BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS IN NURSING

COURSE MODULE COURSE UNIT WEEK
3 13 13

THEORIES RELEVANT TO NURSING PRACTICE

✔ Read course and unit objectives

✔ Read study guide prior to class attendance
✔ Read required learning resources; refer to unit
terminologies for jargons
✔ Proactively participate in online discussions
✔ Participate in weekly discussion board (Canvas)
✔ Answer and submit course unit tasks

At the end of the course unit (CM), learners will be able to:
Cognitive:
1. Understand important non-nursing theories relevant to the nursing practice.
2. Explain the different major concepts of the theories relevant to the nursing practice
developed by Maslow, Sullivan, Lewin, Von Bertalanffy, Erikson, Kohlberg and Bandura.
3. Understand the application of non-nursing theories to the nursing practice.
Affective:
1. Show concerns and develop trusting relationship to the patient and family using the different
non-nursing theories.
2. Listen attentively during class discussions.
3. Demonstrate tact and respect when challenging other people’s opinions and ideas.
4. Accept comments and reactions of classmates on one’s opinions openly and graciously.
Psychomotor:
1. Apply safety risk and nursing process during administration of nursing procedures using the
different non-nursing theories.
2. Participate actively during class discussions.
3. Confidently express personal opinion and thoughts in front of the class.

Aliigood Martha R, The Nursing Theorist and their Works,8th edition, Copyright 2014, Mosby
Smith Marlaine C.; Parker Marilyn E.; Nursing Theories and Nursing Practice, 4TH edition. F.A.Davis
Company 2015

Maslow's hierarchy is most often displayed as a pyramid. The lowest levels of the pyramid are made up
of the most basic needs, while the most complex needs are at the top of the pyramid.
Needs at the bottom of the pyramid are basic physical requirements including the need for food, water,
sleep, and warmth. Once these lower-level needs have been met, people can move on to the next level of
needs, which are for safety and security.
As people progress up the pyramid, needs become increasingly psychological and social. Soon, the need
for love (Links to an external site.), friendship, and intimacy becomes important. Further up the
pyramid, the need for personal esteem and feelings of accomplishment take priority.
Like Carl Rogers (Links to an external site.), Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization,
which is a process of growing and developing as a person in order to achieve individual potential.
Harry Stack Sullivan
 He proposed interpersonal theory of personality.
 He explained the role of interpersonal relationships and social experiences in shaping
personality.
 He also explained about the importance of current life events to psychopathology.
 The theory further states that the purpose of all behavior is to get needs met through
interpersonal interactions and decrease or avoid anxiety.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
 Sullivan explained six developmental stages called "epochs" or heuristic Stages in Development.

  Stages (Epochs) Characteristics

 1 Infancy (Birth-18 months) Gratification of needs

2 Childhood (18 mo-6 yrs) Delayed gratification

3 Juvenile era(6-9 yrs) Formation of peer group

Developing relationships within same

4 Preadolescence (9-12 yrs) gender

Early Adolescence (12-14

5 yrs) Identity

Late Adolescence (14-21

6 yrs) Forming lasting, intimate relationships

 Sullivan explained about three types of self:

 The ‘good me’ versus the ‘bad me’ based on social appraisal and the anxiety that results
from negative feedback
 The ‘not me’ refers to the unknown,repressed component of the self.
 Sullivan's theory explains about anxiety, self-system and self-esteem:
 Security operations –those measures that the individual employs to reduce anxiety and
enhance security.
 Self-system – all of the security operations an individual uses to defend against anxiety
and ensure self esteem
APPLICATIONS
 Sullivan's interpersonal theory provides the theoretical basis for interpersonal psychotherapy
(IPT) for depression and schizophrenia.
 Interpersonal theory proposes that depression develops most often in the context of adverse
events, particularly interpersonal loss. (Tasman 2008)
 He also wrote on techniques and approaches on psychiatric interview.
The theory of personality developed by Harry Stack Sullivan, which is based on the belief that people’s
interactions with other people, especially significant others, determine their sense of security, sense of
self, and the dynamisms that motivate their behavior. For Sullivan, personality is the product of a long
series of stages in which the individual gradually develops “good feeling” toward others and a sense of a
good me toward himself or herself. The individual also learns how to ward off anxiety and correct
distorted perceptions of other people, learns to verify his or her ideas through consensual validation, and
above all seeks to achieve effective interpersonal relationships on a mature level.
KURT LEWIN (Change Theory)
- considered the father of social psychology, he is known for Group dynamics, action research, T-
groups, is often considered he the father of modern change management theory, developed a change
model involving three steps: unfreezing, changing and refreezing. 
- For Lewin, the process of change entails creating the perception that a change is needed, then moving
toward the new, desired level of behavior and finally, solidifying that the new behavior as the norm.
- Kurt Lewin theorized a three stage model of change that is known unfreezing -change-refreeze model
that requires prior learning to be rejected and replaced. Lewin’s theory states behaviors dynamic balance
of forces working in opposing directions.
- The Kurt Lewin change theory model is based around a 3 step process ( unfreeze-change-freeze)that
provides a high level approach to change. It gives a manager or other change agent a framework to
implement a change effort, which is always very sensitive and must be made as seamless as possible.
- One of the cornerstone models understanding organizational change was developed by Kurt Lewin
back in the 1940’s, and still holds true today. His model is known as unfreeze- change- refreeze, which
refers to the three stage process of change that describes.
Six Stages of Change
■Precontemplation
■Contemplation
■Preparation
■Action
■Maintenance
■Termination
 
Theory of Change is a specific type of methodology for planning, participation and evaluation that is
used in companies, philanthropy, not for profit and government sectors to promote social
change. Theory of change defines long term goals and then maps backward to identify necessary
precondition.

LUDWIG VON BERTALANFFY – General Systems Theory

-
von Bertalanffy (1968) wrote that a system is a complex of interacting elements and that they are open
to, and interact with their environments. In addition, they can acquire qualitatively new properties
through emergence, thus they are in a continual evolution. When referring to systems, it also generally
means that they are self-regulatin.
General Systems Theory is based on the assumption that there are universal principles of organization,
which hold for all systems, be they physical, chemical, biological, mental or social.
Systems management is the combination of four key elements processes, data, tools, and organization,
which are all needed to manage a system efficiently and effectively.
Characteristics of system theory
Open system: a system keeps evolving and its properties keep emerging through its interaction with
environment.
Hollistic view: systems theory focuses on the arrangement of and relations between the parts that
connect them into a whole.

ERIK ERICKSON’S- PSYCHOSOCIAL (DEVELOPMENT THEORY)

- describes the human life cycle as a series of 8 ego development stage from birth to death 
- each stage present a psychosocial crisis, the goal of which is to integrate psychological, maturation and
social demands 
- the result of 1 stage may not be permanent but can be changed by experience later in life.
- occurs a life long series of crises affected by social and cultural,social factors
- each psychosocial crises must be resolved for the child or adult to progress emotionally ,unsuccessful
resolution can leave the person emotionally disabled.
The stages that make up his theory are as follows:1
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year of age
and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is
based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.
At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything they
need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide
adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in
their life.
Outcomes
If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world.2 Caregivers who
are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children
under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.
During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers
provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that successful
development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens,
children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by some
wariness that danger may be present.
Subsequent work by researchers including John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth demonstrated the
importance of trust in forming healthy attachments during childhood and adulthood.
 
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood
and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
The Role of Independence
At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to
perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing
kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of
autonomy.2
Potty Training
The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over
physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children
develop this sense of autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's
reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily
functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include
gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.
Outcomes
Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of personal
control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure
results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Finding Balance
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left
with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy
and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within
reason and limits.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point in
psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through
directing play and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire
these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
Outcomes
The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin asserting
control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who
try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego
quality known as purpose emerges.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11.
Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and
abilities.
Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence,
while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Outcomes
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence
and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers
will doubt their abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known
as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an
essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and
development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity.
Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense
of self.
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.2 Those who
receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this
stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of
their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
What Is Identity?
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that
help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which
Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.
While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a
particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that
we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion
stage of psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information we
acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges
that can help or hinder the development of identity.
Why Identity Is Important
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures through our
lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions with others, and it is
this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong
relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early
adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.2
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people.
Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure.
Building On Earlier Stages
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense
of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that
those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to struggler
with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form
lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a
positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment,
while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who are
successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their
home and community.2 Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the
world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your
life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.2 At this
point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy with
the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.
Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the entire
lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment.
Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back on a
life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of
peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without
accomplishing the things they feel they should have.
Outcomes
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and may
experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing
this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals
will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
LAWRENCE KOHBERGY (MORAL DEVELOPMENT)
- involve acceptance of values & rules of society in a way that shapes behavior classified in a series of
levels & behaviors sequential but people do not automatically go from 1 stage or level to the next as
they mature.
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-
conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.

Level 1: Preconventional

Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children
accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-
conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is
right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may
bring.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example, an
action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the
punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever
the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in
the needs of others, only to the point where it might further the individual’s own interests. As a
result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my
back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his parents
to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by
giving him an allowance.

Level 2: Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their
belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules
and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is
seldom questioned.

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is
placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying
rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important. Moral reasoning in
stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person
violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and
rules. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly
dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Postconventional

Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more
abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be
changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate
entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles.
Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include
such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable
mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-
conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions,
their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at the pre-
conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level of
abstract moral reasoning.

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives
should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as
social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be
changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people. This is
achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is
theoretically based on stage five reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles.
Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as
equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a
commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical
principles they want to follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the
individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid
punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon.
Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who
consistently operated at that level.
 Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of
observing, modelling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of
others. Social learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors
interact to influence human learning and behavior.
In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning
theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two
important ideas:

1. Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.

2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of
observational learning.

Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways.

Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by
many influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV,
friends within their peer group and teachers at school. These models provide examples
of behavior to observe and imitate, e.g., masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social,
etc.
Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and their behavior.  At a later
time they may imitate (i.e., copy) the behavior they have observed.
They may do this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’ or not, but
there are a number of processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the
behavior that its society deems appropriate for its gender.
First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar
to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people of the
same gender.
Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either
reinforcement or punishment.  If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the
consequences are rewarding, the child is likely to continue performing the behavior. 
If a parent sees a little girl consoling her teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you are,”
this is rewarding for the child and makes it more likely that she will repeat the
behavior.  Her behavior has been reinforced (i.e., strengthened).
Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or negative. If a child
wants approval from parents or peers, this approval is an external reinforcement, but
feeling happy about being approved of is an internal reinforcement. A child will behave
in a way which it believes will earn approval because it desires approval.

Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the reinforcement offered
externally does not match with an individual's needs. Reinforcement can be positive or
negative, but the important factor is that it will usually lead to a change in a person's
behavior.
Third, the child will also take into account of what happens to other people when
deciding whether or not to copy someone’s actions. A person learns by observing the
consequences of another person’s (i.e., models) behavior, e.g., a younger sister
observing an older sister being rewarded for a particular behavior is more likely to
repeat that behavior herself. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.

This relates to an attachment to specific models that possess qualities seen as

rewarding. Children will have a number of models with whom they identify. These may
be people in their immediate world, such as parents or older siblings, or could be
fantasy characters or people in the media. The motivation to identify with a particular
model is that they have a quality which the individual would like to possess

Conventional Moral Reasoning - a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their
belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.
Equifinality - is the principle that in open systems a given end state can be reached by many potential
means.
General Systems Theory - is based on the assumption that there are universal principles of
organization, which hold for all systems, be they physical, chemical, biological, mental or social.
Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation - children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid
disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.
Hollistic-view systems theory - focuses on the arrangement of and relations between the parts that
connect them into a whole.
Instrumental Orientation - expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is
defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest.
Law-and-Order Orientation - the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their
importance in maintaining a functioning society.
Moral Development - involve acceptance of values & rules of society in a way that shapes behavior
classified in a series of levels & behaviors sequential but people do not automatically go from 1 stage or
level to the next as they mature.
Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation- focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid
being punished.
Postconventional Moral Reasoning - a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more
abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be
changed or eliminated.
Preconventional Moral Reasoning - Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of
morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as
parents and teachers.
Psychosocial Development Theory - describes the human life cycle as a series of 8 ego development
stage from birth to death. Each stage present a psychosocial crisis, the goal of which is to integrate
psychological, maturation and social demands.
Social-Contract Orientation - the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and
values..
Systems management - is the combination of four key elements processes, data, tools,
and organization, which are all needed to manage a system efficiently and effectively.
Theory of Change - s a specific type of methodology for planning, participation and evaluation that is
used in companies, philanthropy, not for profit and government sectors to promote social
change. Theory of change defines long term goals and then maps backward to identify necessary
precondition.
Transactional analysis - is a psychoanalytic theory and method of therapy wherein social transactions
are analyzed to determine the ego state of the patient whether parent-like, childlike, or adult-like as a
basis for understanding behavior.
Transactional leader -  someone who values order and structure.
Transactional leadership- depends on self motivated people who work well in a structure, directed
environment. 
Transactional- is something related to a process or other action.
Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation - moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using
universal ethical principles.

8 Stages of Development by Erik Erikson

https://youtu.be/aYCBdZLCDBQ
INTERPERSONAL THEORY - HARRY STACK SULLIVAN
https://youtu.be/-JHkQqYt2eI
Systems Theory of Organizations
https://youtu.be/1L1c-EKOY-w
General systems Theory
https://youtu.be/VSCjWT_nI_Q

1. Case Study:
Mary and Fred have one child and want to adopt a second. Since their first child's infancy had
been extremely difficult on Mary, she was excited at the possibility of adopting an older child,
perhaps a well-behaved, toilet-trained 3 year-old, and skipping the infancy period entirely.
Fred, on the other hand, had serious misgivings not knowing about the quality of care giving
and relationships in this child's early life.

In a 3 year-old's case, he felt that inadequate care and improper resolution of what Ericksonian
stage could lead to irreparable damage in later development? Explain.
2. Do you know anyone who demonstrates arrested development (someone who seems
immature, especially in relationships)? Are you able to maintain a friendship with that
person, or is the situation too stressful?

Aliigood Martha R, The Nursing Theorist and their Works,8th edition, Copyright 2014, Mosby

An outline of General Systems Theory. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy