Dielectric Frequency Response and Temperature

Dependence of Power Factor

Matz Ohlen Peter Werelius

Megger Megger
Täby, Sweden Täby, Sweden
matz.ohlen@megger.com peter.werelius@megger.com

Abstract— Modern technology and developments in signal

acquisition and analysis techniques have provided new tools for
transformer diagnostics. Of particular interest are dielectric
response measurements where insulation properties of oil-paper
systems can be investigated. Dielectric Frequency Response, DFR
(also known as Frequency Domain Spectroscopy, FDS), was
introduced more than a decade ago and has been thoroughly
evaluated in a number of research projects and field tests with
good results. DFR data in combination with mathematical
modeling of the oil-paper insulation is proven as an excellent tool
for moisture assessment. Since the modeling theory contains
influence of temperature, DFR and modeling can be used to
calculate the temperature dependence of the insulation system.
This paper gives a background to DFR, insulation modeling and
how these tools can be utilized to improve understanding of
power factor temperature dependence and how this can be used
for decisions on maintenance and/or replacement.
Keywords - dielectric frequency response; DFR; frequency
domain spectroscopy; FDS; power factor; dissipation factor;
temperature correction; temperature dependence
II. TRADITIONAL DISSIPATION FACTOR MEASUREMENTS
The most common insulation diagnostic test is measuring
capacitance and power factor at 50/60 Hz. This is the standard
test performed whenever there is a need for investigating
insulation properties. Most tests are done at 10 kV and
operating temperature but there are also tests with variable
voltage (tip-up) as well as tests where power factor versus
temperature is measured. Analysis is based on (historical)
statistics and comparing factory values. Since insulation
properties are pending temperature, temperature compensation
has to be used for measurements not performed at 20° C, this is
normally achieved by using temperature correction table values
for certain classes of devices [1].
In IEEE 62-1995, typical power factor measurement values
for transformers and bushings are categorized.
TABLE I. TYPICAL POWER FACTOR VALUES (IEEE)
Typical power factor values @ 20° C

I. INTRODUCTION Warning-
“New” “Old”
alert limit
With an aging power component population, today’s
Power transformers, oil 0.3-.5% > 0.5%
electrical utility industry faces a tough challenge as failures and insulated
0.2-0.4%
consequent repair and revenue loss may inflict major costs. 0.3-0.5% > 0.5%
Bushings 0.2-0.3%
Transformers have become one of the most mission critical
components in the electrical grid. The need for reliable
diagnostic methods drives the world’s leading experts to Typical temperature corrections are shown in Fig 1.
evaluate new technologies that improve reliability and optimize
the use of the power network.
The condition of the insulation is an essential aspect for the
operational reliability of electrical power transformers,
generators, cables and other high voltage equipment.
Transformers with high moisture content can not without risk
sustain higher loads. Bushings and cables with high dissipation
factor at high temperature can explode due to “thermal
runaway”.
On the other hand it is also very important to identify
“good” units in the aging population of equipment. Adding just
a few operating years to the expected end-of-life for a
transformer or cable means substantial cost savings for the Figure 1. Typical power factor temperature corrections
power company.

978-1-4244-6301-5/10/$26.00 @2010 IEEE

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 It is obvious that the given values are approximate
guidelines only. IEEE 62-1995 states; “The power factors
recorded for routine overall tests on older apparatus provide
information regarding the general condition of the ground and
inter-winding insulation of transformers and reactors. They also
provide a valuable index of dryness, and are helpful in
detecting undesirable operating conditions and failure hazards
resulting from moisture, carbonization of insulation, defective
bushings, contamination of oil by dissolved materials or
conducting particles, improperly grounded or ungrounded
cores, etc. While the power factors for older transformers will
also be <0.5% (20C), power factors between 0.5% and 1.0%
(20C) may be acceptable; however, power factors >1.0%
(20C) should be investigated.”
III. DIELECTRIC FREQUENCY RESPONSE MEASUREMENTS
The first field instrument for DFR/FDS measurements of
transformers, bushings and cables was introduced 1995 [2].
Since then numerous evaluation of the technology has been
performed and as an example, several international
projects/reports define dielectric response measurements
together with insulation modeling as the preferred method for
measuring moisture content of the cellulose insulation in power
transformers [3], [4], and [5].
In DFR tests, capacitance and dissipation/power factor is
measured. The measurement principle and setup is very similar
to traditional 50/60 Hz testing with the difference that a lower
measurement voltage is used (200 V) and instead of measuring
at line frequency 50/60 Hz, insulation properties are measured
over a frequency range, typically from 1 kHz to 1 mHz.
The results are normally presented as capacitance and/or
tan delta/power factor versus frequency. Measurement setup is
shown in Fig 2 and typical DFR results from measurement on
transformers in different conditions in Fig 3.
Figure 2. DFR/FDS test setup
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Figure 3. DFR measurements on four different transformers with moisture
content ranging from 0.3 to 3.4%
IV. MOISTURE ASSESSMENT
The capability of DFR to measure dissipation factor as
function of frequency, gives the user a powerful tool for
diagnostic testing. Moisture assessment is one example.
High moisture levels in transformers is a serious issue since
it is limiting the maximum loading capacity (IEEE Std C57.91-
1995) and the aging process is accelerated. Accurate
knowledge about the actual moisture content in the transformer
is necessary in order to make decisions on corrective actions,
replacement/scrapping or relocation to a different site in the
network with reduced loading.
The method of using DFR for determining moisture content
in the oil-paper insulation inside an oil-immersed power
transformer has been described in detail in several papers and
articles elsewhere [3], [4], and [5], and is only briefly
summarized in this paper.
The dissipation factor plotted against frequency shows a
typical inverted S-shaped curve. With increasing temperature
the curve shifts towards higher frequencies. Moisture
influences mainly the low and the high frequency areas. The
middle section of the curve with the steep gradient reflects oil
conductivity. Fig 4 describes parameter influence on the master
curve.
Figure 4. Parameters that effects the dissipation factor at various
frequencies
Using DFR for moisture determination is based on a
comparison of the transformers dielectric response to a
modeled dielectric response (master curve). A matching
algorithm rearranges the modeled dielectric response and
delivers a new master curve that reflects the measured
transformer. The moisture content along with the oil
conductivity for the master curve is presented. Only the
insulation temperature (top oil temperature and/or winding
temperature) needs to be entered as a fixed parameter.
Figure 5. MODS® moisture analysis
Two different transformers are shown in Fig 6. The two
units have the same 0.7%, 50/60 Hz dissipation factor,
characterized by IEEE 62-1995 as “warning/alert” status
calling for “investigation”. The investigation is done as
moisture analysis using MODS.
Figure 6. MODS analysis for two transformers with different oil quality
and moisture content
The two transformers are very different and maintenance
measures for the two would also be different. Transformer 1
has good oil but needs drying. Transformer 2 has low moisture
but needs oil change or regeneration.
V. BUSHING DIAGNOSTICS
Aging/deterioration of high-voltage bushings is a growing
problem and manufacturers as well as utilities and test system
providers are suggesting and testing various methods for
detecting bushing problems before they turn into catastrophic
failures. This includes on-line monitoring as well as off-line
diagnostic measurements [6], [7].
Traditional 50/60 Hz dissipation/power factor testing may
give an indication of aging/high moisture content, especially if
performed at various temperatures as shown in Fig 7, [8] and 8,
[10].
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Figure 7. Dissipation factor (%) vs temperature for bushings with various
moisture content, [6]
As seen in fig 7, dissipation factor values at lower
temperatures are quite similar from very low to moderate
moisture content. A significant change is not seen until
measuring at about 50°C.
Figure 8. Power factor (%) vs temperature (°C) for “good” and “bad”
bushings, [10]
The “bad” bushing in figure 8 can be compared with
bushing data in figure 7. Estimated moisture content is about
4%.
Increased dissipation factor at higher temperatures is a good
indicator of bushing problems. Catastrophic bushing failures
(explosions) are often caused by what is called “thermal
runaway”. A high dissipation factor at higher temperatures
result in an increased heating of the bushing which in turn
increases the losses causing additional heating which increases
the losses even further and the bushing finally explodes.
VI. INDIVIDUAL TEMPERATURE CORRECTION
DFR measurements and analysis together with modeling of
the insulation system includes also temperature dependence. A
new methodology (patent pending) is to perform DFR
measurements and convert the results to dissipation factor at
50/60 Hz as a function of temperature. This technique has
major advantages in measurement simplicity. Instead of time
consuming heating/cooling of the bushing and doing several
measurements at various temperatures, one DFR measurement
is performed and the results are converted to 50/60 Hz tan delta
values as a function of temperature. A result of the technique is
shown and compared with the classical results presented by
Blodget [9] in Fig 9.
Figure 9. Power factor at 60 Hz for oil-paper insulation with various
moisture contents as a function of temperature (ºC)
The method is based on the fact that a certain power factor
measurement at a certain frequency and temperature
corresponds to a measurement made at a different temperature
at a different frequency. The conversion calculations are based
on Arrhenius’ law/equation, describing how the insulation
properties are changing over temperature.
κ = κ ·exp(-W /kT)
0 a
With activation energy W and Boltzmann constant k
a
The relationship is depicted for three different activation
energies in fig 10.
Figure 10. Relationship between power factor values at different
frequencies taken at different temperatures.
Figure 11. Bushing dissipation factor as a function of temperature.
Measured and converted data compared to published data, [6]
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Applying this technique on real-world DFR measurements
on bushings gives results as shown in Fig 11. Two bushings,
“OK” and “bad” are compared with manufacturer’s values
from Fig 7, [6]. The “bad” bushing is estimated to have about
4% moisture and should be considered “at risk”.
Temperature correction tables such as in IEEE/C57.12.90
give average values assuming “average” conditions and are not
correct for an individual transformer or bushing. Utilities have
noticed this and try to avoid applying temperature correction by
recommending performing measurements within a narrow
temperature range [11].
Figure 12. Power factor as function of temperature (ºC) for four different
transformers [11].
With DFR and the technique for converting data to
temperature dependence, it is possible to do accurate,
individual temperature compensation (patent pending). For a
good component, the temperature dependence is weak. When
the component gets older and/or deteriorated, the temperature
correction factor becomes much larger, i.e. the temperature
correction is a function of aging status. This is in line with
several projects and studies [8], [10].
Examples of individual temperature correction for bushings
are shown in Fig 13. Manufacturer’s table data is only valid for
as-new bushings. As soon as the bushing starts to show
deterioration, the temperature dependence increases. “Bad”
bushings have a very large temperature correction.
Figure 13. Standard temperature correction compared with individual
temperature correction for samples of GE Type U bushings
Individual temperature correction for transformers is more
complex compared to “single-material” components e.g.
bushings. The oil-paper insulation activation energy constant
W in Arrhenius’ law,
a
 κ = κ ·exp(-W /kT)
0 a

With activation energy W and Boltzmann constant k

a

Activation energy for oil impregnated paper is typically

0.9-1 eV, while for transformer oil W is typically around 0.4-
a
0.5 eV.
Individual temperature corrections for transformers of
various ages are shown in Figure 14. Transformer data is
summarized in Table II.

TABLE II. TRANSFORMER DATA

Power Fig 15. Dissipation factor as function of frequency for dry Kraft paper.
Manufacturer Year Moisture Status
rating
New, at
Pauwels 2005 0.4 % 80 MVA
factory
New, at
Pauwels 2000 0.3 % 20 MVA
utility
Used, spare
Westinghouse 1985 1.5 % 40 MVA
at utility
Used and
Yorkshire 1977 4,5 % 10 MVA
scrapped

Fig 16. Tan delta at 50Hz for dry Kraft paper as function of temperature

Using DFR technique to estimate temperature dependence

based on measurements at one temperature only, gives the
results shown in Fig 16. As seen in the diagram, the calculated
temperature dependence matches very closely to the actually
measured dissipation factors.

B. Transformers
DFR measurements on a distribution transformer at various
temperatures are shown in Fig 17. As expected the moisture
Fig 14. Temperature correction for transformers in various conditions analysis (moisture in paper insulation) show the same values
independent of insulation temperature (insulation temperature
As seen in the figure, each transformer has its individual was estimated on winding temperature measured as winding
temperature correction. New units have a “negative” correction resistance).
for slightly elevated temperatures and will show dramatically
different results if the standard table are used. Aged
transformers show the same behavior as the standard tables but
with a much stronger temperature dependence compared to the
average IEEE values.

VII. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

A. Oil impregnated Kraft paper

Samples of Kraft paper with various moisture contents was
measured at different temperatures [13]. Results for dry paper,
moisture content <0.5% is shown in Fig 15.

Fig 17. DFR measurements and moisture analysis results at different

temperatures

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 Oil and paper insulation must be treated separately when Calculated temperature corrections using DFR results are
modeling a transformer to estimate temperature dependence. presented together with the manufacturer’s average temperature
This is described in Fig 18. correction data in Fig 20.

Fig 16. Temperature correction curves for ABB/ASEA GOB bushing.

Fig 18. Dissipation factor as function of frequency for oil and cellulose For the specific bushing, individual temperature correction
insulation
(ITC) both at 22 and 42°C fits very well with manufacturer’s
Combining the modeling results and converting to data, indicating a bushing in normal condition.
temperature dependence gives the temperature curves in Fig
19. Also for this insulation system containing two different VIII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
temperature dependent materials, the conversion gives results
very close to the actual measured tan delta values. Dielectric Frequency Response (DFR/FDS) measurement is
a technique/methodology for general insulation testing and
diagnostics. In comparison with standard 50/60 Hz dissipation
factor measurements, DFR measurements provide the
following advantages:
• Capability of performing individual temperature correction
of measured 50/60 Hz dissipation/power factor.
• Capability of estimating the moisture content of oil-
immersed cellulose insulation in power transformers and
bushings
• Capability of estimating dissipation/power factor at
operating temperature in order to assess risk of thermal
runaway catastrophic failure.
Fig 19. Tan delta at 50Hz for a distribution transformer as function of
temperature • Capability of investigating increased dissipation factor in
power components
C. Bushings The insulation properties are very important for determining
An ASEA/ABB GOB bushing, expected to be in good the condition of a power system component. Knowing the
condition, has been measured at different temperatures. Tan condition helps to avoid potential catastrophic failure and
Delta and DFR measurements were performed at three identifying “good” units and decide upon correct maintenance
temperatures; Indoor at 22°C, outdoor at -8°C and in a heated can save significant money due to postponed investment costs.
chamber at 42°C. Results are shown in table III.
IX. REFERENCES
TABLE III. POWER FACTOR MEASURENTS ON ABB GOB BUSHING [1] IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Electric Power Apparatus;
Part 1: Oil Filled Power Transformers, Regulators, and Reactors”, IEEE
Measured Power Factor
Insulation 62-1995
Temperature, °C @ 200V @ 1-10 kV Comments [2] P. Werelius et al, “Diagnosis of Medium Voltage XLPE Cables by High
Voltage Dielectric Spectroscopy”, paper presented at ICSD 1998.
Voltage
0,86 1,04 – 1,14 dependent at low [3] U. Gäfvert et al, “Dielectric Spectroscopy in Time and Frequency
-8 Domain Applied to Diagnostics of Power Transformers”, 6th
temperatures
International Conference on Properties and Applications of Dielectric
22 0,46 0,46 Materials, June 21-26, 2000, Xi'an, China.
[4] S.M. Gubanski et al, "Dielectric Response Methods for Diagnostics of
42 0,34 0,32 Power Transformers”, Electra, No. 202, June 2002, pp 23-34¸also in
CIGRE Technical Brochure, No. 254, Paris 2004

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[5] S.M. Gubanski et al, “Reliable Diagnostics of HV Transformer
Insulation for Safety Assurance of Power Transmission System.
REDIATOOL - a European Research Project”, paper D1-207 CIGRE
2006
[6] “Swedish Bushings Plant Sees Growth in RIP Designs”, INMR
Quarterly, Issue 68, 2005
[7] J.M Braun et al.”Accelerated Aging and Diagnostic Testing of 115 kV
Type U Bushings”, paper presented at IEEE Anaheim 2000.
[8] C. Kane, “Bushing, PD and Winding Distortion Monitoring”, paper
presented at ABB Seminar “Power Transformer Health Monitoring and
Maintenance” Johannesburg 2008
[9] R.B. Blodget, “Influence of Absorbed Water and Temperature on Tan
Delta and Dielectric Constant of Oil-Impregnated Paper Insulation”,
Trans. AIEE, 1961
[10] R. Brusetti, “Experience with On-line Diagnostics for Bushings and
Current Transformers”, NETA Fall 2002, paper A335
[11] R.K.Tyagi, S. Victor, N.S.Sodha, “Application of Temperature
Correction Factors for dissipation factor Measurements for Power
Transformers – A case study”, Doble Client Conference, Vadodara,
India 2006
[12] P. Werelius, M. Ohlen, “Dielectric Frequency Response Measurements
on Power Transformers”, EuroTechCon 2008, Liverpool, UK
[13] R. Niemanis et al, “Determination of Moisture Content in Mass
Impregnated Cable Insulation Using Low Frequency Dielectric
Spectroscopy”, IEEE Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting
2000, Seattle, Washington, USA

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