3 Complex Variables

The imaginary number 1 i is the solution of the equation

x2 + 1 = 0.
This artificial i was introduced to answer the above question. But then it results
in many interesting results, beautiful theory and useful applications.

In general a complex number takes the form a + bi, where the real part a and
imaginary part b are both real numbers and i2 = −1. We use C to denote the
set of complex numbers:
C = {a + bi : a, b ∈ R, i2 = −1}.
It is clear that the set of all real numbers R is a proper subset of C.
Example 1. We note that
1 + i, 1 − i, −1 and i
are complex numbers.
1
The earliest reference to the square root of a negative number perhaps is the work of a Greek mathematician, Heron of Alexandria, in the 1st century
AD. The impetus to study complex numbers proper first arose in the 16th century when algebraic solutions for the roots of cubic and quartic polynomials
(Taken from Wikipedia).

1
3.1 The Complex Plane

The four complex numbers can be represented in the following complex plane. It is
similar to the case of R2 except the x-axis represents the real part of the complex
number and the y-axis represents the imaginary part of the complex number.

6
Im 6
y
•i •1 + i • (0, 1) •(1, 1)

−1 Re (−1, 0) x
• - • -

•1 − i •(1, −1)

The Complex Plane The R2 Plane

2
3.2 The Complex Operations
3.2.1 Conjugate

Given a complex number z = a + bi, the real part is Re(z) = a, the imaginary
part is Im(z) = b, and the conjugate of z, denoted by z, is given by a − bi.

3.2.2 Modulus

Given
√ a complex number z = a + bi, the modulus of z, denoted by |z|, is given by
a2 + b2.

6
Im

3
• a + bi
|z|





 θ
-
Re
Q
Q−θ
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q

• a − bi
Q
Q
s
Q

The Argand Diagram

3
3.3 Addition of Two Complex Numbers

Let z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di, where a, b, c, d are real. Note that if

z1 = a + bi = z2 = c + di,
then we have
(a − c) + (b − d)i = 0,
and therefore we must have a = c and b = d.

For addition, we define

z1 + z2 = (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i.
It is very similar to the addition of two vectors in R2:
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d).
Example 2. We have
(2 + i) + (3 − 2i) = (2 + 3) + (1 − 2)i = 5 − i.
Similarly, in R2, we have
(2, 1) + (3, −2) = (5, −1).
4
3.4 Multiplication of Two Complex Numbers

The product of two complex numbers can be defined as follows.

Let z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di, then we have
z1 · z2 = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.
To see this, perform the operations as in the real case, we have
z1 · z2 = (a + bi) · (c + di)
= ac + adi + bci + bdi2
= (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.
Example 3. We have
(2 + i) · (3 − 2i) = 6 + 3i − 4i − 2i2 = 8 − i.
Remark 1. For any two complex numbers z1 and z2,
z1 + z2, z1 − z2, z1 · z2 and z1/z2 (z2 ̸= 0)
are also complex numbers.

5
Theorem 1. We have |z|2 = z · z.
Proof. Let z = a + bi where a, b ∈ R. Then, by definition, we have
|z|2 = a2 + b2,
and furthermore,
z · z = (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 − b2i2 = a2 + b2,
which immediately implies the theorem.
The above theorem can be applied to the following problem. We know that
1 + 2i
= a + bi
1−i
for some real numbers a and b. What are a and b?

Noticing that 1 − i = 1 + i and (1 − i) · (1 + i) = 2, we have

1 + 2i 1 + 2i 1 + i 1 + 2i + i − 2 1 3
= × = = − + i,
1−i 1−i 1+i 1+1 2 2
which leads to the conclusion that a = − 21 and b = 23 .
6
Theorem 2. For any two complex numbers z1 and z2, we have
|z1 + z2| ≤ |z1| + |z2|.
Proof. Let z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di, where a, b, c, d are real numbers. It suffices
to prove that √ √ √
(a + c) + (b + d) ≤ a + b + c2 + d2,
2 2 2 2

which is equivalent to
√ √
ac + bd ≤ a2 + b2 c2 + d2.
The above inequality is true since
2abcd ≤ (ad)2 + (bc)2,
which follows from
0 ≤ (ad − bc)2.

Remark 2. The result can be generalized as follows:

|z1 + · · · + zn| ≤ |z1| + · · · + |zn|.
Note that we can apply the following argument:
|z1 + · · · + zn| = |(z1 + · · · + zn−1) + zn| ≤ |z1 + · · · + zn−1| + |zn|.
7
3.5 Polar Form

A complex number can be written in its polar form as follows:

z = a + bi = r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)),
where r ≥ 0 is the modulus of z with r = |z|, and θ is the argument of z,
denoted by Arg(z), with sin(θ) = b/|z| and cos(θ) = a/|z|.

6
Im

r = |z| 
• a + bi
3


 r sin(θ)






θ -
Re
r cos(θ)

The Argand Diagram

8
Consider two complex numbers, z1 = r1(cos(θ1) + i sin(θ1)), z2 = r2(cos(θ2) +
i sin(θ2)).

If z1 = z2, then r1 must be equal to r2, however θ1 can be equal to θ2 + 2kπ,

where k is any integer, due to the periodicity of cos and sin functions.

In other words, for any complex number z, the corresponding r is uniquely deter-
mined, but the corresponding θ is not, i.e., Arg(z) is multi-valued.

On the other hand, if we restrict θ to be within [0, 2π), which is a popular conven-
tion, then θ is uniquely determined and then Arg(z) is single-valued.

9
Example 4. Given the complex number z = 1 + i, we can compute
√ √ √
|z| = zz = (1 + i)(1 − i) = 2.
Then we can also compute the angle θ as follows:
1
tan(θ) = = 1,
1
which implies that θ = π/4. Hence the polar form of z is
√
z = 2(cos(π/4) + i sin(π/4)).
√
Example 5. Given the complex number z = 1 − 3i, we can compute
√ √ √ √
|z| = zz = (1 − 3i)(1 + 3i) = 2.
Then we can also compute the angle θ as follows:
√
− 3 √
tan(θ) = = − 3,
1
which implies that θ = −π/3. Hence the polar form of z is
z = 2(cos(π/3) + i sin(−π/3)) = 2(cos(π/3) − i sin(π/3)).

10