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BUILDING MATERIALS

7 STRUCTURAL STEEL

1. INTRODUCTION

Building materials have an important role to play in this modern age of technology. Although
their most important use is in construction activities, no field of engineering is conceivable
without their use. Also, the building materials industry is an important contributor in our
national economy as its output governs both the rate and the quality of construction work

2. STEEL

2.1. Metals:
Metals are aiming the most useful building materials. They exist in nature as compounds
like oxides, carbonates, sulphides and phosphates and are known as ores. Metals are
derived from ores by removing the impurities. Those used for engineering purposes are
classified as ferrous metals, with iron as the main constituent, e.g. cast iron, wrought
iron and steel and others like aluminium, copper, zinc, lead and tin in which the main
constituent is not iron as non ferrous metals.
2.2. Iron:
Iron is by for the most important of the metals used in engineering construction. It is
available in abundance, but does not occur freely in nature. It is extracted from ores by
Heating the ores in the presence of a reducing agent will result in the formation of CO or
CO2, librated as a gas, and metallic iron
2.2.1. Types of iron after extraction:
A.Pig iron :
Composition:
Pig iron contains 3–4% carbon, 0.5–3.5% silicon, 0.5–2% manganese, 0.02–0.1%
sulphur and 0.03–1% Phosphorus.
Properties:
Pig iron is hard and brittle with fusion temperature of 1200°C and melts easily. It can be
hardened but cannot be tempered and magnetised. Its compressive strength is high but
is weak in tension and shear. Pig iron does not rust and cannot be riveted or welded.
Uses:
Pig iron is most suitable for making columns, base plates, door brackets, etc

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B.Cast iron:
Composition: cast iron contains about 2–4% of carbon in two forms, i.e., as the
compound cementite—in a state of chemical combination; and as free carbon—in a state
of mechanical mixture.
Properties:
Cast iron is hard and brittle. It can neither be riveted nor welded. It is strong in
compression (600 N/mm2 ) but weak in tension (150 N/mm2 ) and shear. Its specific
gravity is 7.50. It has low melting point (1200°C) and is affected by sea water. It cannot
be magnetized and is not suitable for forging.
Uses:
cast iron is the most used of the cast metals employed in engineering constructions and
machines. Some of the more common uses of cost iron are making ornamental castings
such as wall brackets, lamp posts; bathroom fittings such as cisterns, water pipes,
sewers, manhole covers, sanitary fittings.
It is used as basic material for manufacturing wrought iron and mild steel.
C.Wrought iron:
Composition:
Wrought iron considered to be pure iron, is produced by removing the impurities of cast
iron. The total impurities are limited to 0.5 per cent with a maximum percentage of carbon
as 0. 15, silicon 0.15–0.2%, Phosphorus 0.12–0.16%, sulphur 0.02–0.03% and
manganese 0.03–0.1%.
Properties:
Wrought iron is ductile, malleable, tough and moderately elastic. Its ultimate crushing
strength is 200 N/mm2 and ultimate tensile strength is 40 N/mm2.
The modulus of elasticity of wrought iron is 1.86 × 105 N/mm2 — The melting point of
wrought iron is 1500°C and sp. gr. about 7.80.
Uses:
Roof coverings, rivets, chains, ornamental iron works such as gates, etc. are made of
wrought iron.
2.3. STEEL: Steel is the most suitable building material among metallic materials. This is due
to a wide range and combination of physical and mechanical properties that steels can
have. By suitably controlling the carbon content, alloying elements and heat treatment,
a desired combination of hardness, ductility and strength can be obtained in steel.
As per as carbon content is concerned, steel forms anIntermediate stage between cast
iron and wrought iron. Cast ironContains carbon from 2 to 4 percent and wrought iron
contains 0.15Percent. In steel the carbon content varies from 0.25 to 1.5 percent.

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Type of steel Carbon content (%)

Dead mild steel < 0.15

Mild steel 0.15–0.3

Medium carbon steel 0.3–0.8

High carbon steel 0.8–1.5

or hard steel (> 1 is also called cast steel or tool steel

2.3.1. The prominent steel-making processes are:

1. Bessemer process
2. Cementation process
3. Crucible process
4. Open Hearth process
5. Electric Smelting process
6. Duplex process
7. Lintz and Donawitz (L.D.) process
2.3.2 Properties and uses:
A. Mild steel: Also known as low carbon or soft steel. It is ductile, malleable; tougher
and more elastic than wrought iron. Mild steel can be forged and welded, difficult to
temper and harden. It rusts quickly and can be permanently magnetised. The properties
are: Sp. gr. = 7.30, ultimate compressive and tensile strengths 800–1200N/mm2 and
600–800N/mm2 . Mild steel is used in the form of rolled sections, reinforcing bars, roof
coverings and sheet piles and in railway track.
B. High carbon steel: The carbon content in high carbon steel varies from 0.55 to
1.50%. It is also known as hard steel. It is tougher and more elastic than mild steel. It
can be forged and welded with difficulty. Its ultimate compressive and tensile strengths
are 1350 N/mm2 and 1400–2000 N/mm2 , respectively. Its Sp. gr. is 7.90. High carbon
steel is used for reinforcing cement concrete and prestressed concrete members. It can
take shocks and vibrations and is used for making tools and machine parts.
C. High Tensile Steel: The carbon content in high tensile steel is 0.6–0.8%,
manganese 0.6%, silicon 0.2%, sulphur 0.05% and phosphorus 0.05%. It is also known
as high strength steel and is essentially a medium carbon steel. The ultimate tensile
strength is of the order of 2000 N/mm2 and a minimum elongation of 10 per cent. High
Tensile steel is used in prestressed concrete construction
2.3.3 Properties of Steel:
The factors influencing the properties of steel are chemical composition, heat treatment,
and mechanical work.

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A.Chemical Composition:
The presence of carbon in steel gives high degree of hardness and strength. The addition
of carbon to iron decreases the malleability and ductility of the metal, and reduces its
permeability to magnetic forces.
The tensile strength of hot rolled steel bars is maximum between 1.0 and 1.2 per cent
carbon.
The ductility of steel decreases as the carbon content increases.
The resistance of steel to heavy shocks or blows decreases with increase of carbon
content.
B.Effect of principal impurities on steel:
It is not feasible to entirely remove impurities in making either iron or steel. The final
product always contains small percentages of the metallic impurities like silicon,
manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus besides iron and carbon.
In well made steel these impurities generally range between 0.2 and 1.0 per cent.
Of the common impurities, Phosphorus cannot be eliminated in the process of
manufacture, whereas most of the silicon and manganese are introduced to improve the
metal.
• Copper: increases resistance to corrosion when present in small percentage.
• Arsenic: has a tendency to raise the strength and brittleness.
• Non-Metallic Impurities: are mechanically suspended in the metal and are often
called slag inclusions causing brittleness.
C.Heat Treatment: The object of heat treatment is to develop desired properties in
steel.
A steel of given composition may be made soft, ductile and tough by one heat treatment,
and the same steel may be made relatively hard and strong by another. Heat treatment
affects the nature, amount, and character of the metallographic properties.
Some of the principle purposes of heat treatment are as follows:
1. To enhance properties such as strength, ductility, hardness and toughness.
2. To relieve internal stresses and strains.
3. To refine the grain.
4. To remove gases.
5. To normalize steel after heat treatment.
D.Hardening:
The objective of this treatment may be to secure a given hardness to a desired depth in
steel.
Fully hardened steel are not suitable for most commercial uses because they are hard
and brittle and have poor toughness.

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E.Tempering:
Since hardened steels do not usually have the combination of properties desired for
specific uses, modification is affected by tempering.
When a thick piece of steel is cooled rapidly it develops additional strains as the surface
cools quicker than the interior. To relieve this strain, steel is subjected to the process
tempering which consists in slowly heating the steel to a predetermined subcritical
temperature and then cooling it slowly.
F.Annealing:
It is a general term used for heating and slow cooling of metal, glass or any other
material, which has developed strain due to rapid cooling.
2.3.4 Rolled Steel Sections:
Structural steel can be rolled into various shapes and sizes in rolling mills. Usually sections
having larger moduli of section in proportion to their cross-sectional areas are preferred.
Steel sections are usually designated by their cross-sectional shapes. The shapes of the
rolled steel sections available today have been developed to meet structural needs.
Bureau of Indian Standards provides the dimensions, weights and geometrical properties
of various sections. Structural shapes are abbreviated by a certain system described in
the hand book for use in drawings, specifications and designs.
The types of rolled structural steel sections are as follows:
1. Rolled steel I-sections
2. Rolled steel channel sections
3. Rolled steel T-sections
4. Rolled steel angle-sections
5. Rolled steel tube-sections
6. Rolled steel bars
7. Rolled steel flats
8. Rolled steel plates
9. Rolled steel sheets
10. Rolled steel strip

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2.3.5. Reinforcing steel bars:

Cement concrete is one of the most versatile and established construction material
throughout the world. Concrete being extremely weak in tension requires reinforcement,
which is in variably steel. Steel reinforcement is available in the form of bars of specific
diameters with different chemical composition, e.g., mild steel and high tensile steel, and
surface characteristics— plain or deformed.
Good steel should not have carbon content of more than 0.25%, sulphur content of more
than 0.05% and phosphorus content of more than 0.05%. Effectiveness of concrete
reinforcement may be enhanced by the use of low-alloy steel, or by mechanical
strengthening, or by heat treatment. Mechanical strengthening of steel is done by
drawing, stretching, twisting; the yield point of steel rises by about 30%. Heat treatment
increases strength and improves mechanical properties of steel and effects 30 to 40%
savings on reinforcement. Steel bars can also be strengthened by cold drawing after
rolling. Mild steel has a definite yield point. Cold working increases the yield stress of mild
steel. Higher yield strength of reinforcing steel bars lowers the steel requirement and thus
the cost of reinforcement and its fixing is reduced.
2.3.6 Classification:
Steel for reinforcing bars can be classified according to its use. The earliest steel used for
construction purposes was plain mild steel bars, designated as Fe- 250 and so on.
High yield strength deformed bars (HYSD):
bars have lugs, ribs, or deformations on the surface , which inhibit longitudinal movement
of the bar relative to the surrounding concrete. Thus, the deformed surface ensures better
bond between reinforcement and concrete.
These bars do not have a definite yield point. HYSD bars result in a considerable increase
in yield, tensile and bond strength when twisted hot or cold. Cold twisted deformed (CTD)
bars are most suitable for building purposes and are widely used in India. CTD bars with
trademark TOR are called TOR-steel. Tor-steel is high strength deformed bars with high
yield and bond strength.

Thermo Mechanically Treated (TMT): bars are extra high strength reinforcing bars, which
eliminate any form of cold twisting. In this process, the steel bars receive a short intensive
cooling as they pass through a water cooling system after the last rolling mill stand.

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TMT steel exhibits a definite yield point. It can resist high temperature up to 500°C with
no loss of strength. These are more ductile compared to CTD bars. TMT bars possess
excellent bendability due to the unique feature of uniform elongation.
TMT bars have high percentage of uniform elongation—thus high formability.
These bars can be used for general concrete reinforcement in buildings, bridges and
various other concrete structures. They are highly recommended for use in high-rise
buildings because of the saving in steel due to the higher strength.
2.3.7 Rusting andCorrosion:
When steel is exposed to atmosphere, it is subjected to action of atmospheric agencies.
The humid air causes the rusting of steel (the formation of oxides on the surface of steel),
also the atmospheric conditions along with rain produces oxidation and corrosion.
Consequently, the physical and mechanical properties are affected.
To safeguard iron and steel from rusting and corrosion some of the prevalent methods
are enamelling; applying metal coatings – galvanizing, tin plating, electroplating; and
applying organic coatings – painting and coal tarring. Of these methods painting is the
most common. Enamelling consists in melting a flux on the surface of iron in muffle
furnace and then coating it with a second layer of more fusible glaze. Galvanising is the
process of coating iron with a thin film of zinc, whereas in tin plating a film of tin is coated.
2.3.8 Alloy Steel:
In general, the properties desired in a metal to be used as building material are not
present to the best advantage in any single metal. To develop specific properties a
combination of metals or metallic substances is done and are classed as alloys. Some of
the most common alloys, their properties and uses are given in Table
S.
Alloy steel Composition Properties Uses
NO.
Very hard and tough High
Stainless Ball bearings, dies,
1. Chromium 16% elastic and ultimate strength
steel crushing machines, razors.
Acid and rust proof
More elastic Higher tensile
strength Lesser brittle than Automobile and airplane
2. Nickle steel Nickel 3.5%
mild steel Improved parts
hardness and ductility
Nickel 30 – Low coefficient of thermal
3. Invar steel Delicate instruments
40% expansion

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High tensile and yield

High speed tools,
Vanadium Vanadium 0.1 – strength Resistance to
4. Locomotive castings, auto
steel 2% softening at high
parts, chassis
temperatures
Tungsten Tungsten 14 – High cutting hardness Drilling machines, high
5.
steel 20% Resistant to abrasion speed tools
Points and crossing in
Hard, tough and strong
Manganese Manganese 12 railways, rollers, jaws of
6. Difficult to machine high
steel – 15% crushers, Heavy earth and
electrical resistance
mining equipments
Molybdenum Molybdenum Maintains tensile strength at
7. Gears, axles, shafts.
steel 0.2 – 0.3% high temperatures
The important reasons for alloy additions are:
1. To increase the hardenability of steel. The steel in this group are usually heat treated
by quenching and tempering, for it is only this way that the added expanse of the alloys
can be justified through the better combination of properties that is obtained.
2. To strengthen the steel when it is to be used without special heat treatment. The steels
that fall in this category are designed specifically for constructional purposes.
3. To confer some special property such as machinability, corrosion resistance wear
resistance, etc.
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