Chapter 5

Fundamentals of Geological Investigation

• Introduction

• Method of Geological Investigation

• Desk Study
• Preliminary Reconnaissance
• Site Exploration
• Direct Method
• Semi-direct Method
• Indirect Method
Introduction
• All important civil engineering projects like dams, reservoirs, tunnels, roads, bridges and
buildings are constructed on rocks or on soils.

• It is Essential that the engineer should have the fullest knowledge possible of the strata or soil
through which works of construction are to be carried out or on which theses have to rest.

• When the geological characters of the site are not properly investigated, the structures might
involve considerably higher costs, their stability might be in question.

• It is mandatory to decide about the location, design and construction of all major structures
after all geological characters of the area have been investigated.
 Introduction
• Main objective of geological investigations for most projects are:

• The geological structure of the area

• The lithology of the area

• The ground water condition in the region

• The seismicity of the region

Has become a great concern. Has to be taken
into consideration and studied if the project is in
a seismic prone area.
Method of Geological Investigation

•Desk study

•Preliminary reconnaissance

•Site exploration
 Method of Geological Investigation
• Desk study
• It involves the study and review of existing information about a site through
resources such as maps and paper records.
• Carried out at the start of the site investigation.
• Its purpose is to provide as much information on the ground condition and the
likely problems that they will produce for the proposed type of construction.
• The information obtained is necessary for the design of ground investigation
work.
• It provides information on a site’s geology, hydrogeology and current setting.
Method of Geological Investigation

• Preliminary reconnaissance
• Carried out after the desk study has been substantially completed, and once
preliminary plans have been made for any ground investigation site work

• Its purpose is to get extra information on the geology and on likely

construction problems. Also to assess access for investigation plant and
equipment.
Method of Geological Investigation
• The results of desk study and preliminary reconnaissance should be formally
presented in a report which includes details of:
• Site topography
• Geology
• Geotechnical problems and parameters
• Ground conditions
• Existing construction and services
• Previous land use
• Expected construction risks
• Proposed ground investigation methods.
Method of Geological Investigation
Site Exploration
Methods (sub-
surface exploration)

Semi-direct
Direct Methods Methods Indirect Methods

Auger boring, wash Sounding or

Test pits, trenches boring, percussion penetration tests,
drilling, rotary drilling geophysical methods
 Method of Geological Investigation
• Site exploration
• Direct Method
• Examination of rocks or materials of
the underground by digging of trial
pits or trenches.
• Underground areas are reached for
direct examination and testing or
samples are obtained to be examined
and tested.
 Method of Geological Investigation
• Site exploration
• Semi-direct Method
• Common boring and drilling methods combined with sampling.
Cont’d
 Method of Geological Investigation
• Site exploration
• Indirect Method
• Indirect exploration defines boundaries between the different soil compositions by measuring and

observing changes in the soil’s electrical resistivity, velocity of waves or in its magnetic and

electrical fields.
• Geophysical methods
• Sounding or penetration test
• Seismic method
• Static penetration test
• Resistivity method

• Dynamic core penetration tests • Electromagnetic method

• Magnetic method

• Gravity method
Cont’d
Cont’d
Cont’d
 Gravity method

 It is mainly used for oil exploration. Sometimes in mineral and ground water
prospecting.
 Gravity prospecting involves the measurement of variations in the gravitational
field of the earth (i.e. minute variations in the pull of gravity from rock within the
first few miles of the earth’s surface).
 Different types of rock have different densities and the denser rocks have the
greater gravitational attraction.
 Resistivity method
 Electrical prospecting uses many techniques, based on different electrical
properties (electrical conductivity) of the earth’s materials, .
 It is used to investigate the lithological structures and the geological
situation in the sub-surface, e.g. clay, sand, gravel
 Cont’d
 In resistivity method the current is driven through the ground using a pair of electrodes and
the resulting distribution of the potential in the ground is mapped by using another pair of
electrodes connected to a sensitive voltmeter.
 The resistivity method has been used to map boundaries between layers having different
conductivities.
 It is employed in engineering geophysics to map bedrock.
 It is used in groundwater studies to determine salinity. – The induced polarization (IP) makes
use ionic exchanges on the surfaces of metallic grains (disseminated sulphides).
 Telluric current and magneto-telluric methods use natural earth currents and anomalies are
sought in the passage of such currents through earth materials.
 Cont’d

 The self potential method is used to detect the presence of certain minerals which react
with electrolytes in the earth to generate electrochemical potentials.
 Electromagnetic methods detect anomalies in the inductive properties of the earth’s
subsurface rocks.
 The method involves the propagation of time varying, low frequency electromagnetic fields
in and over the earth.
 An alternating voltage is introduced into the earth by induction from transmitting coils and
the amplitude and phase shift of the induced potential generated in the subsurface are
measured by detecting coils and recorded.
 Electromagnetic methods are used to detect metallic ore bodies.
Cont’d
 Seismic methods

There are two main seismic methods, reflection and refraction:

 Cont’d

Seismic Method results

 Seismic reflection method

 This method is used to map the structure of subsurface formations by measuring

the times required for a seismic wave, generated in the earth by a near surface
exploration of dynamite, mechanical impact or vibration, to return to the surface
after reflection from interface between formations having different physical
properties.
 The reflections are recorded by detecting interments which are called geophones
responsive to ground motion.
 Seismic refraction method
 In refraction method, the detecting instruments recorded the arrival times of the seismic
waves when refracted from the surface of discontinuity.
 These times give information on the velocities and depths of the subsurface formations along
which they propagate.
 Refraction method makes it possible to cover a given area in a shorter time and more
economically than with the reflection method.
 Magnetic method

 Magnetic method deals with variations in the magnetic field of the earth
which are related to changes of structures or magnetic susceptibility in
certain near surface rocks.
 Cont’d

 Magnetic surveys are designed to map structure on or inside the basement

rocks or to detect magnetic mineral directly.
 In mining exploration, magnetic methods are employed for direct location of
ores containing magnetic minerals such as magnetite.
 Intrusive bodies such as dikes can often be distinguished on the basis of
magnetic observations alone.
 Electromagnetic method

 Electromagnetic surveys record electric fields and/or changing magnetic fields.

 These recorded signals can be generated by active or natural sources.
 Example active sources are a loop wire with current flow or current put into the
ground using metal electrodes.
 Thunderstorms are an example of a natural source.
 The recorded electromagnetic data are a function of the subsurface resistivity.
 Rock type, alteration, saturation, temperature, and other physical properties
determine the resistivity of the subsurface.
Method of Geological Investigation
• Site exploration
• Objective
• Identify and delineate geological units
• Identify the extent of weathering , density or compressibility
• Identify features such as joints, faults, and folds
• Conduct simple index tests during investigation
• Assess hydrogeologic conditions
• Extract samples of geologic units and groundwater for laboratory testing
• Install instrumentation (to monitor time dependent changes in sub-surface conditions)
Thank you