INTRODUCTION TO

PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Prof. John Marc G. Balano, M.A.RPsy.

Faculty
What is meant by the term Physiological
psychology?

- is a field of psychology that is concerned with

how physiology, genetics, and biology affect emotional
responses, memory, mental illness, states of
consciousness, and sensory perception.

- focuses on our biological make up, and the events that

occur in our bodies which cause our behavior.
NEURONS AND GLIA
The nervous system consists of two kinds of cells, neurons and glia.

Neurons (also called neurones or nerve cells) are the

fundamental units of the brain and nervous system, the
cells responsible for receiving sensory input from the
external world, for sending motor commands to our
muscles, and for transforming and relaying the electrical
signals at every step in between.Neurons receive
information and transmit it to other cells.
Cerebral cortex :

16 billion neurons

Rest of the brain:

Less than 1 billion Cerebellum :

69 billion neurons

Spinal cord :

1 billion neurons

ESTIMATED NUMBER OF
NEURONS IN HUMANS
Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Pioneer of
Neuroscience
•Two scientists of the late 1800s and early 1900s are widely
recognized as the main founders of neuroscience—Charles
Sherrington,and the Spanish investigator Santiago Ramón y Cajal
(1852–1934).

•Cajal’s research demonstrated that nerve cells remain separate

instead of merging into one another. Cajal and Golgi shared the
1906 Nobel Prize for Physiology.
 The Structure of a Neuron

•The most distinctive feature of neurons is their shape, which varies

enormously from one neuron to another. Unlike most other body
cells, neurons have long branching extensions. All neurons include a
soma (cell body), and most also have dendrites, an axon, and
presynaptic terminals. The tiniest neurons lack axons, and some lack
well-defined dendrites.
 Dendrites are branching fibers that get narrower near their ends.
(The term dendrite comes from a Greek root word meaning “tree.”
A dendrite branches like a tree.) The dendrite’s surface is lined with
specialized synaptic receptors, at which the dendrite receives
information from other neurons

Most neurons have multiple dendrites, which extend out-ward

from the cell body and are specialized to receive chemical signals
from the axon termini of other neurons. Dendrites convert these
signals into small electric impulses and transmit them inward, in
the direction of the cell body.
• The cell body, or soma (Greek for “body”; plural: somata), contains the nucleus, ribosomes,
and mitochondria. Most of a neuron’s metabolic work occurs here. Cell bodies of neurons
range in diameter from 0.005 millimeter (mm) to 0.1 mm in mammals and up to a millimeter
in certain invertebrates. In many neurons, the cell body is like the dendrites— covered with
synapses on its surface.

• The axon is a thin fiber of constant diameter. (The term axon comes from a Greek word
meaning “axis.”) The axon conveys an impulse toward other neurons, an organ, or a muscle.

• Many vertebrate axons are covered with an insulating material called a myelin sheath with
interruptions known as nodes of Ranvier (RAHN-vee-ay). Invertebrate axons do not have
myelin sheaths. Although a neuron can have many dendrites, it can have only one axon, but
the axon may have branches. The end of each branch has a swelling, called a presynaptic
terminal, also known as an end bulb or bouton (French for “button”). At that point the axon
releases chemicals that cross through the junction between that neuron and another cell.
 Glia
•Glia (or neuroglia), the other components of the nervous system,
perform many functions The term glia, derived from a Greek word
meaning “glue,” reflects early investigators’ idea that glia were like
glue that held the neurons together. Glia outnumber neurons in the
cerebral cortex, but neurons outnumber glia in several other brain
areas, neighboring astrocyte to release chemicals of its own, thus
magnifying or modifying the message to the next neuron.

•The brain has several types of glia. The star-shaped astrocytes wrap
around the synapses of functionally related axons. By surrounding a
connection between neurons, an astrocyte shields it from
chemicals circulating in the surround (Nedergaard & Verkhatsky,
2012). Also, by taking up the ions and transmitters released by
axons and then releasing them back, an astrocyte helps synchronize
closely related neurons, enabling their axons to send messages in
waves.
TYPES OF NEUROGLIA
STRUCTURE OF THE VERTEBRATE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The Nervous
System

• Central Nervous System (CNS)

is the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
• connects the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body
The Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord is the part of the CNS within the spinal column. The
spinal cord communicates with all the sense organs and muscles except
those of the head.
SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
•Part of the PNS are the:

Somatic nervous system :which consists of the axons

conveying messages from the sense organs to the CNS
and from the CNS to the muscles.

Another part of the PNS :

Autonomic nervous system, controls the heart,

intestines, and other organs. The autonomic nervous
system has some of its cell bodies within the brain or
spinal cord and some in clusters along the sides of the
spinal cord.
The Hindbrain
•The hindbrain, the posterior part of the brain,
consists of the medulla, the pons, and the
cerebellum. The medulla and pons, the midbrain, and
certain central structures of the forebrain constitute
the brainstem.

The brainstem is the

structure that connects the
cerebrum of the brain to
the spinal cord and
cerebellum.
 Medulla can be regarded as an
-
enlarged extension of the spinal
cord
Pons
The pons, while involved in the
regulation of functions carried out
by the cranial nerves it houses,
works together with the medulla
oblongata to serve an especially
critical role ingenerating the
respiratory rhythm of breathing.
Active functioning of the pons may
also be fundamental to rapid eye
movement (REM) sleep
• Cerebellum - is a large hindbrain structure with many deep folds. It
has long been known for its contributions to the control of movement,
and many older textbooks describe the cerebellum as important for
“balance and coordination.
The Midbrain
• As the name implies, early in development the midbrain is in the
middle of the brain, although in adult mammals it is dwarfed and
surrounded by the forebrain. The midbrain is more prominent in
reptiles, amphibians, and fish
Major Structures of the Midbrain
The Forebrain
Major Structures of the Forebrain

•Cerebral Cortex – outer portion of the forebrain

•Thalamus - is a small structure within the brain located
just above the brain stem between the cerebral cortex
and the midbrain and has extensive nerve connections to
both. The main function of the thalamus is to relay
motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex.
•Basal Ganglia - a group of structures linked to the
thalamus in the base of the brain and involved in
coordination of movement.
The Limbic System
The limbic system is the part of the brain involved in our behavioral and emotional
responses, especially when it comes to behaviors we need for survival: feeding,
reproduction and caring for our young, and fight or flight response
Cingulate gyrus

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Mamillary body

Hippocampus

Amygdala

Olfactory
bulb
 The Ventricles
• The nervous system begins its development as a tube surrounding a fluid
canal. The canal persists into adulthood as the central canal in the center
of the spinal cord, and as the ventricles, four fluid-filled cavities within
the brain. Each hemisphere contains one of the two large lateral
ventricles.

Lateral ventricles

Third
ventricle

Posterior
Lateral
ventricles

Anterior
Thalamus

Cerebral Fourth
aqueduct ventricle
Central canal
of spinal cord

(b )
• The ventricular system is a set of communicating cavities within the brain.
These structures are responsible for the production, transport and removal
of cerebrospinal fluid, which bathes the central nervous system.

• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal
cord. It cushions the brain and spinal cord from injury and also serves as a
nutrient delivery and waste removal system for the brain
 Functions of Cerebrospinal Fluid

•Protection – acts as a cushion for the brain, limiting neural damage

in cranial injuries.

•Buoyancy – by being immersed in CSF, the net weight of the brain

is reduced to approximately 25 grams. (The adult human brain
weighs on average about 1.5 kg ) This prevents excessive pressure
on the base of the brain.

•Chemical stability – the CSF creates an environment to allow for

proper functioning of the brain
The Cerebral Cortex
•The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is said to
look something like a walnut and has some very unique
external features other than its two hemispheres.
•The cerebrum is divided into four main lobes:
•The frontal lobe
•Temporal lobe
•Parietal lobe
•And the occipital lobe
The frontal lobe

- emotional control center and home to our

personality. The frontal lobes are involved in
motor function, problem solving,
spontaneity, memory, language, initiation,
judgement, impulse control, and social and
sexual behavior. The frontal lobes are
extremely vulnerable to injury due to their
location at the front of the cranium,
proximity to the sphenoid wing and their
large size. MRI studies have shown that the
frontal area is the most common region of
injury following mild to moderate traumatic
brain injury (Levin et al., 1987).
• The Temporal lobe folds underneath each half of
the brain on either side, below the frontal and
parietal lobes.
• The temporal lobe houses our ability to receive
and interpret auditory information from the ear. It
also collects and interprets information from the
nose. It is the primary area of the brain for
dealing with sensory input.
• An important area within the temporal lobe,
referred to as the Wernicke’s area, gives us the
ability to recognize speech and interpret the
meaning of words. Damage to this area, such as
from trauma or a stroke, can lead to difficulty
understanding speech and difficulty saying words
that make sense.
• This area is highly important to language. Studies
have shown that children begin understanding
language they hear years before they can speak it,
and this is largely due to the functioning of the
temporal lobe.
Wernicke’s Area
- This area was first described in 1874
by German neurologist Carl Wernicke

-region of the brain that contains motor

neurons involved in the comprehension
of speech

•Damage to the temporal lobe may

result in a language disorder known as
Wernicke Aphasia

- speech is typically fluent but is empty

of content “word salad”
Broca's Area
- Broca's area is one of the main areas of
the cerebral cortex responsible for
producing language
- This region of the brain was named for
French neurosurgeon Paul Broca who
discovered the function of this area
while examining the brains of patients
with language difficulties
- Damage to Broca's area of the brain
results in a condition called Broca's
Aphasia. People with Broca's aphasia
have difficulty with speech production.
Their speech is slow, not grammatically
correct, and consists primarily of simple
words.
• The occipital lobe is important to
being able to correctly understand
what your eyes are seeing. These
lobes have to be very fast to process
the rapid information that our eyes
are sending to the brain.
•The Parietal lobe plays
important roles in
integrating sensory
information from various
parts of the body, knowledge
of numbers and their
relations, and in the
manipulation of objects. Its
function also includes
processing information
relating to the sense of
touch.
The Case of Phineas Gage

•Phineas Gage is probably the most famous person

to have survived severe damage to the brain. He is
also the first patient from whom we learned
something about the relation between personality
and the function of the front parts of the brain.
GENETICS AND EVOLUTION OF
BEHAVIOR
 CHROMOSOMES –
▪  is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic
material of an organism
▪ The word chromosome comes from the  (chroma, "colour")
and  (soma, "body"), describing their strong staining by
particular dyes. The term was coined by the German
scientist von Waldeyer-Hartz. referring to the term chromatin,
which was introduced by Walther Flemming, the discoverer
of cell division.
 FUNCTIONS OF
CHROMOSOMES
▪ Control of Cell Division.Chromosomes facilitate
proper cell division and replication. The main function of
the chromosome is to fit the DNA inside the nucleus. 
▪ Genetic Code Storage: Chromosome contains the genetic
material that is required by the organism to develop and
grow
▪ Sex Determination: Humans have 23 pairs of
chromosomes out of which one pair is the sex chromosome.
Females have two X chromosomes and males have one X
and one Y chromosome. If X chromosome is passed out of
XY chromosome, the child will be a female and if a Y
chromosome is passed, a male child develops.
 CHROMOSOMAL
ABNORMALITY
▪ - A chromosome abnormality or
aberration, is a missing, extra, or irregular
portion of chromosomal DNA. It can be
from an atypical number of chromosomes
or a structural abnormality in one or more
chromosomes.
 DOWN’S SYNDROME
▪ Down syndrome (DS or DNS), also known as
trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by the
presence of all or part of a third copy of
chromosome 21.
▪ Down syndrome can affect a person's cognitive
ability and physical growth, cause mild to
moderate developmental issues, and present a
higher risk of some health problems.

▪ Down syndrome is a genetic disorder caused

when abnormal cell division results in an extra full
or partial copy of chromosome 21. This extra
genetic material causes the developmental
changes and physical features of Down syndrome

▪ Down syndrome varies in severity among

individuals, causing lifelong intellectual disability
and developmental delays. It's the most common
genetic chromosomal disorder and cause of
learning disabilities in children. It also commonly
causes other medical abnormalities, including
PATAU SYNDROME
(TRISOMY 13)
Patau's syndrome is a serious rare genetic disorder caused by
having an additional copy of chromosome 13 in some or all
of the body's cells. It's also called trisomy 13.
▪ Babies with Patau's syndrome grow slowly in
the womb and have a low birth weight, along
with a number of other serious medical
problems.

▪ Patau's syndrome affects about 1 in every 5,000

births. The risk of having a baby with the
syndrome increases with the mother's age.

▪ More than 9 out of 10 children born with

Patau's syndrome die during the first year.
 SYMPTOMS AND
▪
FEATURES
Babies with Patau's syndrome can have a wide range of health
problems.
▪ Their growth in the womb is often restricted, resulting in a low
birth weight, and 8 out of 10 will be born with severe heart
defects.
▪ The brain often does not divide into 2 halves. This is known as
holoprosencephaly.
When this happens, it can affect facial features and cause
defects such as:

▪ cleft lip and palate

▪ an abnormally small eye or eyes (microphthalmia)
▪ absence of 1 or both eyes (anophthalmia)
▪ reduced distance between the eyes (hypotelorism)
▪ problems with the development of the nasal passages
 CAUSES OF PATAU'S
SYNDROME
▪ Most cases of the syndrome do not run in families
(they're not inherited). They occur randomly during
conception, when the sperm and egg combine and
the fetus starts to develop.

▪ An error occurs when the cells divide, resulting in an

additional copy, or part of a copy, of chromosome 13,
which severely affects the baby's development in the
womb.

▪ In up to 1 in 10 cases of Patau's syndrome, genetic

material is rearranged between chromosome 13 and
another chromosome. This is called a chromosomal
translocation.
TURNER SYNDROME
▪ Turner syndrome (TS), also
known as 45,X or 45,X0, is a
condition in which a female is
partly or completely missing an X
chromosome. Signs and symptoms
vary among those affected. Often,
a short and webbed neck, low-set
ears, low hairline at the back of
the neck, short stature, and
swollen hands and feet are seen at
birth. Typically, they only develop
menstrual periods and breasts
with hormone treatment, and are
unable to have children without
reproductive technology. Heart
defects, diabetes, and low thyroid
hormone occur more frequently.
PROGERIA
▪ Progeria is also known as Hutchinson-Gilford
progeria syndrome (HGPS) or the “Benjamin
Button” disease (named after the short story
and movie ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin
Button’

▪ It’s  a rare genetic condition that results in  a

child's body aging rapidly. A mutation in the
LMNA gene causes progeria. Most kids with
progeria don’t live past age 13. The disease
affects people of all sexes and races equally.
About 1 in every 4 million babies are born with
it worldwide
 PROGERIA SYMPTOMS
▪ Slow height and weight growth
▪ A bigger head
▪ Large eyes, which they can’t close all the way
▪ A small lower jaw
▪ A thin nose with a "beaked" tip
▪ Ears that stick out
▪ Veins you can see
▪ Slow and abnormal tooth growth
▪ A high-pitched voice
▪ Loss of body fat and muscle
▪ Hair loss, including eyelashes and eyebrows
▪ Thin, wrinkled skin that shows spots
 DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid - complex molecule that
contains genetic information which is the hereditary material
in humans and almost all other organisms
Molecule that contains genetic information
 RNA
▪ Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is an important
biological macromolecule that is present in
all biological cells. It is principally involved
in the synthesis of proteins, carrying the
messenger instructions from DNA, which
itself contains the genetic instructions
required for the development and
maintenance of life.
▪ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic
acid (RNA) are perhaps the most important
molecules in cell biology, responsible for the
storage and reading of genetic information
that underpins all life. They are both linear
polymers, consisting of sugars, phosphates
and bases, but there are some key differences
which separate the two. These distinctions
enable the two molecules to work together
and fulfill their essential roles.
 GENES
▪ A gene is the basic physical and
functional unit of
heredity. Genes are made up of
DNA. Some genes act as instructions
to make molecules called
proteins.  In humans, genes vary in
size from a few hundred DNA bases
to more than 2 million bases.
▪ Genes are passed from parents to
offspring and contain the
information needed to specify traits.
Genes are arranged, one after
another, on structures called
chromosomes. A chromosome
contains a single, long DNA
molecule, only a portion of which
GENETIC CHANGES
MUTATION
▪ A gene mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA
sequence that makes up a gene, such that the sequence
differs from what is found in most
people. Mutations range in size; they can affect anywhere
from a single DNA building block (base pair) to a large
segment of a chromosome that includes multiple genes.
TYPES OF MUTATIONS
Deletions
A deletion, resulting in a frameshift, results when one or
?

more base pairs are lost from the DNA. Small deletions
may remove one or a few base pairs within a gene,
while larger deletions can remove an entire gene or
several neighboring genes. The deleted DNA may alter
the function of the resulting protein

Insertions
In genetics, an insertion is the addition of one or more
nucleotide base pairs into a DNA sequence.
▪ Duplication
? consists of a piece of DNA that is abnormally copied
one or more times. This type of mutation may alter
the function of the resulting protein.

? Missense mutation
? This type of mutation is a change in one DNA base
pair that results in the substitution of one amino acid
for another in the protein made by a gene

? Nonsense mutation
? is also a change in one DNA base pair. Instead of
substituting one amino acid for another, however, the
altered DNA sequence prematurely signals the cell to
stop building a protein. This type of mutation results in
a shortened protein that may function improperly or
not at all
 CAUSES OF
MUTATIONS
▪ Errors in DNA Replication

▪ Errors in DNA Recombination

▪ Chemical Damage to DNA

▪ Radiation

▪ Mismatch DNA Repair

 EFFECTS OF
MUTATIONS
▪ Harmful mutations may cause genetic disorders or
cancer. A genetic disorder is a disease caused by
a mutation in one or a few genes.

▪ By changing a gene’s instructions for making a protein,

a mutation can cause the protein to malfunction or to be
missing entirely. When a mutation alters a protein that
plays a critical role in the body, it can disrupt normal
development or cause a medical condition. A condition
caused by mutations in one or more genes is called a
genetic disorder
GENETIC DISORDERS
CAUSED BY MUTATION
▪ Cystic Fibrosis

-  is a hereditary disease that

affects the lungs and digestive
system. The body produces
thick and sticky mucus that can
clog the lungs and obstruct the
pancreas. Cystic fibrosis (CF)
can be life-threatening, and
people with the condition tend
to have a shorter-than-normal
life span.
 CAUSE OF CYSTIC
FIBROSIS
▪ Mutated version of the CFTR Gene.

▪ The CFTR gene provides instructions for making a

protein called the cystic fibrosis transmembrane
conductance regulator. This protein functions as a
channel across the membrane of cells that produce
mucus, sweat, saliva, tears, and digestive enzymes.
 SICKLE CELL ANEMIA
▪ Sickle cell anemia is an inherited red
blood cell disorder in which there aren't
enough healthy red blood cells to carry
oxygen throughout your body.

▪ Sickle cell anemia is the result of a point

mutation, a change in just one nucleotide
in the gene for hemoglobin. This
mutation causes the hemoglobin in red
blood cells to distort to a sickle shape
when deoxygenated. The sickle-shaped
blood cells clog in the capillaries,
cutting off circulation

▪ This lack of oxygen-rich blood can

damage nerves and organs, including
your kidneys, liver and spleen, and can
be fatal.
 THE VULNERABLE
DEVELOPING BRAIN
▪ During early development, the brain is highly
vulnerable to malnutrition, toxic chemicals, and
infections that would produce milder problems at later
ages. For example, impaired thyroid function produces
lethargy in adults but mental retardation in infants.

▪ (Thyroid deficiency was common in the past because

of iodine deficiency. It is rare today because table salt is
fortified with iodine.) A fever is a mere annoyance to an
adult, but it impairs neuron proliferation in a fetus
(Laburn, 1996). Low blood glucose decreases an adult’s
pep, but before birth, it impairs brain development
(Nelson et al., 2000).
▪ The infant brain is highly vulnerable to damage by
alcohol. Children of mothers who drink heavily
during pregnancy are born with fetal alcohol
syndrome, a condition marked by hyperactivity,
impulsiveness, difficulty maintaining attention,
varying degrees of mental retardation, motor
problems, heart defects, and facial abnormalities.
Drinking during pregnancy leads to thinning of the
cerebral cortex that persists to adulthood (Zhou et
al., 2011)

Cortical thinning as a result of prenatal

alcohol exposure
▪ Exposure to alcohol damages the brain in several
ways. At the earliest stage of pregnancy, it
interferes with neuron proliferation. A little later, it
impairs neuron migration and differentiation. Still
later, it impairs synaptic transmission.

▪ Alcohol kills neurons partly by apoptosis.

Apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death that
occurs in multicellular organisms. It is a process
of  removing cells during development, eliminates
potentially cancerous and virus-infected cells, and
maintains balance in the body.
PLASTICITY AFTER BRAIN
DAMAGE
Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity, or brain
plasticity, is the ability of neural networks in the brain to
change through growth and reorganization. These changes
range from individual neurons making new connections, to
systematic adjustments like cortical remapping
 BRAIN DAMAGE AND
SHORT-TERM RECOVERY
▪ Possible causes of brain damage include :

- tumors
- infections
- exposure to radiation or toxic substances,
-degenerative conditions such as Parkinson’s disease and
Alzheimer’s disease

In young people, the most common cause is closed

head injury, a sharp blow to the head that does not
puncture the brain. The effects of closed head injury
depend on severity and frequency
▪A common cause of brain damage, especially in older
people, is temporary interruption of normal blood
flow to a brain area during a stroke, also known as a
cerebrovascular accident.
The more common type of stroke is ischemia the result
of a blood clot or other obstruction in an artery. The
less common type is hemorrhage, the result of a
ruptured artery. Effects of strokes vary from barely
noticeable to immediately fatal

Three damaged
human brains
(a) Brain of a person who died immediately after a stroke. Note the swelling on the
right side. (b) Brain of someone who survived for a long time after a stroke. Note
the cavities on the left side, where many cells were lost. (c) Brain of a person who
suffered a gunshot wound and died immediately.
 IMMEDIATE
TREATMENTS
▪Tissue Plasminogen Activator (tPA)
An enzyme that helps dissolve clots. tPA is made by the
cells lining blood vessels and has also been made in
the laboratory. It is systemic thrombolytic (clot-busting)
agent and is used in the treatment of heart
attack and stroke.
▪ Treatment for Mild TBI (Traumatic Brain
Injury)

▪ In most cases, emergency care focuses on stabilizing the

patient and promoting survival. This care may include
ensuring adequate oxygen flow to the brain, controlling
blood pressure, and preventing further injury to the head
or neck. Once the patient is stable, other types of care for
TBI and its effects can begin
Surgery may be needed as part of emergency care to
reduce additional damage to the brain tissues. Surgery may
include:

Removing clotted blood. Bleeding in the brain or between

▪

the brain and skull can lead to large areas of clotted blood,
sometimes called hematomas
(pronounced hee-ma-TOH-muhz), that put pressure on the
brain and damage brain tissues.

Repairing skull fractures. Setting severe skull fractures or

▪

removing pieces of skull or other debris from the brain can

help start the healing process of the skull and surrounding
tissues.

Relieving pressure in the skull. Making a hole in the skull

▪

or adding a shunt or drain can relieve pressure inside the

skull and allow excess fluid to drain
 LATER MECHANISMS
OF RECOVERY
▪ After the first days following brain
damage, many of the surviving brain
areas increase or reorganize their activity
(Nishimura et al., 2007). In most cases the
recovery depends mostly on increased
activity by the spared cells surrounding
the area of damage (Murata et al., 2015).
WAKEFULNESS AND SLEEP
SLEEP AND WAKEFULNESS

•Sleep is a state of a natural, periodically

recurring state of inactivity, characterized by
the loss of consciousness and reduced
responsiveness to external stimuli.

•In contrast, wakefulness is the absence

of sleep and is marked by consciousness,
awareness and activity.
 Hans Berger
• German psychiatrist. He is best known as
the inventor of electroencephalography in
1924, which is a method used for
recording the electrical activity of the
brain, commonly described in terms of
brainwaves, and as the discoverer of the
alpha wave rhythm which is a type of
brainwave
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
is a test that detects electrical activity in
your brain using small, metal discs
(electrodes) attached to your scalp. Your
brain cells communicate via electrical
impulses and are active all the time, even
when you're asleep. This activity shows up as
wavy lines on an EEG recording.
EEG Frequencies
•Sleep is characterized by higher voltages and slower
waves, a pattern called synchronized EEG.
•Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep is the usual
term for this state. In humans, NREM sleep is further
subdivided into four Stages, 1 through 4, which
depend on the extent of EEG slowing, especially in
the delta frequency range
STAGES OF SLEEP

•Sleep can be divided into two sleep states or types

1. Non- rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep.

- consists out of three or four main subdivisions
2. Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
- no stage division
The Stages of Sleep
 NREM STAGES OF SLEEP
•Stage 1 sleep is a transitional phase that occurs
between wakefulness and sleep, the period
during which we drift off to sleep. During this
time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of
respiration and heartbeat. In addition, stage 1
sleep involves a marked decrease in both
overall muscle tension and core body
temperature.
•In terms of brain wave activity, stage 1 sleep is
associated with both alpha and theta waves.
The early portion of stage 1 sleep produces
alpha waves, which are relatively low
frequency (8–13Hz), high amplitude patterns of
electrical activity (waves) that become
synchronized
•As we move into stage 2 sleep, the body goes
into a state of deep relaxation. Theta waves still
dominate the activity of the brain, but they are
interrupted by brief bursts of activity known as
sleep spindles . A sleep spindle is a rapid burst of
higher frequency brain waves that may be
important for learning and memory In addition,
the appearance of K-complexes is often
associated with stage 2 sleep. A K-complex is a
very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that
may in some cases occur in response to
environmental stimuli.
•Stage 3 and stage 4 of sleep are often referred to as
deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because these stages are
characterized by low frequency (up to 4 Hz), high
amplitude delta waves. During this time, an individual’s
heart rate and respiration slow dramatically. It is much
more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during
stage 3 and stage 4 than during earlier stages.
Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of
alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with
wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during
stage 3 and stage 4 often report that they do not feel
refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they
slept
 REM SLEEP
•The brain waves associated with this
stage of sleep are very similar to those
observed when a person is awake, as
shown in, and this is the period of sleep
in which dreaming occurs. It is also
associated with paralysis of muscle
systems in the body with the exception
of those that make circulation and
respiration possible. Therefore, no
movement of voluntary muscles occurs
during REM sleep in a normal
individual; REM sleep is often referred
to as paradoxical sleep because of this
combination of high brain activity and
lack of muscle tone.
WHAT HAPPENS TO THE BRAIN IN THE STAGE
OF SLEEP
•The brain stores new information and gets rid of
toxic waste. Nerve cells communicate and
reorganize, which support healthy brain function.
The body repairs cells, restores energy, and
releases molecules like hormones and proteins.
Brain chemicals and Sleep

•Chemicals called neurotransmitters send

messages to different nerve cells in the brain.
Nerve cells in the brainstem release
neurotransmitters.. Neurotransmitters act on
parts of the brain to keep it alert and working well
while you are awake. The neurotransmitter
acetylcholine is at its strongest both during REM
(rapid eye movement) sleep.
•Other nerve cells stop the messages that tell you
to stay awake. This causes you to feel sleepy. One
chemical involved in that process is called
adenosine. Caffeine promotes wakefulness by
blocking the receptors to
adenosine. Adenosine seems to work by slowly
building up in your blood when you are awake.
This makes you drowsy. While you sleep, the
chemical slowly dissipates.
 Sleep Regulation

•The circadian rhythm synchronizes biological

rhythms, including sleep, over a cycle of 24 hours.

•Sleep/wake homeostasis describes the body’s

internal neurophysiologic drive toward either
sleep or waking
 Sleep Processes

•With sleep/wake homeostasis, the longer

you are awake, the greater your body
senses the need to sleep. If this process
alone was in control of your sleep/wake
cycles, in theory you would have the most
energy when you woke up in the morning.
And you would be tired and ready for sleep
at the end of the day.
Biological Clock
•refers to an innate process which facilitates sleeping,
aging, fertility, and other physiological activities. This
internal mechanism may change weekly, monthly, or
other regular cycles. Biological clock is most often
associated with the sleep-wake cycle
or circadian rhythm.
Functions of Sleep
•During sleep, we rest our muscles, decrease
metabolism, perform cellular maintenance in neurons
(Vyadyslav & Harris, 2013), reorganize synapses, and
strengthen memories. People who don’t get enough
sleep react more severely than average to stressful
events.
•They may develop symptoms of mental illness or
may aggravate symptoms they already had.
• Inadequate sleep is a major cause of accidents
by workers and poor performance by college
students. Driving while sleep deprived is
comparable to driving under the influence of
alcohol

•Even one night of sleeplessness activates the

immune system. That is, you react to sleep
deprivation as if you were ill.
THEORIES OF SLEEP FUNCTION

•Restorative Theory
- This theory supports the notion that
sleep is necessary to revitalize and restore
the physiological processes that help in
rejuvenating the body and mind. With this
theory, it is postulated that NREM sleep is
important for restoring physiological
functions and REM sleep is important in the
restoration of mental functions.
•Cognitive Function Theory
- Sleep is important for cognitive function and
memory formation. Studies on sleep deprivation show
disruption in cognition and also indicate memory
deficits. These disruptions lead to:

•Impairment in the attention-maintaining ability

•Impairments in decision making
•Difficulty recalling long-term memories
•Energy Conservation Theory

- Sleep has been implicated as a means of energy

conservation. The energy conservation theory suggests
that the main function of sleep is to reduce energy
demand during a part of the day and night. The fact that
the body has a decreased metabolism of up to 10%
during the sleep, supports this theory. Body temperature
and calorie demand drop during sleep and increase
when we are awake, again supporting the hypothesis
that sleep plays an important role in helping to conserve
energy resources.
 Sleep and Other Interruptions
of Consciousness
•Coma - is an extended period of unconsciousness
caused by head trauma, stroke, or disease. Someone in
a coma has a low level of brain activity and little or no
response to stimuli.
Vegetative State
- Patients may have complex reflexes, is when a person is
awake but showing no signs of awareness. including eye
movements, yawning, and involuntary movements to
noxious stimuli, but show no awareness of self or
environment
•Brain Death
- is a condition with no sign of brain activity
and no response to any stimulus. It is the complete
stopping of all brain function and cannot be reversed. It
means that, because of extreme and serious trauma or
injury to the brain, the body's blood supply to
the brain is blocked, and the brain dies. Brain
death is death.
 Sleep Deprivation
• is a general term to describe a state caused by inadequate quantity or
quality of sleep, including voluntary or involuntary sleeplessness and
circadian rhythm sleep disorders.
Sleep Disorders
 Insomnia
• is a sleep disorder in which you have trouble falling and/or staying asleep.
The condition can be short-term (acute) or can last a long time (chronic)
Temporary Insomnia

•Brief period of sleeplessness caused by

worry, stress, and excitement
Chronic Insomnia

•Exists if sleeping troubles last for

more than three weeks
•Sleep deprivation impairs memory, attention, and
cognition (Scullin & Bliwise, 2015). It also
magnifies unpleasant emotional reactions and
increases the risk of depression.

•Causes of insomnia include noise ,uncomfortable

temperatures, stress, pain, diet, and medications.
Insomnia can also be the result of epilepsy,
Parkinson’s disease, brain tumors, depression,
anxiety, or other neurological or psychiatric
conditions.
•Another cause of insomnia is, paradoxically, the
use of sleeping pills. Frequent use causes
dependence and an inability to sleep without
the pills
 Sleep Apnea
•impaired ability to breathe while sleeping. People
with sleep apnea have breathless periods of a
minute or so from which they awaken gasping for
breath.
•People with sleep apnea are at increased risk of
stroke, heart problems, and other disorders.
People with sleep apnea have multiple brain
areas that appear to have lost neurons, and
consequently, many of them show deficiencies
of learning, reasoning, attention, and impulse
control.
•Sleep apnea results from several causes,
including genetics, hormones, and old-age
deterioration of the brain mechanisms that
regulate breathing. Another cause is obesity,
especially in middle-aged men. Many obese
men have narrower than normal airways and
have to compensate by breathing frequently or
vigorously. During sleep, they cannot keep up
that rate of breathing. Furthermore, their
airways become even narrower than usual
when they adopt a sleeping posture.
•People with sleep apnea are advised to lose weight and
avoid alcohol and tranquilizers (which impair the
breathing muscles). The most common treatment is a
mask that coversm the nose and delivers air under
enough pressure to keep the breathing passages open.
Narcolepsy
• a condition characterized by frequent periods
of sleepiness during the day, strikes about 1
person in 1,000. It sometimes runs in families,
but most cases emerge in people with no
affected relatives.
Symptoms of Narcolepsy

1. Attacks of sleepiness during the day.

2 .Occasional cataplexy—an attack of muscle weakness while the
person remains awake. Cataplexy is often triggered by strong
emotions, such as anger or great excitement.
3. Sleep paralysis—an inability to move while falling asleep or
waking up. Many people have experienced sleep paralysis at least
once or twice, but people with narcolepsy experience it
frequently.

The cause relates to the neurotransmitter orexin. People with

narcolepsy lack the hypothalamic cells that produce and release
orexin which is important for maintaining wakefulness
Night Terrors and Sleepwalking

•Night terrors are experiences of intense anxiety

from which a person awakens screaming in terror.
A night terror is more severe than a nightmare,
which is simply an unpleasant dream. Night
terrors occur during NREM sleep and are more
common in children than adults. Dream content,
if any, is usually simple, such as a single image.
 SLEEPWALKING
(somnambulism)
• is a bizarre sleep disorder, where sufferers can find themselves
performing daily routines in their sleep - like doing housework, raiding
the fridge, making phone calls, and in extreme cases leaving the house
altogether

• Sleepwalking runs in families and occurs

mostly in children. Most people who
sleepwalk, and many of their relatives,
have one or more additional sleep difficulties
such as chronic snoring, disordered sleep
breathing, bed-wetting, and night terrors
 Causes of Sleepwalking
• hereditary (i.e., the condition may run in families)
• lack of sleep or fatigue
• interrupted sleep or inefficient sleep (including from disorders like sleep
apnea)
• illness or fever
• certain medications
• stress, anxiety