Course Title: Soil & Rock Mechanics

Course Code: CIEG 303

Unit 1:
Soil Introduction

Dr. Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. & PostDoc

(Ksyushu University)

Visiting Faculty,
School of Engineering, Department of Civil & Geomatic Engineering, Kathmandu University, NEPAL

Visiting Associate Professor

Institute of Lowland and Marine Research (ILMR), Saga University, JAPAN

Former Secretary General cum Treasurer

International Association of Lowland Technology (IALT), JAPAN

Chief Guest Editor & Associate Editor

Lowland Technology International Journal (LTI), JAPAN

Unit 1: Soil Introduction

Introduction, Classification of soil,

Phases

Particle size and gradation

Soil profiles

1
 Definition of soil in Engineering Geology

Soil:
• Aggregates of mineral particles which incorporates with the
presence of air and/or water in the void spaces, forming
three-phase systems.
• A large portion of the earth’s surface is covered by soils
which are widely responsible for any types of
infrastructures built on it.
• It is widely used as construction and foundation materials.
• Soil mechanics is the branch of engineering which
encompasses the application of the principles of
mechanics, hydraulics and deals with the engineering
problems related to soils and their behavior under stress.
3

Soil size limits

• A naturally occurring soil sample comprises various size
particles.
• Various agencies have developed the size limits of gravel, sand,
silt and clay
• Some agencies classify clay as particles < 0.005 mm in size, and
others classify it as particles < 0.002 mm in size.
• However, it needs to be realized that particles defined as clay on
the basis of their size are not necessarily clay minerals.
• Clay particles which possess the tendency to develop plasticity
when mixed with water, are called clay minerals.
• Kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite, vermiculite, and chlorite are
examples of some clay minerals.

4
2
• Fine particles of quartz, feldspar, or mica will not enhance
plasticity when mixed with water however they may
represent in a soil range of clay.

• It appears that it is more appropriate for soil particles with

sizes <2 or 5 μm as defined by various agencies to be
named clay-size particles rather than clay.

• True clay particles are mostly of colloidal size range (<1

μm), and 2 μm is probably the upper limit.

6
3
 7

What ions are we made of ????

Chemical Composition of Human body

4
 Basic Chemistry Revision

• For understanding soil chemistry we need to

understand basic chemistry too…
• Periodic Table
• Cat ion +(Donor)
• Anion - (Receiver)
• Chemical Bonds
• Isomorphous Substitution

Periodic Table Increasing

affinity
electron

Na+ Cl-
10

5
11

12

6
13

14

7
 Electrical charge on a soil
particle

15

Isomorphous substitution :
Replacement of one atom by another of similar size without
disrupting the crystal structure of a clay mineral

Al3
+

Net Charge difference = -1

Net Charge difference = -2 16

8
 Clay Minerals
• Clay minerals are complex silicates of Al, Mg and Fe.
• Two basic crystalline units form the clay minerals:
1. Silicon–Oxygen Tetrahedron, and
2. Aluminum or Magnesium Octahedron.

17

Weathering processes

Micas  Vermiculite  Smectite  Kaolinite  Al,Fe-Oxides

Young, weakly weathered soils

= fine-grained mica, chlorite, vermiculite
(Entisol, Inceptisol)
Intermediate weathering
= vermiculite, smectite, kaolinite
(Mollisol, Alfisol, Ultisol)

Strong weathering
= kaolinite, hydrous oxides
(Ultisol--> Oxisol)

18
9
 19

Engineering Applications

• Lime treatment for the swelling clay

•The swelling clay such as Na-montmorillonite beneath the foundation is potentially
harmful to the light structure. Adding lime (CaO) into such soil can effectively reduce
the swelling potential due to Ca2+ displacing Na+, and can increase the strength by
dehydration of soils and cementation.
• Drilling mud
The swelling clays can
form a so-called “filter
Soil cake” and enable soil
particle layers to become Pressure
relatively impermeable. profile of
slurry
Earth pressure+
Bentonite or ground water
pressure
Polymer
Trench
Xanthakos, 1991
20
Montmorillonite is the dominant clay mineral in bentonite
10
Particle Assemblages

Collins and McGown, 1974

(from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
21

Soil Fabric-Clay Soils - Terminology

Face (F)

Edge (E)

Clay Particle

• Dispersed: No face-to-face association of clay particles

• Aggregated: Face-to-face association (FF) of several clay particles.

• Flocculated: Edge-to-Edge (EE) or edge-to-face (EF) association

• Deflocculated: No association between aggregates

van Olphen, 1991 (from Mitchell, 1993)

22
11
 Particle Associations

Dispersed and
deflocculated Aggregated but
deflocculated

Edge-to-face
flocculated but
dispersed Edge-to-edge flocculated
but dispersed

Edge-to-face Edge-to-edge
Edge-to-face and edge
flocculated and flocculated and
to edge flocculated and
aggregated aggregated
aggregated

van Olphen, 1991

23

Dispersed fabric
Flocculated fabric
Edge-to-face (EF): positively
charged edges and negatively
charged surfaces (more common)

Edge-to-edge (EE)
nonsalt flocculation The net interparticle force
between surfaces is
Aggregated fabric repulsive

salt-type
flocculation
Face-to-Face (FF) Shifted Face-to-Face (FF)

If the net effect of the attractive and repulsive forces between the two clay particles
is attractive, the two particles will tend to move toward each other and become
attached-flocculate. If the net influence is repulsive they tend to move away-disperse
24

12
 Nature of Soil

VOIDS
Soil is composed of particles
SOLIDS

Coarse-Grained Soils Volume >> Surface Area

(large particles) FRICTION
Gravitational Force governs Behavior

(Sand/Gravel)

Surface Area >> Volume

Fine-Grained Soils clay
Surface Force (electrical)
(small particles)
COHESION
DOUBLE governs the behavior
LAYER

clay
Double layer expands – repulsion
Double layer contracts - attraction
(Clay/Silt)
25

Dispersive Soil:
Weathering of sedimentary rocks, transfers Sodium ions from the
rock components to the soil. They are washed out with water flow
even at small velocities. Calcium and Magnesium Ions can be
used for the treatment.
+ +
Replace Na+ - Ca++, Mg++
+ Clay + +
+ +
+ + + Clay

+ +
Na+ +
Nearer
Farther attraction
repulsion + +
+ +
+
clay
clay +
+
+
26

13
 Same amount of soil: Dispersive soil tends to break easily.
Making Engineering structure in these soils have risk of failures.
So treatment is required. 27

Grain-size distribution of soil

• For a basic understanding of the

nature of soil, the distribution of the
grain size present in a given soil
mass must be known.
• The grain size distribution of coarse-
grained soils (gravelly and/or sandy)
is determined by sieve analysis.

28
14
• The grain-size distribution can be used to determine some of
the basic soil parameters, such as the effective size, the
uniformity coefficient, and the coefficient of gradation.

The effective size of a soil is the diameter through which

10% of the total soil mass is passing and is referred to as
D10.
The uniformity coefficient Cu
is defined as

The coefficient of gradation Cc is defined

as

29

Particle size or grain size refers to the diameter of a grain of granular

material

30
15
 Gradation of Soil

• A soil is called a well-graded soil if the distribution of the grain sizes

extends over a rather large range.
• Generally, a soil is referred to as well graded if Cu > 4–6 and Cc is
between 1 and 3.
• When most of the grains in a soil mass are of approximately the
same size, Cu is near to 1- poorly graded.
• A soil might have a combination of two or more well graded soil
fractions, and this type of soil is referred to as a gap-graded soil.
• For fine-grained soils, hydrometer analysis is adopted based on the
principle of sedimentation of soil grains.

31

Soil Classification Systems

• Grain size, genesis, Atterberg Limits behavior, etc.
• But in engineering, descriptive or behavior based classification is
more useful than genetic classification.

American Assoc of State Highway & Transportation Officials

(AASHTO)
Originally proposed in 1945
Classification system based on eight major groups (A-1 to A-8)
and a group index
Based on grain size distribution, liquid limit and plasticity indices
Mainly used for highway subgrades in USA
Unified Soil Classification System (UCS)
Originally proposed in 1942 by A. Casagrande
Classification system pursuant to ASTM Designation D-2487
Classification system based on group symbols and group names
The USCS is used in most geotechnical work in Canada

32
16
• Group symbols:
G - gravel
S - sand
M - silt
C - clay
O - organic silts and clay
Pt - peat and highly
organic soils
H - high plasticity
L - low plasticity
W - well graded
P - poorly graded

• Group names:
several descriptions
Plasticity Chart
33

Grain Size Distribution Curve

Gravel: Sand:

34
17
 Gradual
Poorly graded
Gap graded

10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101

Soil Physics 2010 35

Soil Grain Shapes Bulky (sands and gravel)

Flaky or Needle shape

(clay)

36
18
 sand

37

Soil- Grain Size

Grain size of soil refers to the diameters of the soil particles making
up the soil mass. This is however a loose description of soil since
most soil particles have irregular shapes and are not round.

Depending on the predominant size of particles within the soil, the

sizes of particles that make up soils vary over a wide range. Soils
generally are called :

Gravel
Sand
Silt
Clay

38
19
39

40
20
The determination of size of particles in a soil expressed as a
percentage of the total dry weight.

Significance of GSD:
•To know the relative proportions of different grain sizes.
•An important factor influencing the geotechnical characteristics of
a coarse grain soil.

Methods to find GSD:

• Sieve (mechanical) Analysis: for particle size greater

than 0.075 mm in diameter.

• Hydrometer (wet) Analysis: for particle size smaller

than 0.075 mm in diameter.
41

Sieve (mechanical) Analysis

Remark
The sieve is given a number that correspond to the number of
opening per LINEAR INCH of screen, for example NO. 4 sieve has four
0.187-in openings per inch. 42
21
 43

Sieve Analysis

44
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45

23
Sieving procedure
1. Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be
used in the analysis.
2. Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
3. Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the
ascending order of sieve numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at
bottom). Place the pan below #200 sieve. Carefully pour the soil
sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.
4. Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10
minutes.
5. Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record
the weight of each sieve with its retained soil. In addition,
remember to weigh and record the weight of the bottom pan with
its retained fine soil.
47

Data Analysis:
1. Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the
weight of the empty sieve from the mass of the sieve + retained
soil, and record this mass as the weight retained on the data sheet.
The sum of these retained masses should be approximately equals
the initial mass of the soil sample. A loss of more than two percent
is unsatisfactory.
2. Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight
retained on each sieve by the original sample mass.
3. Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with
100 percent and subtracting the percent retained on each sieve as
a cumulative procedure.

48

24
49

50

25
 Hydrometer (Wet analysis) Analysis
• Based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in
water.

• It is assumed that all the soil particles are spheres and

that the velocity of soil particles can be expressed by
Stokes’ law.

51

Hydrometer (Wet analysis) Analysis

52
26
Hydrometer Analysis - Procedure:

53

54

27
Hydrometer Analysis:
1. Take the fine soil from the bottom pan of the sieve set, place it into a
beaker and add 125 mL of the dispersing agent (sodium
hexametaphosphate (40 g/L)) solution. Stir the mixture until the soil is
thoroughly wet. Let the soil soak for at least ten minutes.

2. While the soil is soaking, add 125mL of dispersing agent into the control
cylinder and fill it with distilled water to the mark. Take the reading at
the top of the meniscus formed by the hydrometer stem and the control
solution. A reading less than zero is recorded as a negative (-)
correction and a reading between zero and sixty is recorded as a
positive (+) correction. This reading is called the zero correction. The
meniscus correction is the difference between the top of the meniscus
and the level of the solution in the control jar (Usually about +1).

3. Shake the control cylinder in such a way that the contents are mixed
thoroughly. Insert the hydrometer and thermometer into the control
cylinder and note the zero correction and temperature respectively.

55

4. Transfer the soil slurry into a mixer by adding more distilled water,
if necessary, until mixing cup is at least half full. Then mix the
solution for a period of two minutes.

5. Immediately transfer the soil slurry into the empty sedimentation

cylinder. Add distilled water up to the mark.

6. Cover the open end of the cylinder with a stopper and secure it
with the palm of your hand. Then turn the cylinder upside down
and back upright for a period of one minute. (The cylinder should
be inverted approximately 30 times during the minute.)

7. Set the cylinder down and record the time. Remove the stopper
from the cylinder. Very slowly and carefully insert the
hydrometer for the first reading. 56

28
8. The reading is taken by observing the top of the meniscus formed by the
suspension and the hydrometer stem.

9. The hydrometer is removed slowly and placed back into the control
cylinder. Very gently spin it in control cylinder to remove any particles that
may have adhered.

10. Take hydrometer readings after elapsed time of 2, 5, 8, 15, 30, 60 minutes
and 24 hours.

Data Analysis:

1. Apply meniscus correction to the actual hydrometer reading.

2. Using Table, obtain the effective hydrometer depth L in cm (for meniscus
corrected reading).
57

58

29
 3. For known Gs of the soil (if not known, assume 2.65 for this lab
purpose), obtain the value of K from Table.

59

4. Calculate the equivalent particle diameter by using the following

formula:

5. Determine the temperature correction CT

from Table.
6. Determine correction factor “a” from Table
using Gs.

60

30
7. Calculate corrected hydrometer reading as follows:

8. Calculate percent finer as follows:

9. Adjusted percent fines as follows:

10. Plot the grain size curve D versus the adjusted percent finer on
the semi logarithmic sheet.
61

62
31
 63

Classification of Soils

•Classifying soils into groups with similar behavior, in terms of simple

indices, can provide geotechnical engineers a general guidance about
engineering properties of the soils through the accumulated
experience.

Communicate
between
engineers
Classification Estimate Achieve
Simple indices
system (Language) engineering engineering
GSD, LL, PI properties purposes

Use the
accumulated
experience 64

32
 Soil Classification Systems (SCS)

• Classification systems developed by different organizations

1. Unified Soil Classification System.

2. AASHTO (American Association of state Highway
and Transportation Officials) soil classification system.
3. FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) soil
classification system.
4. Textural soil classification system.
5. USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture) soil
classification system.

65

Classification Systems

• Two commonly used systems:

• Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).

Most widely used to classify soil for use in foundation & dam
engineering.
• American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) System

Most widely and exclusively used for highways and airfields

66

33
 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Origin of USCS:
This system was first developed by Professor A. Casagrande (1948) for
the purpose of airfield construction during World War II. Afterwards, it
was modified by Professor Casagrande, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,
and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to enable the system to be
applicable to dams, foundations, and other construction (Holtz and
Kovacs, 1981).
Four major divisions:
(1) Coarse-grained
(2) Fine-grained
(3) Organic soils
(4) Peat

• Tests required for classification of soil are;

1. Liquid and plastic limit tests.

2. Particle size analysis test.

Broad Classification includes the following two types;

1. Coarse-grained soil
2. Fine-grained soil
• The soil is classified in to 15 groups.
• Each group is designated a symbol consisting of two capital
letters
• The first letter is based on main soil type
• The second letter is based on gradation and plasticity
68
34
 Symbols for main soil types

G - Gravel Coarse grained

S - Sand soil

M - Inorganic Silt Fine grained soil

C - Inorganic Clay
O - Organic Silt and Clay

Pt - Peat, Humus, Swamp

Coarse-grained soil is subdivided into two subgroups based on

gradation,
W-- for well-graded soil
P -- for poorly-graded soil
Fine-grained soil is subdivided in two subgroups based on their
plasticity characteristics
L-- for low plasticity soil (liquid limit < 50) 69
H-- for high plasticity soil (liquid limit > 50)

Classification Group Symbols

Main Soil Symbols Subgroup Symbols Classification
Type Group symbols
Gravel G Well-graded W GW
Poorly-graded P GP
Silty M GM
Clayey C GC
Sand S Well-graded W SW
Poorly-graded P SP
Silty M SM
Clayey C SC
Silt M LL < 50% L ML
LL > 50% H MH
Clay C LL < 50% L CL
LL > 50% H CH
Organic O LL < 50% L OL
LL > 50% H OH
Peat Pt Pt 70

35
Soils possessing characteristics of two groups are known as borderline
soils and designated by dual symbols e.g.,

GC-GM, GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, GP-CG, SC-SM, SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-

SM, SP-SC, CL-ML.

Total number of groups in USC system, therefore are twenty six (26),

The Unified Soil Classification System is based on the following:

1. Textural characteristics of coarse-grained soils with such small

amount of fines, that fines do not affect the behaviour.
2. Plasticity characteristics of fine-grained soils where the fines affect
the engineering behaviour.

Textural characteristics are evaluated by particle-size analysis.

Plasticity characteristics are evaluated by the plasticity chart. 71

Definition of Grain Size

No specific grain
size- use
Atterberg limits

Gravel Sand Silt and

Boulders Cobbles Clay
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine

300 mm 75 mm No.4 No.200

4.75 mm 0.075
19 mm No.10 No.40 mm
2.0 mm 0.425 mm

72
36
 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Used for Fine grained soils to determine whether silt (M) or clay (C)
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50 Toughness and dry strength increase e
" lin
with increasing plasticity index
"A
40
Plasticity index

CH
30

20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils

Below A-line is silt – use symbol M LL > 50  High plasticity

Above A-line is clay – use symbol C LL< 50  low plasticity
73

General Guidance

50 %
50%
Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:
Gravel Sand Silt Clay

NO. 4 NO.200
4.75 mm 0.075 mm

LL>50 LL
•Grain size distribution •PL, LL <50

•Cu •Plasticity chart

•Cc

Required tests: Sieve analysis

Atterberg limit 74
37
 1. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
% Passing sieve No. 200 (0.075 mm)

< 50% > 50%

Coarse-grained soils Fine-grained soils
Silt (M)
Clay (C)

•Grain size distribution •Use Plasticity chart

ML, MH, CL, CH

Required tests: Sieve analysis

Atterberg limit
75

1. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

% Passing sieve No. 200 (0.075 mm)

< 50% > 50%

Coarse-grained soils Fine-grained soils
Silt (M)
% Coarse soil (Co) = 100 - % Passing # 200 Clay (C)
% Gravel (G) = 100 - % Passing # 4

G > 1/2 G < 1/2 •Use Plasticity chart

Co Co •LL, PL
Gravel Sand (S)
(G)
% Passing sieve No. 200

< 5% GW, GP, SW or SP Use  Cu, Cc W : well graded P: poorly graded

5% -12 % GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, GP-GC, SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM, SP-SC

> 12% GM, GC, SM, SC Use  plasticity charts 76

38
To determine if well graded (W) or poorly graded (P), calculate Cu and
Cc D
Coefficient of uniformity Cu  60
D10

D302
Coefficient of gradation Cc 
( D60  D10 )

77

1. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

D60
Coefficient of uniformity Cu 
D10

D302
Coefficient of gradation Cc 
( D60  D10 )

Conditions for Well-graded soils

For gravels  Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3
For Sand  W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 and 3

78

39
 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

79

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50 Toughness and dry strength increase e
" lin
with increasing plasticity index
"A
40
Plasticity index

CH
30

20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
CL-ML or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Plasticity chart 80

for laboratory classification of fine grained soils 40

 Unified soil classification (including identification and description)

Field identification procedures Group Information required for Laboratory classification

(Excluding particles larger than 75mm and basing fractions on symbols Typical names
1 describing soils criteria
estimated weights)

Depending on percentages of fines (fraction smaller than .075mm

Wide range of grain size and substantial GW Well graded gravels, gravel- D
Give typical names: indicate ap- C U= --- 60 Greater than 4

Bordeline case requiring use of dual symbols

Gravels with Clean gravels

Determine percentages of gravel and sand from grain size curve

(little or no
amounts of all intermediate particle sand mixtures, little or no proximate percentages of sand D 10
2

fines)
sizes fines and gravel: maximum size: (D30 )
More than half of coarse C c = --------------------- Between 1 and 3
fraction is larger than
Predominantly one size or a range of GP Poorly graded gravels, gravel- angularity, surface condition, D10 x D60

sieve size) coarse grained soils are classified as follows

sizes with some intermediate sizes sand mixtures, little or no and hardness of the coarse
More than half of m aterial is larger than

2.36mm missing fines grains: local or geological name Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW
Gravels

and other pertinent descriptive

amount of fines)

Use grain size curve in identifying the fractions as given under field identification
Non-plastic fines (for identification GM Silty gravels, poorly information and symbol in

(apreciable
procedures see ML below) graded gravel-sand-silt mixtures parentheses. Atterberg limits below Above "A" line with
fines "A" line or PI less than 4 PI between 4 and 7
The .075mm sieve size is about the smallest particle visible to the naked eye
Coarse grained soils
.075mm sieve size

Plastic fines (for identification pro- GC Clayey gravels, poorly graded For undisturbed soils add infor- are borderline cases
mation on stratification, degree Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
cedures see CL below) gravel-sand-clay mixtures

GM, GC, SM, SC

line with PI greater than 7 symbols

GW, GP, SW, SP

of compactness, cementation,
Wide range in grain sizes and sub- moisture conditions and drain- D
SW Well graded sands, gravelly
stantial amounts of all intermediate age characteristics. C U =--- 60 Greater than 6
Clean sands
(little or no

particle sizes sands, little or no fines D 10

fines)
More than half of coarse

(D )2
fraction is smaller than

Predominantely one size or a range of
sizes with some intermediate sizes missing
2.36mm
SP Poorly graded sands, gravelly
sands, little or no fines
Example:
C c = -----------30
---------- Between 1 and 3
Silty sand, gravelly; about 20% D 10 x D60
hard angular gravel particles

12.5mm maximum size; rounded Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW
Sands

More than 12%

amount of fines)

Non-plastic fines (for identification pro- SM Silty sands, poorly graded and subangular sand grains
(appreciable

Less than 5%
Sands with

cedures, see ML below) sand-silt mixtures coarse to fine, about 15% non- Atterberg limits below Above "A" line with

5% to 12%
plastic lines with low dry "A" line or PI less than 4 PI between 4 and 7
fines

Plastic fines (for identification pro- SC Clayey sands, poorly graded strength; well compacted and are borderline cases
cedures, see CL below) sand-clay mixtures moist in places; alluvial sand; Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
(SM) line with PI greater than 7 symbols
Identification procedure on fraction smaller than .425mm
sieve size
Dry strength Dilatency Toughness
crushing (consistency
More than half of material is smaller than

Silts and clays

(reaction
less than 50
liquid limit

character- to shaking) nearlimit)

plastic
istics
Inorganic silts and very fine sands, Give typical name; indicate degree
None to Quick to rock flour, silty or clayey
slight slow None ML and character of plasticity, 60
Fine grained soils
.075mm sieve size

fine sands with slight plasticity

amount and maximum size of Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
Inorganic clays of low to medium coarse grains: colour in wet con-
Medium to None to very 50 Toughness and dry strength increase
high slow
Medium CL,CI plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy dition, odour if any, local or in
e
clays, silty clays, lean clays with increasing plasticity index "l
geological name, and other pert- "A
Slight to Organic silts and organic silt- inent descriptive information, and 40

Plasticity index
medium Slow Slight OL clays of low plasticity CH
symbol in parentheses
30 CI
inorganic silts, micaceous or
Silts and clays

Slight to Slow to Slight to For undisturbed soils add infor-

MH dictomaceous fine sandy or
greater than
liqu id limit

medium none medium silty soils, elastic silts mation on structure, stratif- 20 OH
ication, consistency and undis-
50

High to very Inorganic clays of high or

None High turbed and remoulded states, CL OL
high CH plasticity, fat clays moisture and drainage conditions 10
CL-ML or MH
ML
Medium to None to very Slight to Organic clays of medium to Example 0
high high medium OH high plasticity Clayey silt, brown: slightly plastic: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Readily identified by colour, odour small percentage of fine sand:
Highly organic soils Pt Peat and other highly organic soils numerous vertical root holes: firm Plasticity chart
spongy feel and frequently by fibrous
texture
and dry in places; loess; (ML) for laboratory classification of fine grained soils 81

Organic Soils

• Highly organic soils- Peat (Group symbol PT)

 A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various
stages of decomposition and has a fibrous to amorphous
texture, a dark-brown to black color, and an organic odor should
be designated as a highly organic soil and shall be classified as
peat, PT.

• Organic clay or silt (group symbol OL or OH):

 “The soil’s liquid limit (LL) after oven drying is less than 75 % of
its liquid limit before oven drying.” If the above statement is
true, then the first symbol is O.
 The second symbol is obtained by locating the values of PI and
LL (not oven dried) in the plasticity chart.
82

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 Borderline Cases (Dual Symbols)
Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines.
About 7 % fines can change the hydraulic conductivity of the coarse-
grained media by orders of magnitude.
The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is well or poorly
graded. The second symbol describe the contained fines. For example:
SP-SM, poorly graded sand with silt.

Fine-grained soils with limits within the shaded zone. (PI between 4 and 7
and LL between about 12 and 25).
It is hard to distinguish between the silty and more claylike materials.
CL-ML: Silty clay, SC-SM: Silty, clayed sand.

Soil contain similar fines and coarse-grained fractions.

 possible dual symbols GM-ML

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 Fine grained soils

85

Fine grained soils

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Gravelly soils

87

sandy soils

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Example 1

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6

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Example 1
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50 Toughness and dry strength increase
ine
with increasing plasticity index "l
"A
40
Plasticity index

CH
30

20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Plasticity chart
90
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils

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Example 1

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26 & Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M

91

Example 1

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M
Dual Symbols are SW-SM

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 Example 1

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26 & Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M
Dual Symbols are SW-SM
To complete the classification the Symbols should be accompanied by a description
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Example 2

Classify the following soils Using Unified Classification System.

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 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
% Passing sieve No. 200 (0.075 mm)

< 50% > 50%

Coarse-grained soils Fine-grained soils
Silt (M)
% Coarse soil (Co) = 100 - % Passing # 200 Clay (C)
% Gravel (G) = 100 - % Passing # 4

G > 1/2 Co •Use Plasticity chart

G < 1/2 Co
Gravel (G) •LL, PL
Sand (S)
% Passing sieve No. 200

< 5% GW, GP, SW or SP Use  Cu, Cc W : well graded P: poorly graded

5% -12 % GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, GP-GC, SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM, SP-SC

> 12% GM, GC, SM, SC Use  plasticity charts 95

Example 2

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 Summary of the USCS

coarse grain soils fine grain soils

[>50% larger than 0.075 mm] [>50% smaller than 0.075 mm]
% of fines
0 5 12 CoF 50 FP 100

e.g., SM e.g., CH
CoGr
CoGr - CoF
e.g., GP
e.g., GP-GC

Co: Coarse F: Fines Gr: Gradation P: Plasticity

G = Gravel M = Silts W = well graded H = LL > 50

S = Sands C = Clays P = poorly graded L = LL < 50

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Symbols

Soil symbols: Liquid limit symbols:

G: Gravel H: High LL (LL>50)
S: Sand L: Low LL (LL<50)
M: Silt
C: Clay Gradation symbols:
O: Organic W: Well-graded
Pt: Peat P : Poorly-graded
Well  graded soil
1  Cc  3 and C u  4
Example: SW, Well-graded sand
(for gravels)
SC, Clayey sand 1  Cc  3 and C u  6
SM, Silty sand, (for sands)
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MH, Elastic silt
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 Roles of Soil

A Soil’s role includes:

• Serving as a foundation
• Emitting and absorbing gases
• Providing habitat
• Interacting with water
• Recycling nutrients
• Supporting human settlements

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The 5 Factors of Formation

Soil is formed by…
• Parent Material: the original “Mom & Pop” soil transported
from elsewhere, usually by wind or water, at different speeds
• Climate: the amount, intensity, timing, and kind of
precipitation that breaks down parts of ecosystem (i.e. rocks,
trees) into soil
• Topography: Slope and Aspect affect the angle of the land and
position toward/away from the sun that soil will be exposed to
• Biological: Plants, animals, microscopic organisms, and
humans interact with soil in different ways
• Time: the amount of time it takes for the four factors (above)
to interact with each other

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 Soil Profile

• A Soil Profile is a vertical cross-section of layers of soil found in a

given area. Below are two examples of soil profiles.

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Soil Horizon

• Soil horizons are the layers in a soil profile used to classify soil
types.
• Horizons based on color, texture, roots, structure, rock
fragments, and any unique characteristic worth noting.
• Master Soil Horizons are depicted by a capital letter in the order
(from top down): O, A, E, B, C, and R

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O-Horizon

The “Organic Matter” Horizon

• Surface-layer, at depths of 0-2 feet
• Dark in color, soft in texture
• Humus - rich organic material of
plant and animal origin in a stage of
decomposition
• Leaf litter – leaves, needles, twigs,
moss, lichens that are not
decomposing
• Several O-layers can occur in some
soils, consisting only of O-horizons

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A-Horizon

“Topsoil” or “Biomantle”
Horizon
• Topmost layer of mineral soil, at
depths of 2-10 feet
• Some humus present, darker in
color than layers below
• Biomantle - most biological
productive layer; earthworms,
fungi, and bacteria live this layer
• Smallest and finest soil particles

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E-Horizon

The “Leaching Layer” Horizon

• Small layer between A & B
horizons
• At depths of 10-15 feet
• Light in color, mainly sand & silt
• Poor mineral and clay content
due to leaching – the loss of
water-retaining plant nutrients
to the water table
• Soil particles larger than in A
horizon but smaller than in B
horizon
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B-Horizon

The “Subsoil” Horizon

• At depths of 10-30 feet
• Rich in clay and minerals like
Fe & Al
• Some organic material may
reach here through leaching
• Plant roots can extend into
this layer
• Red/brown in color due to
oxides of Fe & clay

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C-Horizon

The “Regolith” Horizon

• At depths of 30-48 feet
• Made up of large rocks or
lumps of partially broken
bedrock
• Least affected by
weathering and have
changed the least since
their origin
• Devoid of organic matter
due to it being so far down
in the soil profile

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R-Horizon

The “Bedrock”
Horizon
• At depths of 48+ feet
• Deepest soil horizon in the
soil profile
• No rocks or boulders, only
a continuous mass of
bedrock
• Colors are those of the
original rock of the area

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Prepare a Soil Profile
Ingredients List
• 3-4 copies of Master Soil Horizons Worksheet
• 30 sticky notes per group (7 per person)
• 3-4 pairs of gloves
• 1 large glass bowl
• 1 one-cup measuring cup
• 1 whisk
• 1 spatula
• 3.5 cups skim milk
• 2 packages vanilla Instant Jell-o pudding mix
• 1 tiny Ziploc bag Coconut w/green food
coloring + raisins
• 1 small Ziploc bag crushed chocolate graham
crackers & frosting
• 1 medium Ziploc bag Chocolate chip & Vanilla
wafers & gummy worms
• 1 small Ziploc bag crushed Vanilla wafers only
• 1 medium Ziploc bag crushed graham crackers
• 1 large Ziploc bag crushed Oreo cookies
• 1 large Ziploc bag crushed chocolate chips
Directions
1. In large glass bowl, whisk 3.5 cups milk with
2 pkgs. vanilla Instant Jell-o pudding mix until
smooth. Let stand 5 minutes.
2. While waiting, refer to your version of “The
Soil Profile” powerpoint to review order that
horizons should be. You have A, E, B, R, O, C,
and vegetation as horizons. It’s up to you to
order it!
3. After 5 minutes, use spatula to scoop
pudding in middle of bowl, allowing for the
“dry ingredients” (the bags of various
crushed up cookies) to encircle the pudding
along the sides of the glass bowl. This
creates a vertical cross-section of soil layers
visible to you.
4. Use sticky notes to label each horizon on
outside of bowl.
5. Fill out Master Soil Horizons Worksheet
using observations of Soil Profile Dessert.
6. Turn in worksheet to teacher. Only until you
and your team members turn in their
worksheet can you enjoy the delicious snack.
You’re finished!
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