Introduction to Research

Methodology

Yimer Seid (MPHE&B , Assit. Professor)

Department of Preventive Medicine,
SPH,AAU

YSY- RM 1
 3: Formulation of Objectives
• After completing this lesson, the learners
should be able to:
1. Describe the need for the development of
research objectives
2. Differentiate between general and specific
objectives
3. Formulate specific objectives and hypotheses

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 Formulation of Objectives

A research objective summarize what is to be achieved by

the study

Importance of developing objectives

– Focus the study
– Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly
necessary
– Properly formulated specific objectives facilitate the
development of research methodology and help to orient
the collection, analysis, interpretation and utilization of
data.
– Helps for evaluating the project
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 Formulation of Objectives

General objective:
– aim of the study in general terms
– Should be inline with the research title
– summarizes what is to be achieved by the study
– should be clearly related to the statement of the problem.

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 Formulation of Objectives
Specific objectives
– logically connected parts of the general objective
– measurable statements on the specific questions to be
answered.
– Unlike the general objectives, the specific objectives are
more specific
– focus the study on the essentials
– direct the design of the investigation
– orient collection, analysis and interpretation of the data

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What formats can be used for stating research
objectives?
Research objectives can be stated as:

– Questions: “The objectives of this study are to answer the

following questions …”
– Positive sentence: “the objectives of this study are to find
out, to establish, to determine, ……”
– Hypothesis: “The objective of this study is to verify the
following hypothesis...”

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Research Questions vs Hypotheses

• A hypothesis requires sufficient knowledge

of the problem to be able to predict
relationships among factors which then can
be explicitly tested.

• Research questions are formulated when

the investigators do not have enough
insight into the problem being studied.
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 Criteria for setting research objectives
• Focused, each covering a single point
• Ordered in a logical sequence
• Realistic and feasible to answer
• Operational, using action verbs such as:
– determine - verify -identify
– describe - assess - compare
– calculate - establish -explore
• Measurable outcomes at the end of the research

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Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such
as;
– to appreciate
– to understand
– to study
– to believe

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 Methods and Materials
– It describes

• How you will conducted your study

• What materials and equipment's you will use

• What methods and procedures you will use

– The corner stone of your research/scientific method

• “The worth of all scientific findings depends heavily on
the manner in which the data were collected and
analysed”
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Methods and Materials…

Possible sub-sections
• Study design
• Setting/study area
• Study population
• Sample size and sampling methods
• Variables
• Operational definitions
• Data collection
• Data processing/analysis
• Data quality control issues

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 Study design

• A study design is a specific plan or protocol for

conducting the study, which allows the
investigator to translate the conceptual
hypothesis into an operational one.

• Direct how the investigation is conducted

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Classification of Study Design

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 Choice of Design
Depends on:
– Research Questions
– Research Goals
– Researcher Skills and knowledge
– Nature and availability of information
– Available resources/funds
– Researcher Beliefs and Values

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 For all types of study designs, one needs to
identify
• Setting/ Population
• Size of sample
• Data collection methods
– Determine exposures
– determine outcomes
– Passive/ active
– Instruments
• Data management system
• Data analyses techniques
• Personnel to carry out study
• Other administrative tasks: manuals/handbooks ,
organization, communication tools

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 Setting
• Health institutions
• Universities/ Schools/ Prisons
• Community

– Describe your study area in relation to your

research problem.

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Study Population: Who are your study subjects?

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Sampling
• In research terms a sample is a group of people,
objects, or items that are taken from a larger
population for measurement
• Sampling involves the selection of a number of study
units from a defined population.
Advantages of samples
• Cost - sampling saves time, labour and money
• Quality of data - more time and effort can be spent on
getting reliable data on each individual sampled.
• Sampling is a must in some situations:

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• If we have to draw a sample, we will be
confronted with the following questions:
– What is the group of people (population) from
which we want to draw a sample?
– How many people do we need in our sample?
– How will these people be selected?

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 Sample Size Determination
• There are several approaches to determining
the sample size.
• Depending on the type of response variable,
whether it is categorical or continuous, we will
have two sets of formulas.

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Sample size formula for single
population mean
• Where
– α= The level of significance
which can be obtain as 1-
confidence level.
– σ=Standard deviation of the
population
– w= Maximum acceptable
difference
– z α/2 = The value under
standard normal table for the
given value of confidence level

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Sample size formula of single
population proportion

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 Sampling Techniques/procedures
• Describe the methods of sample selection
• If needed, use diagrams to simplify the sample
selection process

• Sampling methods (Two broad divisions)

– Probability and non- probability

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 Non-probability Sampling Methods
• We do not know the
probability that each
population element will be
chosen
• Used when a sampling 1. Convenience sampling
frame does not exist 2. Quota sampling
• No random selection 3. Purposive sampling
(unrepresentative of the 4. Snowball sampling
given population)
• Inappropriate if the aim is
to measure variables and
generalize findings obtained
from a sample to the
population.

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 Probability Sampling Methods
• A sampling frame exists
or can be compiled. 1. Simple random sampling
• Involve random selection 2. Systematic random
procedures. All units of sampling
the population should 3. Stratified sampling
have an equal or at least a
known chance of being 4. Cluster sampling
included in the sample. 5. Multistage sampling
• Generalization is possible
(from sample to
population)

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Variables of the study

• Variable is measurable characteristic of a

person, object or phenomenon, which can
take on different values
• Identify the:
• Independent variable (exposure, intervention…) or
Covariate
• Dependent variable (outcome)

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 Data collection
Describe your:
• Data collection techniques and tools
• Where will the information come from (data
sources
• Who will collect the data?
• Who will supervise the data collection?
• How long will take the data collection?

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 Data collection techniques
• Observation
• Self-administered questionnaire
– Face-to-face
– Postal or mail method
• Interviews
– Face-to-face
– Telephone interviews
• Using available information- document/desk review
• In-depth/ key informant interview
• Focus group discussions (FGD)

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 Data collection tools
– Questionnaire
– Checklist , data compilation forms
– Pencil, paper, watch, scales, microscope, etc
– Tape recorder
– etc…

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 Questionnaire Development
• A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series
of questions for the purpose of gathering information from
respondents.
• The design of questionnaires needs clear aims and objectives,
a selection of items that need to be translated into questions,
and a logical order.
• A well-designed questionnaire facilitates the respondents to
provide complete and accurate information.

MEPI-JF 31
Steps in Questionnaire Development

1. Decide the information required.

– what are the things one needs to know from the respondent in order to meet
the survey's objectives?
– What are the specific research questions?
– What are hypotheses?
• List variables that you should measure
2. Define the target respondents.
– in designing the questionnaire we must take into account factors such as the
age, education, etc. of the target respondents
3. Choose the method(s) of reaching your target respondents.
– the method of contact will influence not only the questions the researcher is
able to ask but the phrasing of those questions
4. Decide on content.
– One of the main and most difficult questions researchers should always ask
themselves is “do we really require the answer of this question for our study
aims?”. If there is no good justification for it, the question should be left out.

MEPI-JF 32
Steps in Questionnaire Development

5. Develop the question wording.

– Formulate one or more questions that will provide the
information needed for each variable
– Questions should be clearly worded and response options
clearly identified
– Consider requirements for effective questions
6. Put questions into a meaningful order
– Questions should flow in some kind of order, so that one leads
easily and naturally to the next
– Opening questions should be easy to answer and not in any way
threatening to the respondents
– Questions that are of special importance should, if possible, be
included in the earlier part of the questionnaire
– Sensitive questions last

MEPI-JF 33
 Steps in Questionnaire Development
7. Format the questionnaire
– The clarity of questionnaire presentation can also
help to improve the ease with which interviewers
or respondents are able to complete a
questionnaire
– Allocating sufficient space for answers
– Consider spacing., coding, skipping
8. Pre-test the questionnaire
9. Develop the final survey form.
MEPI-JF 34
 Use existing questionnaires
• As an inspiration
• Don´t need to re-invent the wheel
• Have been tested
• BUT: adapt to present situation!
– Questionnaire needs to be adapted to study population
• occupation
• education
• ethnic group
• Language
• sensitive issues

MEPI-JF 35
Plan for analysis
Present :
• A detailed plan for entering, cleaning and analyzing
data
• Methods and Models of Data Analysis according to
types of Variables
• Indicate how you will test assumptions

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 Components of Data Analysis
Data processing
– Coding
– Cleaning
– Data entry

Statistics
• Descriptive /exploratory
– Frequencies,
– Tables and graphs
– Cross tabulations (chi-squares, spearman’s correlation…)
– Measures of central tendency and variations
– Proportions/percentages
• Analytic /inferential
– Estimation
– Confidence intervals (P-value, OR,…)
– Hypothesis testing
– Statistical models
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 Data Quality Control Issues

Describe/provide:
• Operational definitions of crucial concepts
• Selection and training of field workers/research staff
• Pre-test/pilot : Field testing the research methods and tools
• Daily Supervision
• Check for Completeness
– Missing values
– Outliers
• Data processing and Analyses
– Data entry
– Appropriate analyses

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…..Thank you….

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