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اصول نگارش، نامه نویسی و پراگراف نویسی
اصول نگارش، نامه نویسی و پراگراف نویسی
ﻓﻨﻮن
ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻧﻮﯾﺴﯽ
و ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ﻧﮕﺎری
ﻧﮕﺎرش و ﺗﺪوﯾﻦ
ﻣﺤﻤﺪ آذروش
ﻋﻀﻮ ھﯿﺌﺖ ﻣﺪرﺳﯿﻦ داﻧﺸﮕﺎه ﺟﺎﻣﻊ ﻋﻠﻤﯽ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدی
ﻣﺪرس ﻃﺮح آﻣﻮزش ﺿﻤﻦ ﺧﺪﻣﺖ دﺑﯿﺮان آﻣﻮزش وﭘﺮورش
۰
ﭘﯿﺸﮕﻔﺘﺎر
اﺻﻮل ﻧﮕﺎرش در ﮐﺘﺎب ﺣﺎﺿﺮ در ﭼﮭﺎر ﺑﺨﺶ ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺮرﺳﯽ ﻗﺮار ﮔﺮﻓﺘﮫ اﺳﺖ :
۱
ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف و ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎر آن
ﺑﻨﺪ و درﻣﻔﮭﻮم ﻋﺎم آن ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻋﺒﺎرت اﺳﺖ از ﮔﺴﺘﺮه ي ﯾﮏ اﻧﺪﯾﺸﮫ ي واﺣﺪ و ﻣﻨﺤﺼﺮ ﺑﮫ ﻓﺮد ﮐﮫ
ازﯾﮏ ﯾﺎ ﭼﻨﺪ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﺑﺮاي ﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ ﯾﮏ اﯾﺪه ي ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ﺗﺸﮑﯿﻞ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد .ھﺮ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺑﮫ ﻃﻮر ﻣﻌﻤﻮل ﺑﺎ ﯾﮏ
ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان -ﺟﻤﻠﮫ اي ﮐﮫ درﺑﺮﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه ي اﯾﺪه ي اﺻﻠﻲ آن ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف اﺳﺖ -آﻏﺎزﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد .اﯾﻦ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ
درواﻗﻊ ﺟﻮھﺮه ي اﻃﻼﻋﺎت داده ﺷﺪه در آن ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎر آﻣﺪه و ﻋﻤﻮﻣﺎ" اﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺟﻲ ﮐﻠﻲ
ازﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﮫ ي ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎﯾﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ در راﺳﺘﺎي ﺑﯿﺎن آن اﯾﺪه ي ﺧﺎص ﺑﺎ اراﺋﮫ ي ﻣﺜﺎل ﯾﺎ اﺳﺘﺪﻻل ﻣﻮرد
اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻗﺮار ﮔﺮﻓﺘﮫ اﻧﺪ .ﺷﺎﯾﺎن ذﮐﺮاﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ ﭼﯿﺪﻣﺎن ﺻﺮف ﺟﻤﻼت ﺻﺤﯿﺢ دﺳﺘﻮري در ﮐﻨﺎر
ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮاﻟﺰاﻣﺎ" ﺑﮫ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻣﻨﺘﮭﻲ ﻧﻤﻲ ﺷﻮد .ﻣﻔﮭﻮم ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻞ ﻋﺎم ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮﭼﯿﺪﻣﺎن
ﺟﻤﻼت ﺻﺤﯿﺢ دﺳﺘﻮري درﮐﻨﺎر ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮدرﺑﺮﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه ي وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ھﺎي ﺧﺎﺻﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ از ﻣﮭﻤﺘﺮﯾﻦ آﻧﮭﺎ
ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮان ﺑﮫ ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ و وﺣﺪت اﺷﺎره ﮐﺮد.
ﻧﺨﺴﺘﯿﻦ وﯾﮋهﮔﻲ ﯾﮏ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻣﻄﻠﻮب ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ اﺳﺖ ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ در ﯾﮏ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻋﺒﺎرت اﺳﺖ از
اﺳﺘﻘﺮارارﺗﺒﺎط ﻣﻨﻈﻢ دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻼت ﭘﯿﺸﯿﻦ وﭘﺴﯿﻦ آن ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف.اﯾﻦ وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد ﺗﺎ
ﺑﺘﻮان ﺑﮫ دﻟﯿﻞ وﺟﻮد ارﺗﺒﺎط ﻣﻨﻈﻢ وﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ ﻣﻮﺟﻮد در ﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ آﻧﮭﺎ را ﺣﺘﻲ درﺻﻮرت درھﻢ رﯾﺨﺘﻦ
ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻞ اوﻟﯿﮫ در ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻣﻨﻈﻢ ﮐﺮد.
دوﻣﯿﻦ وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ﯾﮏ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻣﻄﻠﻮب وﺣﺪت اﺳﺖ .وﺣﺪت درﯾﮏ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺑﮫ ﻣﻌﻨﻲ ﯾﮑﭙﺎرﭼﮕﻲ ھﺪف
ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻲ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي آن ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف درﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان آن اﺳﺖ .اﯾﻦ وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد ﺗﺎھﺮﯾﮏ
ازﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻠﻲ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ ﺑﮫ ﯾﮑﻲ ازﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي اﯾﺪه ي ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه در ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان
ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ و ﺑﺎ ھﻤﺎھﻨﮕﻲ ﺑﺎ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي دﯾﮕﺮ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻲ ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي آن اﯾﺪه را ﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ.
ﺑﺮاي ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺖ ﻋﻤﻠﻲ دو وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ﻣﺬﮐﻮر -ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ و وﺣﺪت -ﺑﮫ اﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﮐﻨﯿﺪ:
رﺿﺎ ﺑﺮاي اﻧﺼﺮاف از ﺗﺤﺼﯿﻞ ﺧﻮد در داﻧﺸﮕﺎه ﺳﮫ دﻟﯿﻞ را ﻣﻄﺮح ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ .اﺑﺘﺪا آﻧﮑﮫ ﺧﺎﻧﻮاده ی او از
ﻧﻈﺮ ﻣﺎﻟﻲ درﺷﺮاﯾﻄﻲ ﻧﺎﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻗﺮار داﺷﺘﮫ و ﺑﮫ دﻟﯿﻞ داﺷﺘﻦ ﺳﮫ ﺧﻮاھﺮ ﮐﻮﭼﮏ و دﺑﺴﺘﺎﻧﻲ او
ﺧﻮدراﻣﻠﺰم ﺑﮫ ﮐﻤﮏ ﻣﺎﻟﻲ ﺑﮫ آﻧﮭﺎ ﻣﻲ داﻧﺪ.دوم آﻧﮑﮫ درﺻﻮرت اداﻣﮫ ي ﺗﺤﺼﯿﻞ ﻣﺎدراودر ﻧﮕﮭﺪاري
ﮐﻮدﮐﺎن ﮐﺎﻣﻼ" ﺗﻨﮭﺎ ﻣﺎﻧﺪه و اﯾﻦ ﺧﻮد ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺑﺮوز ﻣﺸﮑﻼﺗﻲ ﻓﺮاوان ﺧﻮاھﺪ ﺷﺪ .ﺳﺮاﻧﺠﺎم آﻧﮑﮫ ﯾﮏ
ﺷﺮﮐﺖ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﻠﻠﻲ ﺑﮫ ﺗﺎزﮔﻲ ﭘﯿﺸﻨﮭﺎد ﺷﻐﻠﻲ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﺎ ﻓﺮﺻﺖ ھﺎي ﭘﯿﺸﺮﻓﺖ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺗﻮﺟﮫ را ﺑﮫ وي داده
اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ اﯾﻦ ﻣﻲﺗﻮاﻧﺪ درآﯾﻨﺪه زﻣﯿﻨﮫ ھﺎي داﺷﺘﻦ ﯾﮏ زﻧﺪﮔﻲ آﺳﻮده وﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﺮاي اووﺧﺎﻧﻮاده اش را
ﻓﺮاھﻢ ﮐﻨﺪ.درﻧﺘﯿﺠﮫ رﺿﺎ ﻣﺎﯾﻞ اﺳﺖ ﺗﺎﺑﮫ ﺟﺎي اداﻣﮫ ي ﺗﺤﺼﯿﻞ ﺑﮫ اﯾﻦ ﭘﯿﺸﻨﮭﺎدﺷﻐﻠﻲ ﭘﺎﺳﺦ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ دھﺪ.
ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان دراﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻋﺒﺎرت اﺳﺖ از ":رﺿﺎ ﺑﺮاي اﻧﺼﺮاف ازﺗﺤﺼﯿﻞ ﺧﻮد درداﻧﺸﮕﺎه ﺳﮫ
دﻟﯿﻞ را ﻣﻄﺮح ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ " .اﯾﻦ ﺑﮫ آن ﻣﻌﻨﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺑﺎﯾﺪ ﺟﮭﺖ ﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ اﯾﻦ اﯾﺪه ﮐﮫ ﺑﮫ
۲
ﺻﺮاﺣﺖ در ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻲ ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ ﺷﻮد .ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان ﺳﮫ دﻟﯿﻞ را ﺑﺮاي
اﻧﺼﺮاف رﺿﺎ ازﺗﺤﺼﯿﻞ در داﻧﺸﮕﺎه ﺑﯿﺎن ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ ﮐﮫ اﯾﻦ اﯾﺪه ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻠﻲ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ و ﺑﺎ اراﺋﮫ ي دﻻﯾﻠﻲ ﮐﮫ
ﺑﮫ ﺻﻮرت ﻣﻨﻈﻢ ودرﻗﺎﻟﺐ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﻨﺴﺠﻢ ﺑﺎ ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ ﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ .از ﻃﺮف دﯾﮕﺮ
ھﺮﯾﮏ از ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺑﺎ ﺑﯿﺎن ﯾﮏ ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ازاﯾﺪه ي ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه درﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان و در ھﻤﺎھﻨﮕﻲ
ﺑﺎﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي دﯾﮕﺮھﺪف ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف درﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ اﯾﺪه ي اﺻﻠﻲ را ﺑﮫ اﻧﺠﺎم ﻣﻲ رﺳﺎﻧﺪ .ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ اﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف
ﻣﺬﮐﻮراز وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ھﺎي ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ و وﺣﺪت ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻠﻲ ﻣﻄﻠﻮب ﺑﺮﺧﻮردار اﺳﺖ .ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮ آن ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدﮐﻠﻤﮫ
ھﺎ وﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ " اول آﻧﮑﮫ " " دوم آﻧﮑﮫ " و " ﺳﺮاﻧﺠﺎم آﻧﮑﮫ " ﻧﻤﺎﯾﺎﻧﮕﺮ وﺟﻮد ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ
در ﺳﺮاﺳﺮ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ .اﯾﻦ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ و ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎ ﮐﮫ اﻧﻮاع آﻧﮭﺎ در ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي
ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن ﻣﻮرد ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻲ ﻗﺮار ﺧﻮاھﻨﺪ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﺎ" ﻧﻘﺶ ﺑﺮﻗﺮاري ارﺗﺒﺎط و اﯾﺠﺎد اﻧﺴﺠﺎم دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن
ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﯾﮏ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف را ﺑﺮ ﻋﮭﺪه دارﻧﺪ.
ﺳﺮاﻧﺠﺎم ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ " در ﻧﺘﯿﺠﮫ " ﮐﮫ آﻏﺎزﮔﺮ آﺧﺮﯾﻦ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف اﺳﺖ ﺑﯿﺎن ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ي
ﻧﺘﯿﺠﮫ ﮔﯿﺮي اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ درﻗﺎﻟﺐ ﯾﮏ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﭼﮑﯿﺪه و ﺑﺮﻣﺒﻨﺎي آﻧﭽﮫ ﮐﮫ در ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻋﻨﻮان ﺷﺪه ﭘﺎﯾﮫ
ﮔﺬاري ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ .ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻧﺘﯿﺠﮫ درﯾﮏ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف اﺳﺎﺳﺎ" ﭼﮑﯿﺪه اي ﻣﺨﺘﺼﺮازﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه در
ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎر آﻣﺪه و در ھﻤﺎھﻨﮕﻲ ﮐﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﺎ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان ﻗﺮار دارد.
ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ آﻧﭽﮫ ﮐﮫ دراﯾﻦ ﺑﺨﺶ ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ و ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﻗﺮار ﮔﺮﻓﺖ وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ھﺎي ﯾﮏ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻣﻄﻠﻮب ﺑﮫ
ﺷﺮح زﯾﺮ ﻃﺒﻘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ:
ج -ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ
وﺣﺪت د-
۳
The structure of a paragraph
Jack does not intend to continue his education for three reasons .First of all, he
has quite a poor family, and because he has three little sisters who go to
primary school, he believes that he ought to help his family financially. In the
۴
second place, in case that he continued his education, his mother would be all
alone to look after the little children and this itself might create many troubles.
Finally, a company has just offered him a suitable job with good opportunities
of promotion that would help his family to live a comfortable life in
future.Consequently, Jack is planning to take the job instead of going on with
his education.
The topic sentences in the paragraph above is: “Jack does not intend to
continue his education for three reasons. “This means that the paragraph
should focus on the development of the idea represented in this sentence.
According to what discussed above, it can be stated that a proper paragraph has
the following characteristics:
۵
a - a clear topic sentence
c - coherence
d - unity
درﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﺪه ھﺎ وﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ ﻣﻨﻈﻢ وﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ ھﺮﯾﮏ اﻟﮕﻮھﺎي ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﻲ وﺟﻮد دارﻧﺪ ﮐﮫ ﺑﺎاﺳﺘﻔﺎده از
ھﺮﯾﮏ ازاﯾﻦ اﻟﮕﻮھﺎ ﺑﺎ داﺷﺘﻦ. آﻧﮭﺎ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن و ﻣﻄﻠﻮب اﻣﮑﺎن ﭘﺬﯾﺮ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد
وﯾﮋه ﮔﯿﮭﺎي ﻣﻌﯿﻦ روﺷﻲ ﺧﺎص رادرﭘﻲ ﮔﯿﺮي وﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮاﯾﺪه ی ﺗﻌﯿﯿﻦ ﺷﺪه ﻣﻮرداﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻗﺮارﻣﻲ دھﻨﺪ.
" " در اﯾﻦ ﺑﺨﺶ ﻣﺘﺪاول ﺗﺮﯾﻦ اﯾﻦ روش ھﺎ در ﻗﺎﻟﺐ ﺳﺒﮏ ھﺎي ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاﻓﻲ و درﮔﺮوه ھﺎي " رواﯾﺘﻲ
" ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻔﻲ " " ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺤﻲ " " ﻋﻠﺖ و ﻣﻌﻠﻮل " " ﻃﺒﻘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي " " ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ و ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻠﮫ " و " ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺒﻲ
ﻣﻮرد ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻲ ﻗﺮار ﺧﻮاھﻨﺪ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ
these methods has its own properties and devices.Here seven frequently used
along with their characteristics and devices are introduced and discussed .
۶
ﺳﺒﮏ رواﯾﺘﻲ
ﯾﮑﻲ از روش ھﺎي ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﺪه ھﺎ در ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻣﻨﻈﻢ ﮐﺮدن آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﺮ ﻣﺒﻨﺎي زﻣﺎن رﺧﺪاد
آﻧﮭﺎﺳﺖ .دراﯾﻦ روش ﮐﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺳﺒﮏ " رواﯾﺘﻲ " ﺷﮭﺮت دارد وﻗﺎﯾﻊ ﺑﺮﻣﺒﻨﺎي ﺗﻘﺪم وﺗﺎﺧﺮزﻣﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﻨﻈﻢ
ﺷﺪه و در ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ .اﯾﻦ ﺳﺒﮏ ﺑﺮاي ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه اﻣﮑﺎن آن را ﻓﺮاھﻢ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ ﺗﺎ
وﻗﺎﯾﻊ ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه را ﺑﮫ ﺗﺮﺗﯿﺐ و ﺑﺮ اﺳﺎس زﻣﺎن رﺧﺪاد آﻧﮭﺎ ﭘﻲ ﮔﯿﺮي ﮐﻨﺪ.
ﺳﺒﮏ رواﯾﺘﻲ ﮐﮫ روﺷﻲ ﺑﺴﯿﺎر ﻣﺘﺪاول درﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﺪه ھﺎ ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎرﻣﻲ آﯾﺪ ﺷﺮاﯾﻄﻲ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ را
درﻧﮕﺎرش ﯾﺎ ﺧﻮاﻧﺪن اﯾﺪه ھﺎﯾﻲ ﮐﮫ ﺑﺮ اﺳﺎس ﺗﻮاﻟﻲ زﻣﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﻨﻈﻢ ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ ﻓﺮاھﻢ ﻣﻲ آورد ﮐﮫ از آن
ﻣﯿﺎن ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮان ﺑﮫ ﯾﺎدداﺷﺖ ھﺎي روزاﻧﮫ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﻄﺒﻮﻋﺎﺗﻲ ﮔﺰارش ھﺎي ﺧﺒﺮي ﻣﺘﻮن ﺗﺎرﯾﺨﻲ و
زﻧﺪﮔﻲ ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ي اﺷﺨﺎص اﺷﺎره ﮐﺮد.
ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ و ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ ﻧﻘﺸﻲ اﺳﺎﺳﻲ دراﯾﺠﺎد رواﺑﻂ دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ و ﺣﻔﻆ ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ
درﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ ﺷﺪه درﺳﺒﮏ رواﯾﺘﻲ را ﺑﺮﻋﮭﺪه دارﻧﺪ .ﻣﺘﺪاول ﺗﺮﯾﻦ اﯾﻦ ﻋﻼﺋﻢ ﻋﺒﺎرﺗﻨﺪ از:
اﯾﻨﮏ -ھﻨﮕﺎﻣﻲ ﮐﮫ -ﺿﻤﻦ آﻧﮑﮫ -ﭘﺲ از آن –ﺳﭙﺲ -ﺑﻌﺪا" -ﻗﺒﻞ از آن -ﻗﺒﻼ" -ﻓﻌﻼ" -از ھﻨﮕﺎم -ﺳﺮ
اﻧﺠﺎم -در ﭘﺎﯾﺎن -در ﻧﺘﯿﺠﮫ -در ﺿﻤﻦ -ﻧﺨﺴﺖ -اول -دوم
ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف زﯾﺮﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ اي ازﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﻧﻮﺷﺘﮫ ﺷﺪه ﺑﮫ ﺳﺒﮏ رواﯾﺘﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ درآن رﺧﺪاد وﻗﺎﯾﻊ ﺑﺎ
رﻋﺎﯾﺖ ﺗﻘﺪم و ﺗﺎﺧﺮ زﻣﺎﻧﻲ ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ
ﻣﺎه ﮔﺬﺷﺘﮫ ﻣﻦ و ﺳﮫ ﻧﻔﺮ ازدوﺳﺘﺎﻧﻢ ﺑﮫ درﯾﺎﭼﮫ ي ﺳﺪﻻر رﻓﺘﯿﻢ .ھﻨﮕﺎم ﻏﺮوب و ﭘﺲ ﯾﮏ ﭘﯿﺎده روي
ھﺸﺖ ﺳﺎﻋﺘﮫ دراﻣﺘﺪاد رودﺧﺎﻧﮫ ي ﻻر ﺑﮫ درﯾﺎﭼﮫ رﺳﯿﺪﯾﻢ .ھﻨﮕﺎﻣﻲ ﮐﮫ ﻣﮑﺎن ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﻲ را ﺑﺮاي
ﺑﺮﭘﺎ ﮐﺮدن ﭼﺎدرﻣﺎن ﭘﯿﺪا ﮐﺮدﯾﻢ ھﻮا ﺗﻘﺮﯾﺒﺎ" ﺗﺎرﯾﮏ ﺷﺪه ﺑﻮد .درآن ﺷﺮاﯾﻂ اﺣﺴﺎس ﺳﺮﻣﺎ وﮔﺮﺳﻨﮕﻲ ﻣﻲ
ﮐﺮدﯾﻢ .ﭘﺲ از ﺑﺮﭘﺎ ﮐﺮدن ﭼﺎدر اﺑﺘﺪا آﺗﺶ روﺷﻦ ﮐﺮدﯾﻢ .ﺳﭙﺲ ﺟﻮﺟﮫ ھﺎﯾﻲ را ﮐﮫ ھﻤﺮاه ﺧﻮد آورده
ﺑﻮدﯾﻢ ﺑﺮروي آﺗﺶ ﮐﺒﺎب ﮐﺮدﯾﻢ .ﻃﻌﻢ ﺟﻮﺟﮫ ھﺎي ﮐﺒﺎب ﺷﺪه ھﻤﺮاه ﺑﺎﻗﮭﻮه اي ﮐﮫ درﺳﺖ ﮐﺮده ﺑﻮدﯾﻢ ﺑﻲ
ﻧﻈﯿﺮ ﺑﻮد .ﭘﺲ ازﻏﺬا ﮐﻨﺎر آﺗﺶ ﻧﺸﺴﺘﯿﻢ و آوازﺧﻮاﻧﺪﯾﻢ .ﺳﭙﺲ آﺗﺶ را ﺧﺎﻣﻮش ﮐﺮدﯾﻢ و ﺑﮫ داﺧﻞ ﭼﺎدر
رﻓﺘﯿﻢ .درآﺧﺮﮐﯿﺴﮫ ھﺎي ﺧﻮاﺑﻤﺎن را ﺑﺎزﮐﺮدﯾﻢ و ﺧﻮاﺑﯿﺪﯾﻢ .ھﻤﮫ ي ﻣﺎ درداﺧﻞ ﭼﺎدر و ﮐﯿﺴﮫ ھﺎي
ﺧﻮاﺑﻤﺎن اﺣﺴﺎس آراﻣﺶ ﻣﻲ ﮐﺮدﯾﻢ.
درﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان اﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف اﯾﺪه ي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ ﺳﻔﺮ ﺑﮫ ﯾﮏ درﯾﺎﭼﮫ ﺑﯿﺎن ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ .اﯾﻦ اﯾﺪه ﺑﺎ
رواﯾﺖ وﻗﺎﯾﻊ روي داده درﺳﻔﺮ و رﻋﺎﯾﺖ ﺗﻘﺪم زﻣﺎﻧﻲ آﻧﮭﺎ ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ .ارﺗﺒﺎط دروﻧﻲ
ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ي آن ﻧﯿﺰﺑﺎ ﮐﻤﮏ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ وﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ " ﭘﺲ " " ﺳﭙﺲ " و
"درآﺧﺮ" ﺑﺮﻗﺮارﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ .ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮآن ﺣﻔﻆ اﻧﺴﺠﺎم ھﺮ ﯾﮏ از ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺑﺎ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان
ﺑﮫ ﮐﻤﮏ ﺑﺴﻂ ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن آن ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه را درﺗﺸﺮﯾﺢ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ﻣﻮرد ﻧﻈﺮ ﺧﻮد ﯾﺎري ﮐﺮده اﺳﺖ .
ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ اﯾﺪه ي ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه در ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان ﺑﺎ رﻋﺎﯾﺖ
وﯾﮋهﮔﻲھﺎي ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ و وﺣﺪت در ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻠﻲ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻗﺒﻮل اﻧﺠﺎم رﺳﯿﺪه اﺳﺖ.
۷
Narrative Paragraphs
One method of organizing ideas in a paragraph is to order them according to the
time they take place. This kind of organizing ideas, ie . sequencing the the
occurance of the events according to time is called chronological order .
This method allows the reader to follow the events sequentially; according to
the time they happen .
The following sample paragraph represents a narration in which the events are
ordered sequentially .
the evening.When we found a suitable site for our camp,it was almost dark
everywhere and we were frightened ; furthermore ,we felt hungry .First we set
up our tent and built a fire.Then we roasted some chickens over the fire.
They were quite delicious with our hot coffee.After the meal,we sat around the
fire and sang songs . Then we put out the fire and went into the tent .
Finally,we unrolled our sleeping bags and crowled into them.We felt warm and
safe there .
۸
This paragraph narrates a trip to a lake . Pay close attention to the events that
are organized sequentially in accordance with the time they took place.
ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻔﻲ
دوﻣﯿﻦ روش ﻣﺘﺪاول ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﺪه ھﺎدرﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻔﻲ اﺳﺖ .دراﯾﻦ روش ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه ﺑﺎ
ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ ﺑﺮ وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ھﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ازﺟﻤﻠﮫ اﺷﯿﺎء اﺷﺨﺎص و ﯾﺎ ﻣﻨﺎﻇﺮ ﺑﮫ ﺑﮫ
ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻒ آﻧﮭﺎ ﻣﻲ ﭘﺮدازد .ﺑﺮ اﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﺧﺼﻮﺻﯿﺎت ﺣﺎﺋﺰ اھﻤﯿﺖ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺤﺚ ﺑﮫ ﻃﻮر دﻗﯿﻖ
ﻣﻮرد ﻣﻮ ﺷﮑﺎﻓﻲ ﻗﺮار ﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪ.
ھﺪف ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻔﻲ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﺎ" ﺗﺎﺛﯿﺮﮔﺬاﺷﺘﻦ ﺑﺮاﺣﺴﺎﺳﺎت وﻋﻮاﻃﻒ ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ اﯾﻦ اﻣﺮ ﺑﮫ
روش ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮﻧﻲ اﻧﺠﺎم ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد .ﯾﮑﻲ از ﻣﺘﺪاول ﺗﺮﯾﻦ اﯾﻦ روش ھﺎ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ﮔﺴﺘﺮده ي ﺻﻔﺖ
ھﺎ و ﻗﯿﺪ ھﺎ ﺑﺮاي ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ ﺑﺮ وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ھﺎي اﺷﯿﺎء و ﯾﺎ ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮕﻲ روﯾﺪاد اﻓﻌﺎل اﺳﺖ .ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس
ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه ﺑﺎ اﻧﺘﺨﺎب واﺳﺘﻔﺎده ي ﮔﺴﺘﺮده ازﺻﻔﺖ ھﺎ و ﻗﯿﺪھﺎي ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﮫ ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺢ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺤﺚ
ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ وﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن آن راﻣﻮردﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ ﻗﺮارﻣﻲ دھﺪ .ﺑﺪﯾﮭﻲ اﺳﺖ اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﺑﮫ ﺟﺎ وﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ
اﯾﻦ ﮐﻠﻤﺎت ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه را در دﺳﺘﯿﺎﺑﻲ ﺑﮫ ھﺪف ﺧﻮد -ﺗﺎﺛﯿﺮﻋﻤﯿﻖ ﺑﺮﻋﻮاﻃﻒ ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه -ﺑﮫ ﻣﯿﺰان ﭼﺸﻤﮕﯿﺮي
ﯾﺎري ﺧﻮاھﺪ ﮐﺮد .ھﻤﺎﻧﮕﻮﻧﮫ ﮐﮫ ﭘﯿﺸﺘﺮ ﻧﯿﺰاﺷﺎره ﺷﺪ ھﺪف ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻔﻲ درﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي
اﯾﺪه ھﺎ ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ ﺑﺮ ﺟﺰﺋﯿﺎت اﺳﺖ .ﺑﺮ اﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه ﺑﮫ ﻧﮑﺎت ﺟﺰﺋﻲ ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه در ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف
و ھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮕﻲ ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي آﻧﮭﺎ اھﻤﯿﺖ ﻓﺮاواﻧﻲ درﺷﻨﺎﺧﺖ وي از اﯾﺪه ي ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه درﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي
ﻋﻨﻮان دارد .اﯾﻦ ﺟﺰﺋﯿﺎت ﮐﮫ در ﯾﮏ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻔﻲ ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن اﯾﺪه ي ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه درﺟﻤﻠﮫ
ي ﻋﻨﻮان را ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻠﻲ ﻣﻨﺴﺠﻢ و ﻣﻨﻈﻢ ﻣﻮرد ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ ﻗﺮار ﻣﻲ دھﻨﺪ ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه را در ﭘﻲ ﮔﯿﺮي ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ ﻣﺸﻲ
ﻓﮑﺮي ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه ﯾﺎري ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ.
وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ دﯾﮕﺮ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻔﻲ ﺑﺮﻗﺮاري ارﺗﺒﺎط دروﻧﻲ در ﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ از ﻃﺮﯾﻖ ﺗﮑﺮار ﮐﻠﻤﮫ
ھﺎي ﮐﻠﯿﺪي اﺳﺖ .ﺗﮑﺮارﻣﺘﻨﺎوب اﯾﻦ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎدرﻃﻮل ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻧﮫ ﺗﻨﮭﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﺐ ﺗﺤﺮﯾﮏ ﻋﻮاﻃﻒ ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه ﻣﻲ
ﺷﻮد ﺑﻠﮑﮫ ﺑﺎ ھﻤﺮاھﻲ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ و ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ اﯾﺠﺎد ارﺗﺒﺎط دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي آن
ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻧﯿﺰﺧﻮاھﺪ ﺷﺪ.
ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف زﯾﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ اي از ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻔﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ درآن اﯾﺪه ي ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه در ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي
ﻋﻨﻮان ﺑﺎ ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ ﺑﺮ ﺟﺰﺋﯿﺎت ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ آن ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ.
۹
آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﮫ ﻧﺪرت. ﻣﺮدﻣﻲ ﮐﮫ در ﺷﮭﺮھﺎي ﺑﺰرگ زﻧﺪﮔﻲ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ اﻧﺴﺎن ھﺎﯾﻲ ﺑﻲ ﻗﺮار ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ
اﯾﻦ اﺷﺨﺎص ھﻤﮫ ﭼﯿﺰرا ﻋﺠﻮﻻﻧﮫ اﻧﺠﺎم ﻣﻲ دھﻨﺪ ﺑﺎ ﺷﺘﺎب راه ﻣﻲ روﻧﺪ ﺗﻨﺪ ﺻﺤﺒﺖ. اﺳﺘﺮاﺣﺖ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ
آﻧﮭﺎ ﺳﺎﻋﺖ ھﺎي ﻃﻮﻻﻧﻲ ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎر ﻣﺸﻐﻮﻟﻨﺪ و ﻣﺪت زﻣﺎن ﮐﻤﻲ. ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ و ﺑﺎ ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﻏﺬا ﻣﻲ ﺧﻮرﻧﺪ
آﻧﮭﺎ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ" ﺑﮫ ﺳﺎﻋﺖ ھﺎي ﺧﻮد ﻧﮕﺎه ﮐﺮده و. زﻣﺎن ﺑﺮاي آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﺴﯿﺎر ﺑﺎ ارزش اﺳﺖ. را ﻣﻲ ﺧﻮاﺑﻨﺪ
وﻗﺖ ﻓﺮاﻏﺖ ﺑﺮاي ﻣﺮدﻣﻲ ﮐﮫ. ﻣﮑﺮرا" ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﮫ ھﺎي ﺧﻮد را در ﯾﺎدداﺷﺖ ھﺎﯾﺸﺎن ﻣﺮور ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ
.درﺷﮭﺮھﺎي ﺑﺰرگ زﻧﺪﮔﻲ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ روﯾﺎﯾﻲ ﺗﺠﻤﻼﺗﻲ ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎر ﻣﻲ آﯾﺪ
در اﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ھﺎي ﻣﺮدﻣﻲ ﮐﮫ در ﺷﮭﺮھﺎي ﺑﺰرگ زﻧﺪﮔﻲ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ ﻣﻮرد ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ ﻗﺮار ﮔﺮﻓﺘﮫ
درﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان اﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف اﯾﺪه ي " ﺑﻲ ﻗﺮاري " ﺑﮫ روﺷﻨﻲ ﻣﻄﺮح و در ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي. اﺳﺖ
" ھﺮﯾﮏ ازاﯾﻦ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ ﺑﺎاﺳﺘﻔﺎده ازﮐﻠﻤﺎﺗﻲ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ " ﻋﺠﻮﻻﻧﮫ " " ﺑﺎ ﺷﺘﺎب. ﻣﺘﻌﺎﻗﺐ آن ﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ
"" ﺗﻨﺪ " " ﺑﺎ ﺳﺮﻋﺖ " " ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ" " و " ﻣﮑﺮرا " ﺑﺮ ﯾﮑﻲ از ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ "ﺑﻲ ﻗﺮاري
ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮآن ﺗﮑﺮارﻣﺘﻨﺎوب ﺿﻤﯿﺮ" آﻧﮭﺎ " ﮐﮫ ﺑﮫ ﻣﺮدم ﺳﺎﮐﻦ درﺷﮭﺮھﺎي ﺑﺰرگ اﺷﺎره ﻣﻲ. ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ دارﻧﺪ
ﮐﻨﺪ ﻧﻘﺸﻲ ﻣﮭﻢ را در اﯾﺠﺎد ارﺗﺒﺎط دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ و در ﻧﺘﯿﺠﮫ ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف اﯾﻔﺎ ﮐﺮده
.اﺳﺖ
Descriptive Paragraphs
Descriptive paragraphs usually follow the goal of impressing the readers by the
way they develop their ideas .One very popular way to achieve this goal is the
frequent use of various adjectives and adverbs to describe how the concept
under discussion is or how the event under discussion occurred .To do so ,
proper adjectives or adverbs should be selected and studded in the sentences
abundantly , nevertheless , attention should be paid to avoid the redundant
use of these elements.It goes without saying that the role of such impressive
words,when used properly,will lead to the increase of influence on the readers’
emotions .
۱۰
As mentioned before , descriptive paragraphs focus on details . Therefore, in
order to get the ideas developed throughout the paragraph perfectly, one
should pay close attention to the organization of the detailed information
utilized to describe the concept .
The people who live in large cities are very restless people . They seldom really
relax . They always do everything hurriedly . They walk fast , speak rapidly , and
eat hastily .They work long hours and sleep few hours . Time is very important
for the people who live in large cities . They frequently look at their watches
and are never unaware of the date . Laisure is a great luxary for the people who
live in large cities.
In this paragraph , the characteristics of the people residing in large cities are
emphasized .Here the idea of “restlessness“ for these people is clearly stated in
the topic sentence and is developed through the sentences which come after it .
Each sentence focuses on the property of “restlessness“ by employing words
such as “ hurriedly ” , “fast” , “rapidly” , and “hastily”.
Furthermore , the frequent repetition of the word “ they “ all through the
paragraph should be appreciated here . “ They “ refers to the people who
reside in large cities . This pronoun is repeated several times to keep the
paragraph coherent by keeping its sentences interrelated .
۱۱
ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺤﻲ
ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺢ ﺳﻮﻣﯿﻦ روش ﻣﺘﺪاول در ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﺪه ھﺎ در ﯾﮏ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎر ﻣﻲ آﯾﺪ .در اﯾﻦ
روش ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺤﺚ ﺑﺎ ﮐﻤﮏ ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ھﺎ و ﻣﺜﺎل ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن اراﺋﮫ و
ﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ .ﺑﺮ اﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎرﮔﯿﺮي ﻓﻨﻮن ﺗﻮﺟﯿﮭﻲ ﺑﮫ وﯾﮋه اراﺋﮫ ي ﻣﺜﺎل و در ﭘﺎره اي از
ﻣﻮارد اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ازﻧﻤﻮدار اھﻤﯿﺖ ﺷﺎﯾﺎﻧﻲ در ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ اﯾﺪه ھﺎ و ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﮫ ﮐﻤﮏ اﯾﻦ ﺳﺒﮏ از
ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻲ دارد.
ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎر ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎﯾﻲ ﮐﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺢ اﯾﺪه ي ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه درﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان را ﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ
ﺑﺮﭘﺎﯾﮫ ي اﻟﮕﻮي " ﻧﻈﺮﯾﮫ " " ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺢ " و " ﻣﺜﺎل " ﻗﺮار دارد .ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه ﭘﺲ ازﻃﺮح
اﯾﺪه ي اﺻﻠﻲ ﺑﮫ ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺢ آن ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ وﺑﺎ اراﺋﮫ ي ﻣﺜﺎل ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن ﻧﻈﺮات ﺧﻮد را درراﺑﻄﮫ ﺑﺎ آن
ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ .ﺑﺮﻗﺮاري ارﺗﺒﺎط دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ درﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﯾﺎﻓﺘﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺳﺒﮏ
ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺤﻲ ھﻤﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻔﻲ ﺑﺎ روش ﺗﮑﺮارﻣﺘﻨﺎوب ﮐﻠﻤﺎت ﮐﻠﯿﺪي ھﻤﺮاه ﺑﺎ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده
ي ﻣﺤﺪود از ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ و ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ ﺻﻮرت ﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد .ﻣﺘﺪاول ﺗﺮﯾﻦ اﯾﻦ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ و ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎ
در ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺤﻲ ﻋﺒﺎرﺗﻨﺪ از
ﺑﮫ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ از ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﺷﺒﯿﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺑﺮاي ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ﺑﮫ ﻋﻨﻮان ﻣﺜﺎل ھﻤﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ
از ﻃﺮف دﯾﮕﺮ ﺑﺮ ﺧﻼف در ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ھﻤﭽﻮن از ﻗﺒﯿﻞ
ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف زﯾﺮﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ اي از ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي ﺷﺪه ﺑﮫ ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺤﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ در آن ازاﻟﮕﻮي
ﻧﻈﺮﯾﮫ ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ و ﻣﺜﺎل ﺑﺮاي ﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ اﯾﺪه ي ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه در ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ.
اﻧﺴﺎن ﺧﺮدﻣﻨﺪ اﻧﺴﺎﻧﻲ روﺷﻨﻔﮑﺮ اﺳﺖ .او ھﻤﻮاره ﺑﮫ ﻋﻘﺎﯾﺪ دﯾﮕﺮان اﺣﺘﺮام ﮔﺬاﺷﺘﮫ و ھﺮﮔﺰﺳﻠﯿﻘﮫ ھﺎ
وﻧﻈﺮات آﻧﺎن راﻣﻮرد اﻧﺘﻘﺎد ﻗﺮارﻧﻤﻲ دھﺪ .دﯾﺪﮔﺎه اوﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﮫ اﻓﮑﺎر دﯾﮕﺮان واﻗﻊ ﺑﯿﻨﺎﻧﮫ ﺑﻮده وﺑﺮاﯾﻦ
اﺳﺎس ھﻤﻮاره ﺳﻌﻲ در درک و ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺖ روﺣﯿﺎت آﻧﺎن دارد .ﺑﺮاي ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ آﻗﺎي ﺳﺎﻋﻲ ﻋﺎﺷﻖ ﺳﺒﮏ
ﻣﺪرن اﺳﺖ .اوﻋﻼﻗﻤﻨﺪ ﺑﮫ ﺗﻤﺎﺷﺎي ﻓﯿﻠﻢ ھﺎي ﻋﻠﻤﻲ اﺳﺖ وازﻧﻘﺎﺷﻲ ھﺎي ﺳﺒﮏ ﻣﺪرن ﻟﺬت ﻣﻲ ﺑﺮد .
ﻣﺒﻠﻤﺎن او ھﻤﮫ ﺟﺪﯾﺪ ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ .در ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻋﺪهاي از ﻣﺮدم ﺑﮫ ﺳﺒﮏ ھﺎي ﺳﻨﺘﻲ ﻋﻼﻗﮫ دارﻧﺪ .آﻧﮭﺎ
ﺗﻤﺎﺷﺎي ﻓﯿﻠﻢ ھﺎي ﻗﺪﯾﻤﻲ را ﺗﺮﺟﯿﺢ داده و ﺑﮫ داﺷﺘﻦ ﻧﻘﺎﺷﻲ ھﺎي ﺳﺒﮏ ﻣﺪرن ﻋﻼﻗﮫ اي ﻧﺸﺎن
ﻧﻤﻲ دھﻨﺪ .آﻧﮭﺎ از زﻧﺪﮔﻲ ﮐﺮدن ﺑﮫ روش ھﺎي ﺳﻨﺘﻲ ﻟﺬت ﺑﺮده و ﺑﮫ ﻣﺒﻠﻤﺎن ﻗﺪﯾﻤﻲ ﻋﺸﻖ ﻣﻲ ورزﻧﺪ.
آﻗﺎي ﺳﺎﻋﻲ ھﺮﮔﺰ آﻧﮭﺎ را ﺑﮫ دﻟﯿﻞ اﯾﻦ ﻃﺮز ﻓﮑﺮ ﻣﻮرد اﻧﺘﻘﺎد ﻗﺮار ﻧﺪاده و در ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﮫ ﺳﻠﯿﻘﮫي آﻧﺎن
اﺣﺘﺮام ﻣﻲ ﮔﺬارد .او ﻃﺒﯿﻌﺖ اﻧﺴﺎﻧﻲ را ﺑﮫ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ درک ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ.
اﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ اي از ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺤﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ در آن اﯾﺪه ي " روﺷﻨﻔﮑﺮي " ﺑﺎ ﮐﻤﮏ ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ و
ﻣﺜﺎل ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻠﻲ ﻣﻄﻠﻮب ﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ .دراﯾﻦ راﺳﺘﺎ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎﯾﻲ ﮐﮫ ﭘﺲ ازﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان ﻗﺮار
۱۲
ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ و ﺑﺎ اراﺋﮫ ي ﻣﺜﺎل ﺟﻨﺒﮫ- روﺷﻨﻔﮑﺮي- ﮔﺮﻓﺘﮫ اﻧﺪ ﺑﺎ ﻧﻈﻤﻲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ ﺑﮫ ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺢ اﯾﺪه ي اﺻﻠﻲ
" از ﻃﺮف دﯾﮕﺮ ارﺗﺒﺎط دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ ﮐﮫ ﺑﺎ ﺗﮑﺮار ﺿﻤﺎﯾﺮ. ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن آن را ﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ ﮐﺮده اﻧﺪ
او " و " آﻧﮭﺎ " و ھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ " در ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ " ﺑﺮﻗﺮار ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ اﻧﺴﺠﺎم و ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ
ﺑﺎ اﯾﻦ وﺟﻮد ﺑﺎﯾﺪ درﻧﻈﺮ داﺷﺖ ﺗﮑﺮار. ﻧﻈﺮات ﺑﯿﺎن ﺷﺪه درﻃﻮل ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف را اﻣﮑﺎن ﭘﺬﯾﺮ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﮫ اﺳﺖ
ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎي ﮐﻠﯿﺪي در ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺤﻲ ھﻤﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻔﻲ ﻧﻘﺸﻲ ﺑﺮﺟﺴﺘﮫ ﺗﺮازﮐﻠﻤﮫ
.ھﺎ وﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ را درﺣﻔﻆ اﻧﺴﺠﺎم و اﯾﺠﺎد ارﺗﺒﺎط دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف اﯾﻔﺎ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ
Illustrative Paragraphs
Illustration is the third method of organizing ideas in a paragraph . In this
method , explanations about the specific subject under discussion are given
through examples or pictures ; thus the use of clarifying methods , specially
exemplification is expected to be abundant here .
The structure of the paragraphs which are developed through the method of
illustration , follows a particular sequence of statement , explanation and
exemplification through which the point of view which is mentioned in the
topic sentence is developed . In order to achieve coherence , on the other
hand,illustrative paragraphs ,like descriptive method,employ both methods of
repetition of the previously mentioned words along with specific transitional
words and expressions , the most current of which are as follows :
as ,like ,as an example , for example , for instance , similar to ,the same as The
following sample paragraph is an illustration through which the idea mentioned
in the topic sentence is argued and developed in a sequence of statement ,
explanation and exemplification .
۱۳
Mr. Wilson never criticizes them for their way of thought . Instead , he respects
their opinions . He understands human nature well .
ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺖ و درک ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه از ﻓﻨﻮن ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎررﻓﺘﮫ درﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺳﺒﮏ ﻋﻠﺖ و ﻣﻌﻠﻮل اﻣﮑﺎن اﺳﺘﻨﺒﺎط
.ﺻﺤﯿﺢ وي ازﻣﺎھﯿﺖ ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ دﻻﯾﻞ و ﮔﺎھﻲ اوﻗﺎت ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮕﻲ روﯾﺪاد ﯾﮏ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ را ﻣﯿﺴﺮ ﻣﻲ ﺳﺎزد
ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﺑﮫ ارﺗﺒﺎط دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﻧﻈﺮﯾﮫ ھﺎ و ھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ دﻗﺖ در روش ﭼﯿﺪﻣﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫھﺎ در
.ھﻨﮕﺎم ﺧﻮاﻧﺪن اﯾﻦ ﺳﺒﮏ ازﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎاھﻤﯿﺖ وﯾﮋه اي درﺷﻨﺎﺧﺖ رواﺑﻂ ﻣﯿﺎن ﻋﻠﺖ وﻣﻌﻠﻮل دارد
اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ازﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎوﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ﮐﮫ ﻣﺘﺪاول ﺗﺮﯾﻦ آﻧﮭﺎ دراداﻣﮫ ﻣﻮردﻣﻌﺮﻓﻲ ﻗﺮارﺧﻮاھﻨﺪ
ﮔﺮﻓﺖ ﻧﻘﺸﻲ اﺳﺎﺳﻲ را درﺑﺮﻗﺮاري ارﺗﺒﺎط ﻣﻨﺴﺠﻢ و دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺳﺒﮏ ﻋﻠﺖ
در ﻧﺘﯿﺠﮫ ﺑﻨﺎ ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ: ﭘﺮﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ﺗﺮﯾﻦ آﻧﮭﺎ دراﯾﻦ ﺳﺒﮏ ﻋﺒﺎرﺗﻨﺪ از. و ﻣﻌﻠﻮل اﯾﻔﺎ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ
۱۴
ﭼﻮن از آﻧﺠﺎﺋﯿﮑﮫ ﭘﺲ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﺎ اﯾﻦ ﺑﮫ اﯾﻦ ﻋﻠﺖ از اﯾﻦ رو ﺑﮫ اﯾﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﯿﺐ
ﻣﮕﺮ آﻧﮑﮫ اﮔﺮ درﻧﺘﯿﺠﮫ ﺑﮫ دﻟﯿﻞ
ﺑﮫ اﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﮐﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺳﺒﮏ ﻋﻠﺖ و ﻣﻌﻠﻮل ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﮐﻨﯿﺪ:
ھﺸﺘﺎد درﺻﺪازداﻧﺸﺠﻮﯾﺎﻧﻲ ﮐﮫ ﺑﺮاي اداﻣﮫ ي ﺗﺤﺼﯿﻞ ﺑﮫ ﮐﺸﻮرھﺎي اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ زﺑﺎن ﻣﻲ روﻧﺪ ﺑﮫ دﻟﯿﻞ
ﺗﻼش زﯾﺎد ﻣﻮﻓﻖ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ .اﯾﻦ داﻧﺸﺠﻮﯾﺎن ﻋﻠﯿﺮﻏﻢ اﺷﺘﯿﺎق ﺧﻮد ﺑﮫ اداﻣﮫ ي ﺗﺤﺼﯿﻞ دراﯾﻦ ﮐﺸﻮرھﺎ
ﻣﮭﺎرت ھﺎي ﻣﺤﺪودي درزﺑﺎن اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ داﺷﺘﮫ وازراه ھﺎي ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮي آن ﻧﯿﺰﺑﻲ اﻃﻼع ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ .زﻧﺪﮔﻲ
داﻧﺸﺠﻮﯾﻲ ﺑﺴﯿﺎر ﻃﺎﻗﺖ ﻓﺮﺳﺎ اﺳﺖ .اﯾﻨﮕﻮﻧﮫ داﻧﺸﺠﻮﯾﺎن دوﺳﺘﺎن ﻣﻌﺪودي داﺷﺘﮫ واز ﻓﺮﺻﺖ ھﺎي
اﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻣﺤﺪودي ﺑﺮﺧﻮردارﻧﺪ .از ﻃﺮف دﯾﮕﺮ اﺣﺴﺎس ﻏﺮﺑﺖ ﯾﮑﻲ دﯾﮕﺮ ازﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎﯾﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ ﺑﮫ
ﻣﺸﮑﻼت آﻧﮭﺎ داﻣﻦ ﻣﻲ زﻧﺪ .ﺑﺴﯿﺎري ازاﯾﻦ داﻧﺸﺠﻮﯾﺎن از ﺣﺲ دوري از وﻃﻦ ﻋﻤﯿﻘﺎ" رﻧﺞ ﺑﺮده وﺑﺎ
ﺗﺤﻤﻞ دﻟﺘﻨﮕﻲ ﺑﺮاي اﻓﺮاد ﺧﺎﻧﻮاده و ﺧﻮﯾﺸﺎوﻧﺪان ﺧﻮد ﻣﺸﮑﻼت ﻋﺎﻃﻔﻲ ﻋﺪﯾﺪه اي را ﺗﺠﺮﺑﮫ ﻣﻲ
ﮐﻨﻨﺪ .اﻣﺎ ﺑﺎوﺟﻮد ھﻤﮫ ي اﯾﻦ ﻣﺸﮑﻼت اﮐﺜﺮاﯾﻦ داﻧﺸﺠﻮﯾﺎن درﻧﮭﺎﯾﺖ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻼش زﯾﺎد در رﺳﯿﺪن ﺑﮫ ھﺪف
ﻣﻮﻓﻖ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ.
ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان اﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻣﻌﺮف ﯾﮏ ﻋﻠﺖ -ﺗﻼش زﯾﺎد -و ﯾﮏ ﻣﻌﻠﻮل -ﻣﻮﻓﻘﯿﺖ -اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ
اﯾﺪه ي اﺻﻠﻲ ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه در ﻧﮕﺎرش ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف را ﺑﮫ روﺷﻨﻲ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻲ ﮐﺮده اﺳﺖ .اﯾﻦ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮ
ﺗﻌﯿﯿﻦ ﻣﺸﻲ ﻓﮑﺮي ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه ﺑﯿﺎن ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ي اﺻﻮﻟﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ ﺑﺮ ﻣﺒﻨﺎي آﻧﮭﺎ اﯾﺪه ھﺎي ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه در
ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ .ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﺑﻌﺪي ﻧﯿﺰ ﮐﮫ ﺑﺎ ھﻤﺮاھﻲ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ و ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ
ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ " ﺑﮫ دﻟﯿﻞ " ﭘﺲ از اﯾﻦ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﻗﺮار ﮔﺮﻓﺘﮫ اﻧﺪ راﺑﻄﮫ ي ﻣﯿﺎن ﺗﻼش زﯾﺎد و ﻣﻮﻓﻘﯿﺖ را ﺑﺮ
ﻣﺒﻨﺎي راﺑﻄﮫ ي ﻋﻠﺖ و ﻣﻌﻠﻮل ﺑﯿﺎن ﮐﺮده اﻧﺪ .ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮآن ارﺗﺒﺎط ﺗﻨﮕﺎﺗﻨﮓ ھﺮﯾﮏ از ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ ﺑﺎ
ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان ودرھﻤﺎھﻨﮕﻲ ﺑﺎ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي دﯾﮕﺮ ﯾﮑﭙﺎرﭼﮕﻲ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف دراراﺋﮫ ي اﯾﺪه ي اﺻﻠﻲ را ﺣﻔﻆ
ﮐﺮده اﺳﺖ .ﺑﺮ اﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس اﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺿﻤﻦ اﺟﺘﻨﺎب از ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎر ﮔﯿﺮي ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﻏﯿﺮﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ وﺑﺎ رﻋﺎﯾﺖ
اﺻﻮل ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ و وﺣﺪت اﯾﺪه ي ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه درﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان را ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻠﻲ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻗﺒﻮل ﺗﺒﯿﯿﻦ ﮐﺮده
اﺳﺖ.
Cause – Effect
A probably most frequently used method of organizing ideas in a paragraph is
the cause-effect method which is noticeably useful for college students as it is
۱۵
often used at college level texts . In paragraphs developed through this method
the topic sentence sets a cause and its effect . Accordingly , all the sentences
coming afterwards serve to argue and develop the effect resulted by the cause
in a logical – systematic way .
The use of transitional words and expressions , the most current of which are
listed succeedingly,play an important role to establish interrelationship among
the sentences in the paragraph . These devices , whose presence throughout
the paragraph is relatively abundant , help the sentences hold together and
thus , dominate coherence in the paragraph .
۱۶
The topic sentence of this paragraph presents a cause - hard work – and an
effect - success . The sentences which come afterwards develop this idea
through a reason – consequence relationship .Moreover ,the line of argument is
set up systematically through the sentences tied together by the help of
transitional words and expressions of “ because ” and “ as a result ”. Finally
,all the sentences in the paragraph tie to the topic sentence convincingly and
focus on one point of view , ie . hard work and success .
ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺗﻨﻮع ﻃﺒﻘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﺪه ھﺎي ﻃﺮح ﺷﺪه درﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان روش ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮﻧﻲ راﻣﻲ ﺗﻮان
ﺑﺮاي ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ اﯾﺪه ھﺎ در ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺳﺒﮏ ﻃﺒﻘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي ﭘﯿﺶ ﺑﯿﻨﻲ ﮐﺮد ﮐﮫ ھﺮﯾﮏ از آﻧﮭﺎ
.اﻟﺰاﻣﺎ" ﺑﺮاﺳﺎس ﺣﺪ اﻗﻞ دو زﯾﺮﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﮫ ازﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ اﯾﺪه ي اﺻﻠﻲ ﭘﺎﯾﮫ ﮔﺬاري ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ
ﺑﺮ اﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ھﺮ ﯾﮏ از اﯾﻦ روش ھﺎ ﮐﮫ ﺻﺮﻓﺎ" از ﻟﺤﺎظ ﻧﻮع ﻃﺒﻘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي از روش دﯾﮕﺮ ﻣﺘﻤﺎﯾﺰ ﻣﻲ
ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ اﯾﺪه ي اﺻﻠﻲ راﺑﮫ ﺗﻔﮑﯿﮏ ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻗﺮارداده وﺑﺎ ﺣﻔﻆ اﻧﺴﺠﺎم
درﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺑﯿﺎن ﺷﺪه ﻧﻈﺮات ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه رادرﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ.
ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﺑﮫ ﻧﻈﻢ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ ﺣﺎﮐﻢ ﺑﺮدﺳﺘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ اﯾﺪه ي ﻃﺮح ﺷﺪه درﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان ﯾﮑﻲ
ازﻧﮑﺎت ﻣﮭﻢ درﺧﻮاﻧﺪن ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﻃﺒﻘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎرﻣﻲ آﯾﺪ .اﯾﻦ اﻣﺮﺿﻤﻦ ﺗﺴﮭﯿﻞ درک ﻓﻨﻮن ﺑﮫ
ﮐﺎررﻓﺘﮫ درﻃﺒﻘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه رادرﺗﮭﯿﮫ ي ﯾﺎدداﺷﺖ ازﻧﮑﺎت ﻣﮭﻢ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﯾﺎري ﺧﻮاھﺪ ﮐﺮد.
۱۷
ﯾﮑﻲ دﯾﮕﺮازﺧﺼﻮﺻﯿﺎت ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي ﺷﺪه ﺑﮫ ﺳﺒﮏ ﻃﺒﻘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي ﺑﮭﺮه ﮔﯿﺮي ﮔﺴﺘﺮده
ازﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎوﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ درﺑﺮﻗﺮاري ارﺗﺒﺎط دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎررﻓﺘﮫ وﺣﻔﻆ اﻧﺴﺠﺎم
ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ .ﭘﺮ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدﺗﺮﯾﻦ اﯾﻦ ﻋﻼﺋﻢ در ﺳﺒﮏ ﻃﺒﻘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي ﻋﺒﺎرﺗﻨﺪ از :
ﺑﺎﻻﺧﺮه ﺳﺮاﻧﺠﺎم از ﻃﺮف دﯾﮕﺮ ﺑﺎ دﺳﺘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي ﺑﺮ ﻃﺒﻖ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﺎ اﺳﺎﺳﺎ"
در وھﻠﮫ ي اول دوم ﺳﻮم در اﯾﻦ ﮔﺮوه در اﯾﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ در اﯾﻦ ﮔﺮوه ﺑﮫ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف
زﯾﺮﮐﮫ درآن ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ ﯾﮏ اﯾﺪه ﺑﺎ ﺑﮭﺮه ﮔﯿﺮي ازﻓﻨﻮن ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ ﻃﺒﻘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ
ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﮐﻨﯿﺪ:
ﻣﺮدم ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ" ورزﺷﮑﺎران را اﺷﺨﺎﺻﻲ ﻣﺘﻤﺎﯾﺰ ازاﻧﺴﺎن ھﺎي ﻋﺎدي ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎر ﻣﻲ آورﻧﺪ .اﻣﺎ اﯾﻨﮕﻮﻧﮫ
ﻧﯿﺴﺖ .ورزﺷﮑﺎران ﺑﮫ ﻧﺪرت ﺗﻨﮭﺎ زﻧﺪﮔﻲ ﮐﺮده وھﺮﮔﺰ ﺧﻮدراازﺟﺎﻣﻌﮫ ﺟﺪا ﻧﻤﻲ داﻧﻨﺪ .آﻧﮭﺎ ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻻ"
ازدواج ھﺎﯾﻲ ﻣﻮﻓﻖ داﺷﺘﮫ و از ﮐﺎﻧﻮن ھﺎي ﺧﺎﻧﻮادﮔﻲ ﮔﺮم و ﺑﺎ ﻧﺸﺎﻃﻲ ﺑﺮﺧﻮردارﻧﺪ .ﺑﺎ اﯾﻦ وﺟﻮد
ورزﺷﮑﺎران وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ھﺎي ﺧﺎﺻﻲ ﻧﯿﺰ دارﻧﺪ .اول آﻧﮑﮫ آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﺪن ھﺎﯾﻲ ﻓﻌﺎل وﻋﻀﻼﺗﻲ ورزﯾﺪه
دارﻧﺪ .دوم آﻧﮑﮫ آﻧﮭﺎ ازﻧﻈﺮ ﺟﺴﻤﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﻘﺎوم ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ .وﺳﺮاﻧﺠﺎم آﻧﮑﮫ آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﮫ ورزش ﻋﺸﻖ ﻣﻲ ورزﻧﺪ.
دﺳﺘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﺗﻔﮑﯿﮏ ﺷﺪه ي اﯾﺪه ا ي ﮐﮫ درﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﻋﻨﻮان اﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ
ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ اي ازﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﺪه ھﺎ ﺑﮫ روش ﻃﺒﻘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي اﺳﺖ .درﺑﺨﺶ اول ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ورزﺷﮑﺎران ﺑﺎ
ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻲ وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ھﺎﯾﻲ ﻣﺸﺘﺮک ﺑﺎ ﻣﺮدم ﺑﮫ ﻋﻨﻮان اﻧﺴﺎن ھﺎﯾﻲ ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻟﻲ دﺳﺘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ .اﻣﺎ
ﺑﺨﺶ دوم وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ھﺎﯾﻲ ﺧﺎص را در ﻣﻮرد ورزﺷﮑﺎران ﻣﻄﺮح ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ ﮐﮫ آﻧﺎن را از اﻧﺴﺎن ھﺎي
ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻟﻲ ﻣﺘﻤﺎﯾﺰ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ .ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ اﯾﻦ ورزﺷﮑﺎران در ﺑﺨﺶ اول ﺑﮫ ﻋﻨﻮان اﻧﺴﺎن ھﺎي ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻟﻲ و در
ﺑﺨﺶ دوم ﺑﮫ ﻋﻨﻮان ورزﺷﮑﺎر ﻃﺒﻘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ.
ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ و ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ " از ﻃﺮف دﯾﮕﺮ " " اول آﻧﮑﮫ " " دوم آﻧﮑﮫ" و "ﺳﺮاﻧﺠﺎم
آﻧﮑﮫ" دراﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮﺑﺮﻗﺮاري ارﺗﺒﺎط دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺑﯿﺎن ﺷﺪه ﻧﻤﺎﯾﺎﻧﮕﺮ ﻧﻈﻢ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ
اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﺎ آن ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه اﻧﺪﯾﺸﮫ ھﺎي ﺧﻮد را ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ ﮐﺮده اﺳﺖ .ﺷﺎﯾﺎن ذﮐﺮ اﺳﺖ در ﺷﺮاﯾﻄﻲ ﮐﮫ
ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻞ اﻧﺴﺠﺎم دروﻧﻲ در ﺑﯿﻦ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺣﺎﮐﻢ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ وﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ
ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ ﻧﮫ ﺗﻨﮭﺎ ﻏﯿﺮﺿﺮوري اﺳﺖ ﺑﻠﮑﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف آﺳﯿﺐ ﻧﯿﺰ وارد ﺧﻮاھﺪ ﮐﺮد.
Classification
As mentioned before , a paragraph includes one or several sentences in order to
develop one idea . Moreover , the idea in the paragraph ,which is stated in the
topic sentence , should focus on merely one subject .When the subject to
۱۸
develop is too large , it would be reasonable to divide it into the components
which compose it .In order to divide a subject into its components , a logical
method should be used to classify them into certain categories . The method by
which a subject is classified into its components is called classification
Paragraphs of classification are developed in different ways as their subjects can
be classified into various components according to their similarities ,
differences ,or other characteristics .It should be kept in mind that since the
ideas in this method are arranged according to categories , classification
should have clear bases . In other words ,when a subject is classified , there
should be at least two categories of that subject ; otherwise ,
classificationcannot be carried out .
We often misunderstand athletes . They are not a separate race of people .They
seldom live alone . They do not withdraw from the society . They often have
good marriages , healthy children , vivid families , and happy
homes.However,athletes do have specific characteristics .First,they have active
۱۹
and well trained bodies .Second , they are physically strong . And third , they
appreciate sports .
ﺑﮫ ﺑﯿﺎن.روش ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ و ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ درﺣﻘﯿﻘﺖ دو روش ﮐﺎﻣﻼ" ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ در ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ اﯾﺪه ھﺎ ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎر ﻣﻲ آﯾﻨﺪ
دﯾﮕﺮ ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﺪ در ﯾﮏ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ ﺑﺪون اﺷﺎره ﺑﮫ ﺗﻔﺎوتھﺎ ﺻﺮﻓﺎ" ﺑﮫ ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ
ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ھﺎي ﻣﻮﺟﻮد ﻣﯿﺎن دو ﯾﺎ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ و ﯾﺎ در ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ در ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاﻓﻲ واﺣﺪ و ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ
ﺑﺎ اﯾﻦ وﺟﻮد. ﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي ﻣﯿﺎن آﻧﮭﺎ را ﺑﺪون درﻧﻈﺮﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ وﺟﻮه ﻣﺸﺘﺮک ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﻣﻮرد ارزﯾﺎﺑﻲ ﻗﺮاردھﺪ
ارﺗﺒﺎط ﺗﻨﮕﺎﺗﻨﮓ اﯾﻦ دو روش ﺑﺎ ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮ ﺷﮑﻞ ﮔﯿﺮي ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاﻓﻲ ﻣﺮﮐﺐ از آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺳﺒﮑﻲ واﺣﺪ
۲۰
راﻣﻘﺪورﺳﺎﺧﺘﮫ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ ﻣﻲﺗﻮاﻧﺪ ﺑﮫ ﮐﻤﮏ روش ﺳﻨﺠﺶ وﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ اﯾﺪه ي اﺻﻠﻲ
ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه را در ﺗﺠﺰﯾﮫ و ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ ﻧﻈﺮات ﺧﻮد ﯾﺎري ﮐﻨﺪ.
ﺑﮫ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف زﯾﺮ ﮐﮫ در آن اﯾﺪه ي اﺻﻠﻲ ﺑﮫ روش ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ و ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﮐﻨﯿﺪ.
ھﻤﮫ ي ﺣﯿﻮاﻧﺎﺗﻲ ﮐﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺻﻮرت ﮔﺮوھﻲ زﻧﺪﮔﻲ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ ﺑﺮاي ﺗﺒﺎدل اﻃﻼﻋﺎت ﺑﮫ ﺑﺮﻗﺮاري ارﺗﺒﺎط ﺑﺎ
ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮ ﻧﯿﺎزﻣﻨﺪ ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ .ﯾﮑﻲ از اﯾﻦ روش ھﺎ اﺷﺎره ﺑﺎ ﺣﺮﮐﺎت ﺑﺪن اﺳﺖ .اﻧﺴﺎنھﺎ رﺿﺎﯾﺘﻤﻨﺪي ﺧﻮد را
ﺑﺎ ﻟﺒﺨﻨﺪ ﮐﻒ زدن و ﮐﺸﯿﺪن ھﻮرا اﺑﺮازﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ .آﻧﺎن ھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ﻧﺎرﺿﺎﯾﺘﻲ ﺧﻮد را ﺑﺎ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ ﺑﯿﻨﻲ درﻣﯿﺎن
اﻧﮕﺸﺘﺎن وﯾﺎﺑﺎﺗﮑﺎن دادن ﺳﺮﻧﺸﺎن ﻣﻲ دھﻨﺪ .ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ آﻧﺎن ﺑﺮاي ﻧﺸﺎن دادن ﺟﮭﺖ ھﺎ ﻧﯿﺰاز اﻧﮕﺸﺖ
ﺳﺒﺎﺑﮫ ي ﺧﻮد اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ .ﺑﮫ ھﻤﯿﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﯿﺐ ﺣﯿﻮاﻧﺎت ﻧﯿﺰ درﺗﺒﺎدل اﻃﻼﻋﺎت از روش ھﺎي ﺣﺮﮐﺘﻲ
اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ .ﺑﺮاي ﻣﺜﺎل زﻧﺒﻮرھﺎي ﻋﺴﻞ ﻧﯿﺰ ھﻤﺎﻧﻨﺪ اﻧﺴﺎن ھﺎ در ﺟﻮاﻣﻌﻲ ﻗﺎﻧﻮن ﻣﺪار زﻧﺪﮔﻲ ﻣﻲ
ﮐﻨﻨﺪ .آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺑﺮدن ﺷﮭﺪ ﮔﻞ ﺑﮫ ﮐﻨﺪو ﻣﺤﻞ ﮔﻞ ھﺎ را ﺑﮫ زﻧﺒﻮرھﺎي دﯾﮕﺮﻧﺸﺎن ﻣﻲ دھﻨﺪ .آﻧﮭﺎ ھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ﺑﺎ
رﻗﺼﻲ ﺧﺎص ﻓﺎﺻﻠﮫ ي ﻣﺤﻞ ﮔﻞ ھﺎ ﺗﺎ ﮐﻨﺪو را ﺑﮫ زﻧﺒﻮرھﺎي دﯾﮕﺮ ﺗﻔﮭﯿﻢ ﻣﻲﮐﻨﻨﺪ .ﺑﺎ اﯾﻦ وﺟﻮد ﺗﻔﺎوت
اﺻﻠﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﻧﻈﺎم ارﺗﺒﺎﻃﻲ اﻧﺴﺎن ھﺎ وﺣﯿﻮاﻧﺎت " ﮐﻠﻤﮫ " اﺳﺖ .ﻓﻘﻂ اﻧﺴﺎن ھﺎ ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﮐﮫ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﻨﺪ
ﺻﺪاھﺎ را ﺑﮫ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ و ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ را ﺑﮫ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﺗﺒﺪﯾﻞ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ .اﯾﻦ ﺑﮫ ﻣﻌﻨﻲ آن اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ ﻓﻘﻂ اﻧﺴﺎن ھﺎ ﻣﻲ
ﺗﻮاﻧﻨﺪ اﯾﺪه ھﺎي ﻣﺮﮐﺐ و ﭘﯿﭽﯿﺪه را ﻣﯿﺎن ﺧﻮد ﻣﺒﺎدﻟﮫ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ .ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ اﯾﻦ ھﻢ ﺟﻮاﻣﻊ ﺳﺎده وھﻢ ﺟﻮاﻣﻊ
ﭘﯿﺸﺮﻓﺘﮫ ي ﺣﯿﻮاﻧﻲ ﺑﮫ روﺷﻲ ازﺑﺮﻗﺮاري ارﺗﺒﺎط واﺑﺴﺘﮫ ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ .ﺑﺎاﯾﻦ وﺟﻮد ﻓﻘﻂ اﻧﺴﺎن ھﺎ از ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ
ﺑﺮاي ﻧﯿﻞ ﺑﮫ اﯾﻦ ھﺪف ﺑﮭﺮه ﻣﻲ ﺑﺮﻧﺪ.
اﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺑﯿﺎن ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ي ﺑﺮﺧﻲ ازﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ھﺎوﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ ﻧﺤﻮه ي ﺑﺮﻗﺮاري ارﺗﺒﺎط در
ﺟﻮاﻣﻊ ﺳﺎده وﭘﯿﺸﺮﻓﺘﮫ ي ﺣﯿﻮاﻧﻲ اﺳﺖ .اﯾﻦ ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ھﺎ درﺑﺮﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه ي وﺟﻮه ﻣﺸﺘﺮک ھﺮدوﺟﺎﻣﻌﮫ ي
ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺤﺚ درﺑﺮﻗﺮاري ارﺗﺒﺎط ازﻃﺮﯾﻖ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ازﺣﺮﮐﺎت ﺑﺪن ﺑﻮده و ﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه ﺑﺮ ﭘﺎﯾﮫ
ي اﺳﺘﻔﺎده از "ﮐﻠﻤﮫ" درﺟﻮاﻣﻊ ﺻﺮﻓﺎ" اﻧﺴﺎﻧﻲ اﺳﺖ .ﺑﮫ اﯾﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﯿﺐ ھﺮدوروش ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ و ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﮫ
ﺷﮑﻞ ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺒﻲ اﯾﺪه ي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ ارﺗﺒﺎط درﺟﻮاﻣﻊ ﺳﺎده و ﭘﯿﺸﺮﻓﺘﮫ ي ﺣﯿﻮاﻧﻲ را درﺳﻄﺢ ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ و
ﺳﻨﺠﺶ ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ ﮐﺮده اﻧﺪ.
ﯾﮑﻲ ازﻧﮑﺎت ﻣﮭﻢ ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﺳﺒﮏ ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ و ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ازﻋﻼﺋﻤﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ ارﺗﺒﺎط
دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺑﯿﺎن ﺷﺪه را ﻣﯿﺴﺮ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ .ﺷﺎﯾﺎن ذﮐﺮ اﺳﺖ در اﯾﻦ ﺳﺒﮏ از ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ
ھﺎ و ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮاﯾﺠﺎد ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ درﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮﺳﺒﮏ ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﺪه ھﺎ
در ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف را ﻧﯿﺰ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ .ﺑﺮاي ﻣﺜﺎل ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ " ﺑﮫ ھﻤﯿﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﯿﺐ " ﻧﺸﺎن دھﻨﺪه
ي ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ھﺎي ﻣﻮﺟﻮد ﻣﯿﺎن روش ﺑﺮﻗﺮاري ارﺗﺒﺎط درﺟﻮاﻣﻊ ﺣﯿﻮاﻧﻲ و اﻧﺴﺎﻧﻲ ﺑﻮده و ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ
" ﺑﺎ اﯾﻦ وﺟﻮد " ﺑﯿﺎن ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ي ﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي ﻣﯿﺎن آﻧﮭﺎ اﺳﺖ .ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮاﯾﻦ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ و ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي
۲۱
اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ ﯾﺎدﺷﺪه ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮاﯾﺠﺎد ارﺗﺒﺎط دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮﺷﺪه ﺟﮭﺶ ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﺪه ھﺎ ازﺳﺒﮏ
: ﻣﺘﺪاول ﺗﺮﯾﻦ آﻧﮭﺎ ﻋﺒﺎرﺗﻨﺪاز. ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ را ﻧﯿﺰﺑﮫ روﺷﻨﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﯾﺎن ﮐﺮده اﻧﺪ
ﻣﺜﻞ اﯾﻨﮕﻮﻧﮫ ﺑﮫ اﯾﻦ ﻃﺮﯾﻖ ھﻤﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﺎ اﯾﻦ ﺑﮫ ھﻤﯿﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﯿﺐ
ﮔﺮﭼﮫ ﺑﺮﺧﻼف ﺑﺎ اﯾﻦ وﺟﻮد وﻟﻲ اﻣﺎ درﻏﯿﺮاﯾﻦ ﺻﻮرت ﻣﺘﻔﺎوت ﺑﺎ
ﻻزم ﺑﮫ ﯾﺎد آوري اﺳﺖ ﺟﮭﺶ ﺳﺒﮑﻲ درﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎي ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ و ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺑﺮاي ﯾﮏ ﺑﺎراﻣﮑﺎن ﭘﺬﯾﺮ
ﺑﻮده و ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﺿﺮوري اﺳﺖ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻲ ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ و ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺻﺮﻓﺎ" درﯾﮑﻲ ازدو
. ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ- ﺑﺨﺶ ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ھﺎ و ﺑﺨﺶ ﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎ- ﺑﺨﺶ ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ ﺧﻮد
Only man can combine sounds into words and words into sentences for
communication . That is , man alone can communicate complex ideas . Thus ,
social communities of higher and lower animals depend upon
communication . Nevertheless , only the human community has verbal
language .
۲۳
Some of the most popular words and expressions which are used to achieve
coherence in paragraphs of comparison are : similarly , likewise ,
correspondingly , the same as , in the same way , at the same rate as .
The most popular words and expressions used to achieve coherence in
paragraphs of contrast are : different from , otherwise , still , however ,
nevertheless , unlike , yet , on the contrary , although , while , on the other hand
ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺒﻲ
ھﻤﺎﻧﮕﻮﻧﮫ ﮐﮫ در ﻓﺼﻞ ھﺎي ﮔﺬﺷﺘﮫ اﺷﺎره ﺷﺪ ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺟﮭﺖ ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ اﯾﺪه ھﺎ ﺑﮫ ﮐﻤﮏ
روش ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮﻧﻲ ﺻﻮرت ﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد ﮐﮫ آﺷﻨﺎﯾﻲ ﺑﺎ ھﺮﯾﮏ ازآﻧﮭﺎ ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه رادرﺷﻨﺎﺧﺖ وﭘﻲ ﮔﯿﺮي
ﻧﻈﺮات ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه ﯾﺎري ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ .ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮآن ﺗﺸﺨﯿﺺ ﻣﺸﻲ ﻓﮑﺮي ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎررﻓﺘﮫ درﺗﺸﺮﯾﺢ اﯾﻦ ﻧﻈﺮات
اﻟﮕﻮي ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎري ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎر رﻓﺘﮫ در ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ اﻧﺪﯾﺸﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﻄﺮح ﺷﺪه درﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف را ﻧﯿﺰ آﺷﮑﺎرﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ.
ﺑﺎ اﯾﻦ وﺟﻮد ﺑﺎﯾﺪ در ﻧﻈﺮ داﺷﺖ ﮐﮫ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎ ﺻﺮﻓﺎ" ﺑﺮاي اراﺋﮫ ي اﻟﮕﻮﯾﻲ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ از ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ
اﻧﺪﯾﺸﮫ ھﺎ ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي ﻧﺸﺪه ﺑﻠﮑﮫ ھﺪف اﺻﻠﻲ آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﯿﺎن دﯾﺪﮔﺎه ھﺎي ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه در راﺑﻄﮫ ﺑﺎ اﯾﺪه اي
ﺧﺎص اﺳﺖ .ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ھﺮﯾﮏ ازﺳﺒﮏ ھﺎي ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻲ ﺷﺪه درﻓﺼﻞ ھﺎي ﮔﺬﺷﺘﮫ ﺿﻤﻦ ﺑﮭﺮه ﮔﯿﺮي
ازﻓﻨﻮن ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن اﺳﺎﺳﺎ" ﺑﮫ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ اﯾﺪه اي ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ و ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن آن را درﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف
ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮوﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ .ازﻃﺮف دﯾﮕﺮ ﻃﯿﻒ ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن اﯾﻦ اﯾﺪه ﻋﻤﻮﻣﺎ"
ﮔﺴﺘﺮه ھﺎﯾﻲ ﻣﺘﻔﺎوت را درﺑﺮﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد ﮐﮫ اﯾﻦ اﻣﺮ در ﭘﺎره اي ازﻣﻮارد ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي آﻧﮭﺎ در ﯾﮏ
اﻟﮕﻮي ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎري واﺣﺪ راﻏﯿﺮﻣﻤﮑﻦ ﮐﺮده و ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ھﻢ زﻣﺎن ﺳﺒﮏ ھﺎي دﯾﮕﺮرا درﻧﯿﻞ ﺑﮫ اﯾﻦ ھﺪف
ﺿﺮوري ﻣﻲ ﺳﺎزد .اﺳﺘﻔﺎده از اﯾﻦ راھﮑﺎر ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﺪ ﺻﺮﻓﺎ" در ﻗﺎﻟﺐ ﯾﮏ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ و ﯾﺎ ﭼﻨﺪ
ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﺑﮫ ھﻢ ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮫ ﮐﮫ ﺑﺎ داﺷﺘﻦ اﻧﺴﺠﺎم دروﻧﻲ ﯾﮏ ﻣﺘﻦ راﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ ﺻﻮرت ﮔﺮﻓﺘﮫ و
ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎري ﻣﺮﮐﺐ از روش ھﺎي ﻣﻮرد اﺳﺘﻔﺎده در ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﺪه ھﺎ را اراﺋﮫ ﮐﻨﺪ .اﯾﻦ
روش ﮐﮫ درﺷﮑﻞ ﮔﯿﺮي آن ﺳﺒﮏ ھﺎي ﻣﺘﻨﻮع ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﻢ زﻣﺎن ﺑﺎ ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮ ﻣﻮرد
اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻗﺮار ﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪ ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺒﻲ ﻧﺎﻣﯿﺪه ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد.
ﺗﺸﺨﯿﺺ روش ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎررﻓﺘﮫ در ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺑﮫ ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺒﻲ و ھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ
ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺖ ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮕﻲ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ازﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ و ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ آن ﮐﮫ ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮ اﯾﺠﺎد ارﺗﺒﺎط
دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺑﯿﺎن ﺷﺪه ﺟﮭﺶ ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﺪه ھﺎ ازﯾﮏ ﺳﺒﮏ ﺑﮫ ﺳﺒﮏ دﯾﮕﺮ را ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻲ
ﮐﻨﻨﺪ اھﻤﯿﺘﻲ وﯾﮋه دارد .ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﻣﮭﺎرت ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه در ﺗﺸﺨﯿﺺ اﻧﻮاع ﺳﺒﮏ ھﺎي ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف
وھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ آﮔﺎھﻲ اوازوﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ھﺎي اﺧﺘﺼﺎﺻﻲ ھﺮﯾﮏ ازآﻧﮭﺎ ﺿﺮورﺗﻲ اﺟﺘﻨﺎب ﻧﺎﭘﺬﯾﺮدرﭘﻲ ﮔﯿﺮي ﻧﻈﺮات
ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه و روش ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎر ﻣﻲ آﯾﺪ.
۲۴
ﺑﮫ ﻣﺘﻦ زﯾﺮﮐﮫ درآن ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ ﯾﮏ اﯾﺪه ي واﺣﺪ ﺑﮫ ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺒﻲ ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ
ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﮐﻨﯿﺪ.
اوﻟﺘﺮاﺳﻮﻧﯿﮏ -ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد داﻧﺶ ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ اﺻﻮات ﺑﺎ ﻓﺮﮐﺎﻧﺲ ﺑﺎﻻ -ﯾﮑﻲ ازﺟﺪﯾﺪﺗﺮﯾﻦ ﻓﻨﻮن ﻋﺼﺮﻓﻀﺎ ﺑﮫ
ﺷﻤﺎر ﻣﻲ آﯾﺪ .ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ي اوﻟﺘﺮاﺳﻮﻧﯿﮏ از ﭘﯿﺸﻮﻧﺪ اوﻟﺘﺮا ﺑﮫ ﻣﻌﻨﻲ ﻣﺎوراء و ﺳﻮﻧﯿﮏ ﺑﮫ ﻣﻌﻨﻲ
ﺻﻮت ﺗﺸﮑﯿﻞ ﺷﺪه و ﻣﻌﻨﻲ واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ آن ﻣﺎوراء ﺻﻮت اﺳﺖ .اﯾﻦ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﻧﯿﺮوي درﯾﺎﯾﻲ را در ره
ﮔﯿﺮي زﯾﺮدرﯾﺎﯾﻲ ھﺎ و ﻣﺎھﯿﮕﯿﺮان را درﯾﺎﻓﺘﻦ دﺳﺘﮫ ھﺎي ﺑﺰرگ ﻣﺎھﻲ ﯾﺎري ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ .اﯾﻦ داﻧﺶ ﻋﻼوه
ﺑﺮ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدھﺎي ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ﮔﺴﺘﺮده اي ﻧﯿﺰ درﺷﺎﺧﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻠﻮم دارد.
ﯾﮑﻲ از اﯾﻦ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدھﺎ ﺗﺎﺑﺶ آن ﺑﺮﻋﻀﻼت واﺳﺘﺨﻮان ھﺎي ﻣﻮﺟﻮدات زﻧﺪه ﺑﺪون رﺳﺎﻧﺪن آﺳﯿﺐ ﺑﮫ ﺑﺎﻓﺖ
ھﺎي آﻧﮭﺎاﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ دﺳﺘﺎوردھﺎي ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ازآن ﺗﺎﺛﯿﺮﭼﺸﻤﮕﯿﺮي درﺗﻮﺳﻌﮫ وﭘﯿﺸﺮﻓﺖ داﻧﺶ ﭘﺰﺷﮑﻲ داﺷﺘﮫ
اﺳﺖ .ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ اوﻟﺘﺮاﺳﻮﻧﯿﮏ ﭘﺰﺷﮑﺎن و رواﻧﭙﺰﺷﮑﺎن را در ﺗﺸﺨﯿﺺ ﺑﮫ ھﻨﮕﺎم ﺑﯿﻤﺎري ﯾﺎري ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ .
درﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﺑﺎ اﺷﻌﮫ ي اﯾﮑﺲ ﮐﮫ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ آن درﻣﺪت زﻣﺎن ده دﻗﯿﻘﮫ ﺑﮫ ﻃﻮل ﻣﻲ اﻧﺠﺎﻣﺪ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ
اوﻟﺘﺮاﺳﻮﻧﯿﮏ درﻃﻲ ﺗﻨﮭﺎ ده ﺛﺎﻧﯿﮫ اﻟﮕﻮھﺎي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ اﻣﻮاج ﺑﺎزﺗﺎب ﺷﺪه را ﺑﺮاي ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ آﻣﺎده ﻣﻲ
ﮐﻨﺪ .ﺑﺮﺧﻼف اﺷﻌﮫ ي اﯾﮑﺲ اﻣﻮاج اوﻟﺘﺮاﺳﻮﻧﯿﮏ ﺑﻲ ﺧﻄﺮ ﺑﻮده وﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮان ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ آن را
ﺑﮫ دﻓﻌﺎت ﺑﺮاي ﺑﯿﻤﺎران ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎر ﺑﺮد .ﭘﺰﺷﮑﺎن از اوﻟﺘﺮاﺳﻮﻧﯿﮏ ﺑﺮاي ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﺿﺮﺑﺎن ﺑﺎﻻي ﻗﻠﺐ اﺳﺘﺮﯾﻞ
ﮐﺮدن اﺑﺰار و ره ﮔﯿﺮي ﻟﺨﺘﮫ ھﺎي ﺷﻨﺎوردرﺧﻮن اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ .ﺑﮫ ھﻤﯿﻦ ﺷﮑﻞ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده از
اوﻟﺘﺮاﺳﻮﻧﯿﮏ در ﺻﻨﻌﺖ ﻧﯿﺰ ﯾﮑﻲ دﯾﮕﺮ از ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﺗﺎﺛﯿﺮﮔﺬاراﯾﻦ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﺑﺮ زﻧﺪﮔﻲ اﻣﺮوزي ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎر
ﻣﻲ آﯾﺪ .ﺑﺮاي ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪھﺎي ﭘﺎﻻﯾﺸﻲ ﮐﺸﺖ ﺳﺒﺰﯾﺠﺎت و ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻت ﺑﺎﻏﻲ ھﻤﻮژﻧﯿﺰه ﮐﺮدن
ﺷﯿﺮ وھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮد ﺳﯿﺴﺘﻢ ھﺎي دزدﮔﯿﺮ ﺳﯿﺴﺘﻢ ھﺎي ﺻﻮﺗﻲ وﺗﺼﻮﯾﺮي ودﺳﺘﮕﺎه ھﺎي ﺗﮭﻮﯾﮫ ي ھﻮا
ﻣﻮاردي ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﮐﮫ ﺑﺎ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد اوﻟﺘﺮاﺳﻮﻧﯿﮏ ﻣﺘﺤﻮل ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ.
داﻧﺸﻤﻨﺪان ﭘﯿﺶ ﺑﯿﻨﻲ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد اوﻟﺘﺮاﺳﻮﻧﯿﮏ درزﻧﺪﮔﻲ ﺑﺸﺮ ﺑﮫ زودي ﻧﻘﺸﻲ ﮔﺴﺘﺮده و ﺣﯿﺎﺗﻲ
ھﻤﭽﻮن ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ﺗﻠﻔﻦ را ﺧﻮاھﺪ داﺷﺖ.
اﯾﻦ ﻣﺘﻦ ﮐﮫ ﺑﺮﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎري ﻣﺒﺘﻨﻲ ﺑﺮ اﻟﮕﻮي ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺒﻲ ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دھﻲ ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ درآﻏﺎز ﺑﮫ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ ﯾﮏ
ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ ودراداﻣﮫ ﺑﺎ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ازروش ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﺪهھﺎ ازﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺢ ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ و
ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ھﺎي اﯾﻦ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ وھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ زﻣﯿﻨﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﺘﻨﻮع اﺳﺘﻔﺎده از آن ﻣﻲ ﭘﺮدازد
ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس درﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ي ﻧﺨﺴﺖ ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه ي ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﻣﻮرد ﻧﻈﺮرا ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻲ و ﺑﺎ ﺑﯿﺎن دوﻣﺜﺎل
ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد آن را ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺢ ﮐﺮده اﺳﺖ .درﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ي دوم ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه ﺿﻤﻦ ﻗﯿﺎس اﯾﻦ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﺑﺎ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪي ھﻤﺴﻨﮓ
ﺑﺮﺗﺮي ھﺎي آن راﻣﻮرد ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ و ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﻗﺮارداده اﺳﺖ .ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ي ﭘﺎﯾﺎﻧﻲ ﻧﯿﺰ ﺑﺎ ﺑﺮﺷﻤﺮدن ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ھﺎي
ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ وﺟﻮه ﻣﺸﺘﺮک اﺳﺘﻔﺎده از اﯾﻦ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ را در ﺻﻨﺎﯾﻊ ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻲ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ .ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس
ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه درﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﻦ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮآوردن ﻣﺜﺎل روش ھﺎي ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻠﻲ وﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ اي را ﻧﯿﺰ ﻣﻮرد
اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻗﺮار داده اﺳﺖ.
۲۵
ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ و ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ " ﺑﺮﺧﻼف " " ﺑﮫ ھﻤﯿﻦ ﺷﮑﻞ " و " ﺑﺮاي ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ " دراﯾﻦ
ﻣﺘﻦ ﻧﺸﺎن دھﻨﺪه ي ﺟﮭﺶ روش ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي اﯾﺪه ھﺎ از ﺳﺒﮏ ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ و ھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ
ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس اﯾﻦ ﻋﻼﺋﻢ ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮ اﯾﺠﺎد ارﺗﺒﺎط دروﻧﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺑﯿﺎن ﺷﺪه. ﺳﺒﮏ ﺗﺸﺮﯾﺤﻲ اﺳﺖ
.ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف ھﺎ درﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﻣﺘﻨﻲ ﯾﮑﭙﺎرﭼﮫ و ﻣﻨﺴﺠﻢ را اﻣﮑﺎن ﭘﺬﯾﺮ ﮐﺮده اﻧﺪ
Composites
So far and in the previous sections , several methods of organizing ideas in
paragraphs have been introduced and discussed . Familiarity with these
methods of paragraph organization will help the readers to comprehend what
they read easily .However ,it should be kept in mind that paragraphs are not
written in order just to use a certain pattern of organization ; they are , in deed
, written for the purpose of conveying ideas as well .In order to accomplish this
goal and communicate the ideas effectively , each of these methods serve a
device to facilitate the task respectively .Therefore, in many cases,not just
one,but several methods of paragraph organization may be employed in one or
a number of paragraphs that make up a text to develop a same idea . Such a
paragraph or a text , in which more than one method of organizing ideas is
employed is called a composite .
The science of high frequency sound , called ultrasonics , is one of the newest
and most exciting techniques of the space age . The prefix “ultra“ means
beyond and “ sonic “ means sound , so the word means beyond the range of
۲۶
hearing . Ultrasonics is the process that enables the navy to detect
submarines,and the fishermen to detect schools of fish.Ultrasonics can be used
in many branches of science .
This passage starts with a definition and proceeds to show the present and
the future of ultrasonics . There are many examples of the use of ultrasonics
in this passage . There is also a discussion which is about the differences
between the ultrasonics and the X – ray . Furthermore , the similarities
between the uses of ultrasonics in medicine and industrial technology are
clearly mentioned . In short , in this composite text , the methods of illustration
,contrast ,and comparison are used together .
۲۷
اﺻﻮل ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ﻧﮕﺎری
ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ﻧﮕﺎري ﯾﮑﻲ از ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدھﺎي رﺳﻤﻲ ﺳﺒﮏ ﻧﮕﺎرش زﺑﺎﻧﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ در آن ﭘﯿﺎم ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻠﻲ ﮐﺎﻣﻞ
.و در ﻋﯿﻦ ﺣﺎل ﻣﺨﺘﺼﺮ ﺑﮫ ﻣﺨﺎﻃﺐ ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد
Letter writing is one of the formal styles of the application of written language
in which the message of the writer is completely, yet concisely, transferred to
the reader .
اﻟﻒ – ﻏﯿﺮ رﺳﻤﻲ ﮐﮫ در آن ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه ﺑﺎ رﻋﺎﯾﺖ اﺻﻮل ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ﻧﮕﺎري ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺧﻮد را در ﻗﺎﻟﺐ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﺎري
ﻋﺎري از ﺗﻌﺎرف ھﺎي ﻣﺘﺪاول ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرﺑﻨﺪي ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ
ب – رﺳﻤﻲ ﮐﮫ در آن ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه ﺑﺎ رﻋﺎﯾﺖ ﮐﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﻌﺎرف ھﺎي ﺣﺎﮐﻢ ﺑﺮ اﺟﺘﻤﺎع ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺧﻮد را ﺑﮫ درﯾﺎﻓﺖ
ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ي ﭘﯿﺎم ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ
۲۹
ھﺮ ﻧﺎﻣﮫ از ﺳﮫ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﻣﺠﺰا ﺑﮫ ﺷﺮح زﯾﺮ ﺗﺸﮑﯿﻞ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد
اﻟﻒ – ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻲ :اﯾﻦ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ در ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ھﺎي ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ھﺎي رﺳﻤﻲ از دوﺑﺨﺶ ﮐﻮﭼﮑﺘﺮ "ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﺮﺳﺘﻨﺪه"
و "ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻲ ﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه" ﺗﺸﮑﯿﻞ ﻣﯿﺸﻮد ﮐﮫ درﻧﺎﻣﮫ ھﺎي ﻏﯿﺮ رﺳﻤﻲ اﺳﺎﺳﺎ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮان "ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﺮﺳﺘﻨﺪه" را در
ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎر ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ﺣﺬف ﮐﺮد " .ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﺮﺳﺘﻨﺪه" در ﺑﺎﻻﺗﺮﯾﻦ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ازﺳﻤﺖ ﭼﭗ ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ﻗﺮار ﮔﺮﻓﺘﮫ و "ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻲ
ﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه" در زﯾﺮ آن و در ﺳﻤﺖ راﺳﺖ ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﮫ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد .در زﯾﺮ اﯾﻦ آدرس ﻧﯿﺰ ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ ﻧﮕﺎرش ﻧﺎﻣﮫ
ﺛﺒﺖ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد.
ﺗﺬﮐﺮ :ﺛﺒﺖ ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻲ در اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ از ﮐﻮﭼﮑﺘﺮﯾﻦ واﺣﺪ-ﺷﻤﺎره ي آﭘﺎرﺗﻤﺎن -ﺑﮫ ﺑﺰرﮔﺘﺮﯾﻦ واﺣﺪ -ﺷﮭﺮ ﯾﺎ
ﮐﺸﻮر اﺳﺖ.
A- Address : This part includes of two smaller parts as “the sender’s” and the
“receiver’s” address .In formal letters both addresses are printed while in
informal ones , the “sender’s” address is normally ignored .The sender’s address
locates at the very left part of the top of the letter , and the receiver’s address
comes after it in the very right side of the letter .
Note : The address is printed, down from the flat number,up to the city or
country.
ب – ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﻣﺘﻦ :اﯾﻦ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ در ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ھﺎي ﻏﯿﺮ رﺳﻤﻲ ﺳﮫ ﺑﺨﺶ ﮐﻮﭼﮑﺘﺮ ﯾﻌﻨﻲ ﺑﺨﺶ ﺳﻼم و اﺣﺘﺮام
ﺑﺨﺶ ﺗﻮﺿﯿﺤﺎت و ﺑﺨﺶ ﺗﺸﮑﺮ و ﺧﺪاﺣﺎﻓﻈﻲ را ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد در ﺣﺎﻟﻲ ﮐﮫ ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ھﺎي رﺳﻤﻲ ﺻﺮﻓﺎ
ﺑﺨﺶ ھﺎي دوم و ﺳﻮم را در ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﺷﺪه و ﺑﺨﺶ اول ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ﺑﮫ اﺧﺘﺼﺎر در ﺑﺨﺶ ﺗﻮﺿﯿﺤﺎت آﻧﮭﺎ ﮔﻨﺠﺎﻧﯿﺪه
ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد.
۳۰
. در اﯾﻦ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﻧﮕﺎرﻧﺪه ي ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ﺑﺎ اداي اﺣﺘﺮام ﻧﺎم ﺧﻮد را اﻣﻀﺎء ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ: ج – ﻗﺴﻤﺖ اﻣﻀﺎء
C – Signature : In this part of the letter , expressing respect , the writer of the
letter signs his/her name .
دو ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ از ﻧﺎﻣﮫ ھﺎي ﻏﯿﺮ رﺳﻤﻲ و رﺳﻤﻲ ﺑﮫ ﺷﺮح زﯾﺮ ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ
Informal ﻏﯿﺮرﺳﻤﯽ
۴,Dashen Lane,
Dear Fred ,
Hi and I hope you are fine . I’m missed you and your family, specially your
brother and your little sister a lot .
I hope you can soon come here to start your business with me and we will enjoy
a happy life together .
Sincerely Yours ,
Daniel
۳۱
Formal رﺳﻤﯽ
۸, Radford Ave,
London , England
۱۲,Poplar St. ,
Sir :
Respecting your letter , our company wishes to have your regulations in the
field of commercial cooperations with the foreign companies . Having complete
folders in this respect will be of great pleasure .
Yours,
Terry M. Wattson
۳۲
ﻧﺸﺎﻧﮫ ﮔﺬاري
در
ﻧﮕﺎرش
۳۳
۱ - The Comma ( , )
The comma ordinarily indicates a pause and a variation in the voice pitch
۱a - A comma precedes and , but , or , nor , for , so and yet when they
I - to separate the subject from the verb , or the verb from its object.
III - to set off words and short phrases , especially the introductory
V- before the first item or after the last item of a series including a
۳۴
۲ - The Semicolon ( ; )
۲a - Use a semicolon between two main clauses that are not linked
contain commas .
a main clause .
۳ - The Apostrophe ( ‘ )
indefinite pronouns .
I - For singular nouns and indefinite pronouns , add the apostrophe & s(‘s)
III - For compounds and word groups , add the apostrophe and s only
۳c - Use the apostrophe and s to form the plural of lower case letters
۳۵
confusion,use the apostrophe and s to form the plural of capital
۴ - Quotation Mark ( “ “ )
۴a - Use quotation marks to set off all direct quotations ,some titles, and
۴c - Use quotation marks for minor titles , such as short stories , essays,
II - Place the colon and the semicolon outside the quotation marks .
III - Place the dash,the question mark,and the exclamation mark inside
the quotation marks when they apply only to the quoted matter ;
۵ - The Period ( . )
۳۶
۵b - Use the period with most abbreviations .
۶ - The Parantheses ( )
۸ - The Colon ( : )
an appositive , or a quotation .
۹ - The Dash ( - )
۳۷
۹c - Use the dash between an introductory series and the main part of
۱۰ - Question Mark ( ? )
۱۱ - The Brackets [ ]
parantheses .
۱۲ - The Slash ( / )
۱۳ - The Hyphen ( _ )
۱۳b - Use the hyphen to join two or more words that serve as a single
۳۸
TERMINOLOGY ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎي ﺗﺨﺼﺼﻲ ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎر رﻓﺘﮫ
Abundant ﻓﺮاوان
argument ﻣﺒﺎﺣﺜﮫ
Arrangeﻣﺮﺗﺐ ﮐﺮدن
biographyزﻧﺪﮔﻲ ﻧﺎﻣﮫ
causeﻋﻠﺖ
characteristicوﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ
chronologicalزﻣﺎﻧﻲ
coherenceﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﮕﻲ
commonﻣﺘﺪاول
compareﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﮐﺮدن
componentﺟﺰء
composite ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺒﯽ
concentrateﺗﻤﺮﮐﺰ ﮐﺮدن
conceptﻣﻔﮭﻮم
contrastﻣﻘﺎﺑﻠﮫ
۳۹
اﻧﺘﻘﺎل دادنconvey
ﻣﺘﻘﺎﻋﺪ ﮐﺮدنconvince
ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ ﮐﺮدنdefine
ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻒ ﮐﺮدنdescribe
ﺟﺰﺋﯿﺎتdetails
ﭘﯿﺶ ﺑﺮدنdevelop
ﺗﺪﺑﯿﺮdevice
ﺑﺤﺚ ﮐﺮدنdiscuss
ﺗﺎﺛﯿﺮ ﮔﺬاﺷﺘﻦeffect
ﺷﺎﯾﺴﺘﮫefficient
ﻋﻨﺼﺮelement
ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ ﮐﺮدنemphasize
ﺗﻮﺿﯿﺢ دادنexplain
ﺑﯿﺎن ﮐﺮدنexpress
ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ واژﮔﺎﻧﻲexpression
ﻣﺘﻤﺮﮐﺰ ﺷﺪنfocus
ﻣﺘﻨﺎوبfrequent
ﻧﻘﺶfunction
ﻋﻤﻮﻣﯿﺖ دادنgeneralization
ﻣﺮﮐﺐhybrid
۴۰
ideaاﯾﺪه
logicalﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ
methodروش
narrateرواﯾﺖ ﮐﺮدن
orderﻧﻈﻢ
paragraphﺑﻨﺪ – ﭘﺎرﮔﺮاف
passageﻣﺘﻦ ﮐﻮﺗﺎه
patternاﻟﮕﻮ
popularﻣﻌﻤﻮل
precedingﭘﯿﺸﯿﻦ
propertyوﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ
relationshipراﺑﻄﮫ
representاراﺋﮫ ﮐﺮدن
sampleﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ
sequenceﺗﻮاﻟﻲ
shiftﺟﺎ ﺑﮫ ﺟﺎ ﺷﺪن
similarityﺷﺒﺎھﺖ
statementﺑﯿﺎن
statusﺣﺎﻟﺖ
۴۱
structureﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎر
styleﺳﺒﮏ
subjectﻣﻮﺿﻮع
succeedingﭘﺴﯿﻦ
systematicﻣﻨﻈﻢ
techniqueﻓﻦ
textﻣﺘﻦ
thoughtاﻧﺪﯾﺸﮫ
topicﻋﻨﻮان
transferﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﮐﺮدن
transitionalاﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ
uniqueﻣﻨﺤﺼﺮﺑﮫ ﻓﺮد
unityوﺣﺪت
viewدﯾﺪﮔﺎه
۴۲