CELL CYCLE AND INHERITANCE

What are Genetics?

Genetics is defined as the branch of biology

that deals with the study of genetic variation,
genes, and heredity.
• Greek word ‘genesis’ meaning grows
• Inheritance - defined as the procedure
by which characteristics are handed
down from one generation to the other.

Mendel: Father of Genetics

→ He was the first to show the inheritance
pattern of traits from one generation to
the next generation.
→ He did his research on the garden pea,
Pisum sativum.
→ He selected 7 pairs of contrasting traits
and crossbred the plants to understand
their inheritance pattern.
→ Mendel gave three fundamental laws of
inheritance.
 LAWS OF INHERITANCE

Law of Segregation

ALLELES
→ Different forms of genes
GENES → Two copies of each hereditary factor
segregate so that offspring acquire one
→ Units of heredity that carry genetic factor from each parent.
information. ➢ The allele pairs segregate during
the formation of gamete and re-
KEY CONCEPTS
unite randomly during
• The dominant trait – Upper case letter, fertilization.
e.g., Tallness is represented by ‘T’
• The recessive trait – Lower case
letter, e.g., Dwarfness by ‘t’
• Homozygous – A pair of the same
alleles, e.g., TT (homozygous
dominant) or tt (homozygous recessive)
• Heterozygous – Having different
alleles of a trait, e.g., Tt

Law of Independent Assortment

 → A pair of trait segregates independently
of another pair during gamete formation
➢ As the individual heredity factors
assort independently, different
traits get equal opportunity to
occur together.

DNA: Composition and Changes

What is DNA?

Law of Dominance → DNA is a group of molecules that is

responsible for carrying and
transmitting the hereditary materials or
the genetic instructions from parents to
offspring.
➢ Deoxyribonucleic acid
➢ It is the basic heredity material
since it is passed on to
succeeding generations and
controls the traits inherited by
organisms.
History of the DNA
• Rosalind Franklin
• Francis Crick
• James Watson
• Maurice Wilkins

→ The hybrid offspring will only inherit the

dominant trait in the phenotype.
➢ The alleles that are suppressed
are called the recessive traits
➢ The alleles that determine the
trait are known as the dormant
traits
 Mutation depending on the genetic material
changed
• Chromosomal Alteration - alters the
chromosome structure
• Point Mutation - alters a single
nucleotide base
➢ Can be silent, missense, or
nonsense
• Frameshift Mutation - alters the
reading frame of the genetic material

CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION

CHROMOSOMAL ABERATIONS

Changes in DNA
→ Mutation is the change in our DNA base
pair sequence due to various
environmental factors such as UV light,
or mistakes during DNA replication.
➢ Not all DNA mutations are
harmful.
Major categories:
→ They occur when a section of a
• Germline mutation - affects gametes chromosome breaks off and rejoins
• Somatic mutation - affects non-gametic incorrectly or does not rejoin at all.
cells
ANEUPLOIDY CELL CYCLE
What is Cell Cycle?

→ The period from the time a cell is

formed to the time it matures.
➢ Occurs not just to produce a
whole new organism but for the
growth and replacement of
→ Change in the total number of worn-out cells within the
chromosomes. organisms
• Interphase
GENETIC MUTATION
• Cell Division (Karyokinesis and
Cytokinesis)
POINT VS FRAMESHIFT

Interphase
→ The period of the cell cycle during which
the cell is not dividing.
Steps:
• G1 phase - first growth phase in the cell
cycle
• S-phase - synthesis phase
• G2 phase - second growth phase
• G0 phase - quiescent phase
 ➢ Meiosis - germ cells
CYTOKINESIS
→ Division of cytoplasm to produce
daughter cells
→ Mitosis - two genetically identical
daughter cells
→ Meiosis - four genetically unique
daughter cells

MITOSIS
→ Division of parent cells into two
• G1 PHASE identical, diploid daughter cells.
- organelles increase in size, RNA
and protein synthesis
• S PHASE
- DNA replication
• G2 PHASE • Greek word mitos meaning warp thread
- continuation of growth and
• One cell division
replication
• Occurs in all body cells except germ
cells
• Growth, repair, and regeneration
PROPHASE

• Chromosome condensation
• Separation of centrioles
• Appearance of microtubules
CELL DIVISION • The nuclear envelope and nucleolus
→ Division of the parent cell to form start to break apart
daughter cells.
• Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis
➢ Karyokinesis - nuclear division
➢ Cytokinesis - cytoplasm division
• Types of Cell division:
➢ Mitosis - somatic cells
METAPHASE
→ Chromosomes align along the spindle's
equator
→ Disintegration of nuclear envelope

MEIOSIS
→ Division of parent cell into four
independent, haploid daughter cells.
→ Greek word meiosis means lessening
→ Two succeeding cell divisions
➢ Meiosis I - reduction division
ANAPHASE ➢ Meiosis II - equational division
→ Occurs in germ cells or reproductive
→ Paired chromosomes are split up into
cells
two sister chromatids
→ Sexual reproduction; maintaining
→ Duplicate chromosomes move to
chromosome number in organisms
opposite poles of the spindle
PROPHASE I

TELOPHASE
→ Migration of daughter chromosomes to
opposite poles
→ Nuclear envelope redevelops
→ Mitotic apparatus disappears • Leptotene - condensation of
→ Nucleolus reappears chromosomes begin
→ Chromosomes de-condensed • Zygotene - homologs start to synapse
 • Pachytene - crossing over between TELOPHASE I
homologs
• Diplotene - homologs divided synapse
broken
• Diakinesis – chiasmata transferred to
terminal regions of chromosomes;
nuclear envelope disappears

→ Nuclear envelope redevelops

→ Mitotic apparatus disappears
→ Nucleolus reappears
→ Chromosomes de-condensed
METAPHASE I
→ Followed by Cytokinesis I
PROPHASE II

→ Homologous chromosomes align along

the center of the cell
→ Centrioles reach the opposite poles → Nuclear membrane initiates to break
down, and the spindle fibers appear
ANAPHASE I
again
→ Centriole divides to two pairs
→ No replication

→ Homologous chromosomes (with two

sister chromatids) are separated and
migrates to the opposite poles
METAPHASE II → Nuclear membrane forms around each
chromosome with the disappearance of
the spindle fibers
→ Nucleolus reappears
→ Followed by Cytokinesis II

→ Chromosomes align at the equator

→ Centrioles at opposite poles
→ Centromeres divide to form two sister
chromatids.
ANAPHASE II

→ Daughter chromosomes are pulled

towards the opposite poles of the cells.
TELOPHASE II