830

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International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ijadhadh

Laser-induced groove optimization for Al/CFRP adhesive joint strength

Erhan Akman *, Mustafa Özgür Bora, Onur Çoban, Belgin Genc Oztoprak
Aviation Materials Research and Development Laboratory, Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, 41285, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The ability to achieve sufficient values of adhesive strength depends on many parameters such as type and
Aluminum thickness of the adhesive, and especially appropriate surface preparation. While it is possible to increase the
CFRP adhesive strength of a surface prepared for bonding by making it chemically suitable, forming of the structures
Adhesive bonding
that will provide mechanical interlocking can also increase the adhesive shear strength. Mechanical interlocking
Laser surface pre-treatment
Mechanical interlocking
groove parameters such as depth, width, and number per unit area formed on the AA2024-T3 aluminum surface
by using fiber laser were optimized for adhesive bonding strength with carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP).
The top surface and cross-sectional images were used to determine the geometrical change of the grooves pro­
duced on the aluminum surface. As the depth of the grooves increased, the adhesion surface area of the samples
increased by approximately 308%. According to the single-lap shear strength test results, the increase in the
depth of the grooves, hence the adhesion surface area and the entrance width of the grooves have a common
effect on the shear strength. While increase in the adhesive surface area and entrance width of the grooves in­
creases the shear strength, decreasing in the entrance width causes the decrease in the shear strength even if the
surface area increases. In this study, with the effect of mechanical interlocking caused by laser-induced grooves,
approximately 180% increase in adhesive shear strength (26.48 MPa) was achieved compared to the abraded
sample. After mechanical tests, failure modes were also observed by using the a photo camera. It was determined
that the effect of created grooves with optimized geometrical sizes on the AA2024-T3 aluminum surfaces
changed the failure mode that occurred at the CFRP surfaces from adhesive failure to fiber tear failure.

1. Introduction
Due to its high strength/weight ratio, carbon fiber reinforced poly­
mer (CFRP) is a very important material especially in the aviation in­
dustries for structural applications [1]. In modern aircraft structures,
most of the components made of composites must be connected directly
or indirectly with aluminum alloy structural parts. At this point, joining
of dissimilar lightweight materials such as Aluminum/CFRP alloys has
increasing importance to perfectly match the requirements of innovative
lightweight structures for aerospace applications. Traditional joining
methods such as bolting and riveting, generally involve cutting fibers
and increasing stress concentrations at the joining regions. As an alter­
native technique, adhesive bonding offers advantages such as lower
manufacturing cost, uniform stress distribution, and achieving a fast and
robust joining [2,3].
However, adhesive bonding has also included challenges such as
surface preparation of the adherend to obtain acceptable results [2].
Because, aluminum surfaces are usually covered with a weakly bound
naturally form surface oxide layer and adsorbed contaminations like
water and release agents [4], in industrial applications, so surface pre­
treatment of aluminum samples are essential to ensure strong and stable
adhesion [5]. In addition to removing all contaminants from the
bonding area, surface pretreatment alters the roughness and sometimes
chemical activation of the surfaces to improve the quality of the bonded
joint [3,6]. The most used chemical method in the pre-treatment of
aluminum surfaces is the chromic-sulfuric acid etching, which creates a
suitable oxide layer on the substrate surface and can form strong and
durable adhesive bonds [7].
It is well known that among many mechanisms that explain the
adhesion phenomenon, mechanical interlocking is one of the dominant
mechanisms that enhances the adhesive strength of polymer-metal in­
terfaces via increasing roughness which increases the contact area of the
surfaces [8,9]. Many traditional methods can be used to obtain rough
surfaces such as mechanical abrasion [10], grit blasting [11] or vertical
milling machine created grooves.
Laser, which has entered almost every area of the manufacturing

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: erhan.akman@kocaeli.edu.tr (E. Akman).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2021.102830

Available online 22 February 2021

0143-7496/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Akman et al. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 107 (2021) 102830

Fig. 1. a) Fiber laser processing setup, b) laser-treatment details on the surface and c) cross-sectional dimensions of groove.

Fig. 2. The dimensions of single lap joint of Al/CFRP adhesive joint.

Fig. 3. Top and cross-sectional microscope images of the different types of surface structures obtained during the experiment. a) shallow structure produced at low
fluences (F = 60 J/cm2), b) chaotic structure (F = 1576 J/cm2) and c) deep grooves (F = 281 J/cm2).

industry, is a dry and non-chemical alternative technique that can be
used in the processing of surfaces. Laser surface processing offers ad­
vantages such as effectiveness, efficiency and environmental friendli­
ness [12]. While controlled interaction between laser and material
provides surface modification processes for all kinds of materials such as
glass, ceramics, polymers and metals, specific patterns can be produced
on the surface using a scanner or automated micro-stepping stage [13].
When the literature is examined, it is seen that many studies are
investigating the effects of different surface structures produced on the
surfaces by using the laser on the adhesive strength. Wu et al. [12].

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E. Akman et al. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 107 (2021) 102830

Table 1
Laser parameters applied in the production of different structures in the preliminary study and the shear strength of the structures.
Surface type Frequency (kHz) Laser Power (W) Scanning Speed (mm/s) Laser Fluence (J/cm2) Shear Strength (MPa)

Shallow structure 80 20 1500 60 10.03

Choatic structure 80 35 100 1576 20.78
Deep groove structure 80 50 800 281 22.68

Fig. 4. a) Cross-sectional optical microscope images of the evolution of the created grooves according to increased scan number, top view SEM images of b) 1st scan
(SN 1), c) 5th scan (SN 5) and d) 6th scan (SN 6).

Fig. 5. Variation of the adhesion length increases and the groove depths depending on the number of scans.

3
E. Akman et al.
Fig. 6. Shear strength of Al/CFRP adhesive joints depending on the scan number.
Investigated the effect of laser ablation surface treatment on the joint
performance of AA6022-T4 adhesively bonded to itself, for different
laser fluencies of the fiber laser. According to their results, laser ablation
treatment at higher energy fluence (i.e., 19.01 J/cm2) provided both
surface roughness increment and thicker aluminium oxide layer and so,
improved the joint strength by 25% versus untreated material as
measured after water soak exposure.
Researchers have determined the effect of different patterns such as
dimple, grooves, grids and chaotic created on the surfaces of different
materials by fiber laser on the adhesion strength [3,14]. In general, it
can be said that laser formed structures on the surface provide signifi­
cant improvements in the adhesive bond strength. Vidal et al. produced
grooves on the steel surface with different depth and width values for the
hybrid joining of polyamide-steel parts [15]. In their experiment, it’s
concluded that strong joint connections of polyamide and steel are
possible by producing proper steel structuring. In the part of the study
realized with nanosecond (ns) laser, the breaking force increases linearly
when increasing structure depth for the considered depth range.
In another study in which laser-based hybrid joining was made,
Engelmann et al. determined the effects of the undercut groove structure
at different depths created by fiber laser on steel/composite joint
strength [16]. The study emphasized the necessity of a sufficient struc­
ture depth and undercut ratio for high joint strength. As a result of their
optimization, they obtained approximately 140 μm groove depth and
>2.0 undercut ratio for p260 steel, and 120 μm depth and 1.5 undercut
ratio for XSG steel.
Schricker et al. examined the effect of macro structures with different
geometries created by milling on aluminum surfaces on the load ca­
pacity in the laser-based thermal joining of Polyamide 6.6 [17]. In the
study, the width, number, depth and angle of the grooves formed on
aluminum surfaces were selected as the variable. According to their
design of experiments, the structure depth and structure density have
been determined as significant parameters on the shear force. Nd:YAG
laser has been used by Stammen et al. [18] with a range of treatment
parameters (laser pulse frequency, line distance, and laser speed) to
improve the adhesive bonding of AA6040, AA6016, and AA6043
aluminum alloys. They showed that an application of laser ablation can
provide a suitable surface that achieves strong and aging-resistant
adhesion bonding in aluminum joints.
Mandolfino et al. [19] performed plasma and laser surface treat­
ments on Al6061 alloy in order to enhange the adhesion strength of
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International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 107 (2021) 102830
bonded joints. They focused on the pulse power (5–15 kW) and the grid
dimension (50–100 μm) of the laser dimples for cleaning the alloy sur­
face so also reported that laser treatment showed the highest lap-shear
test results up to the double compared to the references.
Although the effect of the different structures formed on the surface
on the adhesion strength has been examined, there is no detailed study
about how the groove geometry dimensions such as depth, width and
the number of the grooves as well per unit area formed by fiber laser on
the AA2024-T3 aluminum surface affect the adhesive bonding strength
of Al/CFRP. In the study carried out for this purpose, the formal changes
of the grooves and the surface area increment depending on laser scan
number (SN) (1–9) and the number of grooves in the unit area were
evaluated by the optical microscope in detail and their effects on the
adhesive shear strength of Al/CFRP were determined. At last, failure
modes were also determined by using a photo camera.
2. Materials and methods
In this study, unidirectional carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy composite
[0]8 laminates and AA2024-T3 type of aluminum alloy were used. CFRP
and AA2024-T3 were supplied from Kompozitsan, Izmir/Turkey, and
Seykoç Alüminyum, Kocaeli/Turkey, respectively. CFRP laminates were
manufactured using the resin transfer molding (RTM) method. Fibermak
F-RES11564 epoxy resin and unidirectional carbon fiber (ρ = 1.8 gr/
cm2, 3K-200 gr/m2) was used at CFRP. The CFRP and AA2024-T3
samples were prepared by using waterjet and CO2 laserjet as a dimen­
sion of 2.3 mm × 101 mm × 25.4 mm and 1.6 mm × 101 mm × 25.4
mm, respectively. In our previous studies [20,21], since the structures
that provide mechanical interlocking on CFRP surfaces were studied; in
this study, only aluminum surfaces were treated with a fiber laser to
provide the mechanical interlocking effect with CFRP.
Before the laser processing, the AA2024-T3 plates were washed with
methyl ethyl ketone (C2H5COCH3) to remove impurities and to activate
the surface. The surface of the AA2024-T3 aluminum plates was pro­
cessed using max. 50 W pulsed fiber laser. This fiber laser operates at
1064 nm wavelength with a pulse duration of 100 ns and a repetition
rate range between 20 kHz and 80 kHz. To ablate the desired surface
area on the samples, a galvanometric system which provides the
computer-controlled movement of the laser beam is used, together with
a 160 mm focal length F-Theta lens to focus the laser beam (as seen
Fig. 1-a).
E. Akman et al.
Fig. 7. a) Variation of the entrance width of the grooves depending on the number of scans b) Shear strength/Extension curves of the groove structures with
maximum (SN5) and minimum (SN6) strength.
To evaluate the formal change of the grooves, the cross-sectional
dimensions of the structure were determined as seen in Fig. 1-c. In
Fig. 1-c, d1 represents the projectional top view width of the laser treated
groove, d2 is the groove depth and d3 is the cross-section length of the
created area by the laser ablation. According to this definition, the d3-d1
difference is determined as the increase in surface area after laser
ablation, since the other dimensions (y and z) are fixed (see Fig. 1-c). The
surface and cross-sections of the specimens were visualized with
Olympus BX51 microscope. SEM images were also taken for a more
detailed view.
A fixture consisting of three-axis linear translation stages was
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International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 107 (2021) 102830
prepared to provide precision control of the bondline [22]. Epoxy-based
paste adhesive (Loctite EA 9396 AERO) was used for adhesive joining of
Al/CFRP. The curing temperature was 66 ◦ C with a curing duration of
60 min in an oven in atmospheric conditions. To obtain statistical re­
sults, six samples were prepared for each examined parameter of
laser-treated adhesive joints and average values of obtained test results
were given. Single lap shear tests were performed on all samples 5 days
after the adhesion process. Besides, adhesive shear strengths of un­
treated, abraded (240 grit) Al/CFRP adhesive joints were also given to
compare the effect of optimum laser-induced groove geometry on the
shear strength of Al/CFRP adhesive joints.
E. Akman et al.
Fig. 8. Shear strength of Al/CFRP adhesive joints depending on the groove distances.
Zwick universal test machine was used which had a load capacity of
30 kN at TUBITAK-MAM for determining the adhesive shear strength of
various grooved surface-treated Al/CFRP adhesive joints. The single-lap
test speed was selected as 13 mm/min according to ASTM D5868-01
standard. By adding the grips (Fig. 2) on both tip sides of the test
couple, we tried to transfer the tensile test load along the bondline re­
gion and attempted to minimize the eccentric phenomenon.
After single lap shear tests, a standard photo camera has been used to
observe the failure modes which occurred at the fracture surfaces of the
AA2024-T3 and CFRP adherends.
3. Result and discussion
3.1. Surface structuring of AA2024-T3 and preliminary study
When the lasers have been used for the texturing, the surface is
affected in two ways depending on the laser fluence. Laser-induced
periodic surface structures (LIPPS) are observed on the surface in the
case of low-level fluences of polarized pulses near the threshold fluence
for laser ablation. In the second approach performed in high laser flu­
encies such as in our experiment, polarization is not very important,
overlapping spots form microchannels and chaotic structure due to
melting and re-solidification as seen in Fig. 3 [23].
In our previous study [24], considering the upper and lower limits of
the parameters such as laser power, frequency and scanning speed, the
surface structures that can be produced and the effects of these surfaces
on the shear strength were determined. When similar surfaces are
eliminated, 3 basic surface structures have been reached as given in
Table 1. The adhesive thickness was fixed at 50 ± 10 μm for the samples
bonded during the preliminary study. A more detailed statistical analysis
is included in our previous study [ 24].
While the surfaces with the relatively shallow structure are formed in
low laser accumulated fluence (F = 60 J/cm2) (Fig. 3-a), high fluence (F
= 1576 J/cm2) produced via increasing the laser power and reducing the
scanning speed caused the formation of the chaotic structure (Fig. 3-b).
Relatively moderate laser fluence (F = 281 J/cm2) led to deep grooves
on the surface (Fig. 3-c). Compared to the abraded reference sample, 6%,
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International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 107 (2021) 102830
120%, and 140% increases were obtained in the adhesive shear strength
results of the adhesion tests performed with these surfaces, respectively.
Considering both the relatively high shear strength and the suitability of
the grooves for mechanical interlocking, in the continuation of the
study, it has been focussed on the form of groove structures by applying
50 W laser power, 80 kHz repetition rate, and 800 mm/s scanning speed,
and the scan number 1–9 to increase their depth.
The groove structures obtained on aluminum surfaces by increasing
the number of the scan are shown in Fig. 4. However, many imperfec­
tions that affect the surface structure occur in the ablation processes
performed with nanosecond pulse length lasers, where a photo-thermal
laser material interaction occurs. In fact, since the basis of laser grooving
can be considered as drilling in a unit area, it is also possible to the
formation of melt debris, recast layer deposition, melt shadow, taper,
barreling, and melt flow-induced hole blockage [25].
3.2. Evolution of grooves
Fig. 4 shows the evolution of the created grooves according to scan
numbers. With the first scan, the re-solidified materials were observed at
the entrance edges of the groove. The entrance of the groove was rela­
tively wide and showed a round shape. The increase in the number of
scans increased the depth of the grooves as expected, leading to the
formation of nearly plain grooves consisting of parallel walls until the
5th scan. However, after this point, while the depth of the groove
increased linearly, the entrance width began to decrease. It’s thought
that, as the depth of the groove continues to increase, the metal, which
becomes molten with the effect of the laser beam, cannot be thrown out
of the groove due to insufficient recoil pressure and adhered to the
groove walls and solidifies [26]. While this was observed as undercut
formation in the samples treated with the 6th and 7th scans, it was
observed as the rough groove walls in the 8th and 9th scans with their
further increased depth. Similar experimental results of the study re­
ported by Engelmann et al. [16] that the depth and the undercut ratio is
the key factor for a high connection strength in hybrid joining.
The debris (Fig. 4-b) and the re-solidified (Fig. 4-c-d) materials that
started to form on the surface with the first scan increased until the 5th
E. Akman et al. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 107 (2021) 102830

Fig. 9. The failure modes of Al/CFRP adhesive joints which had aluminum surfaces that were treated with fiber laser under an increased number of scans compared
to adhesive joints with untreated and abraded aluminum samples.

7
E. Akman et al.
(SN 5) scan and then remained approximately constant. The adhesive
thickness was fixed at 150 ± 10 μm due to the thickness of the recast
layers (≈50 μm) formed during laser ablation. These microstructures
can contribute to the adhesive shear strength by increasing the surface
roughness. However, contrary to this situation, those with weak bond
strength with base metal can create a surface pollution effect and may
reduce the adhesive shear strength increment. In the laser groove for­
mation process, the calculated depth increase of the grooves in each scan
is almost equal and is approximately 20 μm. When the 9th pass was
reached, the depth obtained was measured as 205 μm (see Fig. 5).
As can be estimated due to the almost linear depth increase of the
grooves, a linear increase in the cross-sectional length of the bonding
region was also observed as seen in Fig. 5. The cross section length in­
crease from 10% in the 1st pass reached up to 308% in the 9th pass.
Another important issue at this point is that the relatively low vis­
cosity adhesive leaks into these opened grooves and fills them. As seen in
Fig. 4-a, in the samples prepared for a single-lap shear test, the adhesive
leaked into all grooves.
3.3. Shear strength
When the shear strength results of the Al/CFRP samples investigated,
it is seen that there is a remarkable increase in shear strength of all
surfaces where grooves are formed with laser (see Fig. 6). Even in the
first pass, an increase of approximately 100% is observed compared to
the abraded Al/CFRP sample, while in the 5th pass, which achieved the
highest shear strength, the increase reached 180%. However, the situ­
ation did not continue in the 6th scan and a dramatic decrease in shear
strength was observed.
As is well known, it is one of the methods applied to increase the
adhesion surface area, to increase the adhesive strength. However, in the
6th scan (SN 6), while the increase of surface area continued, a decrease
in shear strength was observed. To determine the cause of the decrease
in shear strength as the surface area increases, the entrance width
change in the grooves formed was examined as seen in Fig. 7-a. Ac­
cording to obtained results, the increase in the depth or surface area of
the grooves affects the adhesive shear strength of the grooves together
with their width. As long as the d2 and d1 lengths continue to increase,
we think that the adhesive shear strength will continue up to the
maximum limit of the epoxy-based adhesive. However, as observed in
SN 6, since a decrease in the groove entrance width constitutes the
weakest point in the mechanical interlocking structure, the adhesive
shear strength did not increase even though the depth increased. As seen
in Fig. 7-a, the groove entrance width of SN 6 sample has the lowest
value among the samples prepared for the single lap shear test. An in­
crease in adhesion strength was also observed, as an increase in the
groove entrance width occurred in subsequent scans. Since the entrance
width of the SN 6 sample is relatively small, a decrease in extension
values was observed (Fig. 7-b.). Since the adhesive, which has a brittle
structure, does not adhere well on the surface, both the load response
values and the extension values have decreased from 5.74 mm to 4.48
mm.
Another important point is the distance between grooves, which is
directly related to the number of grooves per unit area and hence with
surface roughness. To determine the effect of the number of grooves, the
distance between grooves was examined between 60 μm and 150 μm in
30 μm increments. As can be seen from Fig. 8, the sample processed with
60 μm interval exhibits a similar appearance to the chaotic structure due
to the effect of the debris and recast layers on the previous groove, while
showing a lower strength compared to the others. When the distance
between grooves was increased, the increase in tensile strength
continued up to the 120 μm line intervals. However, a decrease in tensile
strength was observed in the sample processed with 150 μm groove
distance, as the ratio of mechanical locking per unit area decreased due
to the number of grooves per unit area.
Fig. 9 shows the failure modes of Al/CFRP adhesive joints which had
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International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 107 (2021) 102830
aluminum surfaces that were treated with fiber laser under an increased
number of scans compared to adhesive joints with untreated and
abraded aluminum samples. The failure modes for Al/CFRP adhesive
joints with untreated and abraded aluminum samples are presented in
Fig. 9-a and b showed that adhesive failure was the dominant failure
mode determined from the surface of the aluminum layer. Some adhe­
sive–adherend combinations may fail by adhesive failure. Ebnesajjad
[27] said that if the adhesive does not wet the surface of the substrate
completely, the bond is certain to be less than optimal. Internal stresses
occur in adhesive joints because of a natural tendency of the adhesive to
shrink during setting, and due to differences in physical properties of the
adhesive and substrate and the different adherends. From Fig. 9-c-f, it
was determined that the effect of created grooves with different
depth/width ratios on aluminum surfaces changed the failure mode that
occurred at the CFRP surfaces from adhesive failure to fiber tear failure.
First of all, the laser-treated aluminum surfaces perfectly bonded due to
fabricated grooves on the aluminum surfaces. Besides, adhesive failure
occurred at CFRP surfaces at a low number of laser scan numbers (1st
and 3rd laser scan number-Fig. 9-c and d, respectively). Besides, fiber
tear failure was determined due to an increase of groove depth at higher
laser scan numbers (5th and 7th laser scan number Fig. 9-e and f,
respectively). This failure mode occurred at CFRP surfaces because of
good adhesion between aluminum surfaces and adhesive. From Fig. 9-e
(5th laser scan number), it was observed that the fiber tear failure region
was larger than the laser-treated sample (7th laser scan number,
Fig. 9-f). It is assumed that the adhesive shear strength value of Al/CFRP
was improved due to the higher fiber tear failure region.
4. Conclusions
In this study, experimental studies of laser processing of aluminum
surfaces have been carried out to increase the adhesive shear strength of
Al/CFRP joints. Three different structures, with shallow, chaotic, and
deep groove structures were obtained on different processing parame­
ters of the laser and the surfaces processed by the linear motion of the
laser beam. Compared with the adhesive shear strength value of the
abraded Al/CFRP sample, maximum increment has been obtained with
the deep groove structure as 140%. Because of its uniformity, deep
valleys, and also more surface area, groove structure has higher shear
strength since it is more suitable for mechanical interlocking. To further
increase the surface area and the possibility of mechanical interlocking,
at the 50 W laser power, 80 kHz repetition rate, and 800 mm/s scanning
speed conditions, the surface area was increased by increasing the scan
numbers. According to the adhesive shear strength results of Al/CFRP
samples containing groove structures with different depth and entrance
width, the depth and width of the grooves have a common effect on the
shear strength. As the depth and entrance width increases, the adhesive
shear strength increase continued, but a decrease in the width of the
entrance formed a weak point so the adhesive shear strength decreased
even if the groove depth increases. In the study, the highest adhesive
shear strength of 26.48 MPa was achieved with the samples consisting of
grooves with an entrance width of approximately 47.5 μm and a depth of
92 μm.
From failure mode investigations, two main failure modes were
determined as an adhesive failure at untreated and abraded Al/CFRP
samples and fiber tear failure at various grooves with different width/
depth ratios on aluminum surfaces of Al/CFRP samples. It was predicted
that mechanical interlocking by creating grooves at aluminum surfaces
improved the AA2024-T3 aluminum surfaces for better adhesion to the
adhesive material.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the TUBITAK, “The Scientific and
Technological Research Supporting Program 1001” [grant number
118M280].
E. Akman et al. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 107 (2021) 102830

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