The Physics of Fitness

Chapter Five
The Apex & The Base

The “Apex” is defined as the highest point in an arc, or - in the case of

resistance training - the point in the arc that is farthest away from the
source of resistance. The “Base” is defined as the lowest point in an
arc, or - in the case of resistance training - the point in the arc that is
closest to the source of resistance.

When a lever moves through an arc, it sometimes reaches either the

apex or the base - both of which are neutral positions because the
lever is then parallel with the direction of resistance.

Moving the lever (or limb) beyond the Apex or the Base - to the other
side of the Apex or Base - will result in a transition of the load from
one muscle, to its antagonist muscle - the muscle which moves that
same limb in the opposite direction.

Crossing over to the other side of the Apex or Base, during an

exercise, is usually counter-productive, for the purpose of muscular
development.

- - - - - -
Many of us remember seeing cartoons in our youth, where two or three characters
(“The Three Stooges”, for example), are struggling to push a heavy cart up a hill. When
they reach the top of the hill, they’re able to relax because the cart is at the “Apex” - a
neutral position. They would not be able to take a break when they were pushing the
cart up the hill (before reaching the top), because it would roll back over them if they
stop their upward push.

In this scenario, the “Stooges” pause while at the “Apex” (the neutral spot), wipe the
sweat from their brows, and congratulate each other for their successful effort. But

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then, suddenly one of them accidentally bumps the cart toward other side of the hill. The
cart begins rolling down that other side, with the “Stooges” chasing after it.

There is a profound lesson here.

Let’s say the Stooges were moving “north-bound”, as they were pushing the cart up
the hill. The upward force they were using was required because they were pushing
away from the downward pull of gravity. However, after the cart passed the Apex (i.e.,
the neutral point), to the other side of the hill, the cart no longer needed any “north-
bound” force, in order to continue moving in that north-bound direction. It would then
roll downhill on its own - pulled downward by gravity. Any attempt to slow down (or
reverse) its north-bound (but downhill) movement, would require force in a SOUTH-
bound direction…..toward the Apex.

This happens in resistance exercise as well. When the weight is on one side of the
Apex (or the Base), it requires force from one particular muscle. But when the weight
crosses over to other side of the Apex, the force-requirement shifts to the muscle that is
on the other side of that lever.

At this point in this book - as we progress through these various physics principles -
you’ll notice that each successive chapter dovetails with previous (or future) chapters.
They are separate principles, but they all interconnect.

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For example, in the previous chapter, we discussed the “resistance curve” and how it
relates to the Apex and the Base. Now, as we discuss the “transfer of load” which
occurs when a lever crosses over from one side of the Apex or Base, to the other side
of the Apex or a Base, we automatically invoke “Opposite Position Loading” (Chapter 8)
and “Reciprocal Innervation” (Chapter 11).

“Opposite Position Loading” refers to the fact that the resistance placed on a lever
always loads the muscle that is on the same plane as the direction of resistance, and
positioned directly opposite the pull of the loaded lever. “Reciprocal Innervation” refers
to the fact that one muscle OR the opposite (“antagonist”) muscle, can work at any
given time. Two opposing muscles (like Biceps and Triceps) cannot contract
simultaneously.

- - - - - -
Let’s examine more closely, this “transition of load” that occurs when a lever crosses
over to the opposite side of the Apex or the Base.

In the illustration above, we see a circle. In fact, what we are really looking at is four
separate arcs, plus a pivot in the center where the vertical and horizontal lines meet.
Two of the arcs are the left and right halves of the sphere. The other two arcs are the
upper and lower halves of the sphere. The horizontal line (“A”) represents the point at
which a lever is perpendicular with gravity, and where it would be “maximally active”.

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The black vertical arrows indicate the direction of resistance (gravity). Notice that the
horizontal line is perpendicular with those arrows, and the vertical line (“B”) is parallel
with those arrows.

When we lift weights, there is always a pivot - a place around which the anatomical
movement rotates. Once the pivot and the direction of the resistance have been
identified, we can then establish where the Base and the Apex are. Then, we can
decipher the sequential variations of resistance that occur when our “limb” (a forearm,
for example) travels on the left or right side of the circle, and on the upper half or the
lower half of the circle. We can also determine onto which muscle the load will transfer,
when that limb crosses over beyond the Apex or Base.

In the photos above, we see the first part of a demonstration which shows what occurs
when a limb is on the upper half of this sphere. In the photo above-left, the forearm is
at the Apex position, so it’s neutral. Therefore, neither the Biceps nor the Triceps are
loaded. The weight in my hand is balanced directly over the pivot (the elbow).

In the photo above-right, I’ve allowed the forearm to tilt to the left side of the upper
sphere. In doing so, the forearm has become an active lever, loading the muscle that is
on the “opposite side the lean”, which is the Biceps. When the forearm first departs
from the Apex position, it begins with very little resistance. However, as the forearm
enters into progressively more perpendicular angles with gravity, the load on the Biceps
increases. The forearm reaches its “maximally active” position, when it is 100%
perpendicular with gravity (horizontal).

(Note: Of course, this is not meant to be an actual Biceps exercise. It is only meant to illustrate
how the Resistance Curve functions on the upper half of the sphere. It also illustrates why a
movement like this would NOT be particular good exercise for the Biceps, as you shall soon
see.)

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Ideally, the Biceps should be able to go through its entire range of motion, with SOME
degree of resistance - from full extension to full contraction. However, this particular arc
only provides resistance through the first 60% of the Biceps’ ROM. The Biceps load
becomes neutral at the Apex, thereby leaving the other 40% (the final part of the range
of motion) without any opposing resistance.

In the photo below, the forearm has tilted to the right side of the upper sphere. In doing
so, it has crossed over to the other side of the Apex - thereby causing a transfer of the
load from the Biceps to the Triceps. In other words, Biceps force is no longer required
on this (right) side of the Apex, because the weight in the hand will now “fall” in that
direction - without any effort from the Biceps. On the right side of the Apex (when
viewed from this angle), only force from the Triceps can slow down, stop or reverse the
downward trajectory.

As was pointed out above, the Biceps would only be active for about half of its range of
motion. Likewise, when the load transfers to the Triceps - after crossing the Apex - the
Triceps would only be active for half of ITS range of motion. So, although some people
might think this is a “good” movement because it allows both the Triceps and the Biceps
to work - they do not work simultaneously, and neither muscle is worked very well
because they are each only getting half their normal range of motion.

- - - - - - - - - -
Let us now look at how the Resistance Curve operates on the lower half of the sphere.

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In the photo below-left, we see the forearm hanging straight down from the elbow. This
is similar to the standard “pendulum”. The forearm lever is now in the “Base” position.
It is neutral - “hanging” (without effort from the Biceps or Triceps) from its pivot (the
elbow).

In the photo above-right, I have tilted the forearm to the left side of the lower sphere,
thereby loading the Triceps. At this point, with the forearm about half way between the
Base and the position that is perpendicular with gravity (horizontal), the Triceps is
loaded with about 50% of the available resistance.

In the photo below, I have tilted the forearm to the right side of the lower sphere,
thereby loading the Biceps - which on the opposite side of the Triceps - because the
forearm has crossed over to the other side of the Base. Now, I am “pulling” the weight
(toward my shoulder), rather than “pushing” the weight. But again, neither the Biceps
nor the Triceps are getting resistance through their entire range of motion, and neither
the Biceps nor the Triceps is getting a optimally productive resistance curve.

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Of course, as is often the case when a person performs a Triceps Kickback, if the
forearm is allowed to simply DROP from the Triceps extended position (with the rate of
descent not being controlled by the Triceps), it causes the forearm to swing past the
Base by sheer momentum - thereby reducing the need for muscular force. Then, once
the forearm has reached the position closest to the shoulder, the weight is again
allowed to DROP, and swing the other way. This again relieves the Triceps of having to
generate as much (if any) force. Needless to say, this is unproductive and foolish. In
essence, the forearm simulates a playground “Swing” - moving more by momentum,
than by deliberate muscular force.

Notice that the tendency to “swing” (allowing the use of momentum) only occurs on the
bottom half of the sphere - when the lever crosses the Base. It does not happen on
the upper half of the sphere - when the lever crosses the Apex.

Also notice that - on the lower half of the sphere - the resistance increases as a weight
is moved upward from the Base to the horizontal line. But - on the upper half of the
sphere (shown below) - the resistance decreases when a weight is moved upward from
the horizontal line toward the Apex.

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In the exercise below (man doing a Bent Over Rear Dumbbell Raise for Posterior
Deltoids), we can more easily see how the upper arm levers are moving through the
lower half of the sphere. The movement starts at the Base and moves toward the
horizontal position. The resistance is increasing as the arms (levers) move upward
through this range of motion.

Let’s look again at the “sphere”. We can see the Pivot in the center; we can see the left
and right arcs; and we can see the upper and lower arcs. Now notice that each
“quadrant” is a point of transition - of one type or another.

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When a lever (i.e., limb) moves from the Base, up toward the horizontal line on the left,
the muscle moving that limb experiences an increasing resistance (figure A below).
But then, when the lever passes that “quadrant” (the horizontal line), the muscle
experiences a decreasing resistance, as the lever moves toward the Apex (figure B
below). That’s one transition.

Then, when that lever (limb) continues PAST the Apex (moving clockwise), another
transition occurs (figure C above). The muscle which caused that limb to rise up to
the Apex (on the left side of the sphere), would then NO longer be active once the lever
passes the Apex. Instead, the antagonist muscle - the muscle which controls that
lever in the opposite direction - becomes active, and controls the movement, in the
clockwise direction. That’s the second transition.

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This second muscle, which is now controlling the descent, experiences an increasing
resistance, until it reaches the horizontal line. But, once it crosses that horizontal line
(Figure “D”), the resistance begins decreasing. That’s the third transition. The fourth
transition would be when the lever passes the Base again, and starts the cycle anew -
utilizing the opposite muscle again.

- - - - - - - - - -
Application
When we work a muscle during an exercise, it is best to use a Resistance Curve that
provides resistance for that muscle throughout most (if not all) of its range of motion.
Ideally, it would be best for the exercise to have a Resistance Curve that is “Early Phase
Loaded” - providing more load to the target muscle in the beginning (during the first third
of the range of motion) and then progressively diminishing during the latter two-thirds of
the range of motion. This would match the strength curve of the muscle - challenging it
when it can best handle it, and easing off when it can least handle it.

Therefore, performing an exercise that causes the target muscle’s operating lever to
encounter the Base (or the Apex) midway through range of the motion, would drastically
compromises the benefits. What it means is that the muscle will only have an opposing
resistance for a fraction its full range of motion, and then the load will transition to the
muscle that is on the opposite side of that limb. Then, the opposing muscle will also
only be loaded for a fraction of its range of motion.

Consider the Triceps Kickback, below. Yes - that is Arnold Schwarzenegger in the
photo, which illustrates the degree of misinformation that has occurred over the last
century. Just because Arnold did this exercise, does not mean the exercise is bio-
mechanically “good”. Arnold, and many other successful bodybuilders, typically have
done (and still do) multiple exercises for each muscle group, mistakenly believing that
all of them contribute equally, or contribute something “different” to that muscle. This is
absolutely false, and will be further discussed in Chapter 17.

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In the photo above-left, I’ve place a vertical line, starting at his elbow (the pivot). As you
can see, his forearm has already crossed over to the left side of the Base - the side
where the Biceps would be activated, if “swinging” isn’t what brought it beyond the
Base. This slight activation of the Biceps, would completely shut off Triceps activation -
due to “Reciprocal Innervation” (which will be discussed in Chapter 11). Needless to
say, that would be very counterproductive, since the exercise is meant to be a Triceps
exercise.

During this exercise, when the elbow is bent at 90 degrees, the forearm lever is in the
neutral position (vertical) - which means the Triceps is not getting ANY load at that point,
even though that is the point in the range of motion where the Triceps is “strongest” (has
the most strength potential). Further, the Triceps is not getting ANY activation (nor load)
during the first third of its range of motion. That is arguably the most important part of a
muscle’s range of motion.

To repeat what I mentioned above, this exercise tends to encourage “swinging” the
weight (because the forearm is traveling through the lower half of the arc, and because
it’s crossing past the Base), which deprives the Triceps of having to work deliberately,
and further compromises the potential benefit.

To repeat what I mentioned above, this exercise tends to encourage “swinging” the
weight, which deprives the Triceps of having to work deliberately, and further
compromises the potential benefit.

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This illustrates the problem with selecting an exercise that has a Base in the middle of
the range of motion of your target muscle.

Note: There is another problem with the Triceps Kickback, unrelated to the Apex / Base issue.
The Posterior Deltoid is holding the upper arm in place - in that horizontal position. When the
elbow is bent, the Posterior Deltoid is loaded with an amount of weight that is produced by the
weight held in the hand, plus the magnification of the upper arm length. But when the arm is
straightened, the amount of load on the Posterior Deltoid doubles, because of the length of the
arm has doubled (i.e., the forearm acts as the secondary lever of the Posterior Deltoids). In
other words, the Posterior Deltoid gets more load during a Triceps Kickback, than the Triceps
does. But it’s not a good Posterior Deltoid exercise, because it’s entirely Isometric. This
exercise has a very high “cost” of effort, with very little reward.

- - - - - - - - - -
Another Example

Here’s an example of what happens when the forearm crosses over to the other side of
the Apex - instead of the Base. While doing an Overhead Triceps Extension, the
Triceps are loaded as long as the forearm stays on the left side of the Apex (when
viewed from this angle). When the forearm reaches the Apex, the Triceps is no longer
loaded because the forearm has reached the neutral position. Yet, the Triceps has not
completed its range of motion at that point, and the elbow has not yet fully straightened.
But, allowing the forearm to cross over to the other side of the Apex (in an effort to
complete the range of motion), transitions the load to a different muscle. At that point, it
would be the Anterior and Lateral Deltoids that would prevent the arms from falling
farther forward.

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The problem during this exercise begins with the fact that the upper arms are not
vertical. When the elbows are fully extended, the forearms and the upper arms always
form a continuous line. So, if the upper arms are slanting forward (as they are here),
the forearms will also slant forward when the elbows are fully extended.

Trying to position the upper arms vertically - while sitting at this angle - would be very
uncomfortable for the shoulder joint. One solution would be to allow the torso to be
more reclined (using an incline bench). This would allow the shoulders to be in a more
comfortable position, and yet still allow the upper arms to be vertical. This would then
allow the forearms to stay on the left side of the Apex (not going beyond the Apex),
when the elbows are fully straight.

Note: This exercise - the “Overhead Triceps Extension” - is not more beneficial than are Triceps
exercises that allow the arms to be down, alongside the torso. So the question of how to
perform this exercise without having the forearms cross beyond the Apex, yet still have the
humerus in a comfortable position, is academic. This will be further explained in Chapter 21.
This example, however, allows us to see what happens any time a lever (i.e., limb) crosses
beyond the Apex.

- - - - - - - - - -
How the Apex and / or Base Interact with a Secondary Lever
In the illustration below, we see a man performing a One Arm Dumbbell Row exercise.
In this exercise, his forearm acts as the secondary lever to his humerus. This is
because the weight must be held by hand, which is attached to the forearm. The
humerus is the primary lever for the Lats.

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The forearm must participate - even though the target muscles do not connect directly
to the forearm. The weight cannot be directly connected to (held by) the humerus.
Therefore, the forearm - as the secondary lever in this exercise - acts as a “connector”
between the weight and the humerus.

In the photo above, I’ve place a vertical line, starting at the elbow, to highlight where
the forearm should be (ideally), relative to the Base position. The Base is neutral, and -
ideally - the forearm should be maintained in the neutral position during this exercise.
Ideally, the forearm should be kept perfectly vertical throughout the entire movement.

Unfortunately, since we usually cannot see our forearm when we’re doing One Arm
Dumbbell Row, we may not be aware of whether or not the forearm is perfectly vertical
throughout the range of motion. People often tend to tilt their forearm forward (toward
their shoulder) when doing this exercise, because it makes the exercise seem easier. In
fact, this effectively shortens the upper-arm-lever, thereby reducing its magnification of
the weight being used. It also activates the Biceps a bit, but that is not nearly as
relevant as the fact that the goal of the exercise (to work the Lats) is compromised by
allowing the secondary lever to shorten the primary lever.

There is a little “trick” that can be applied here, however. Once you know that allowing
the forearm to cross over to the either side of the Base, transfers the load to the muscle
of the opposite side, you can correct any forearm tilt while during exercise. If you FEEL
fatigue in the Biceps (while doing this exercise), you can deliberately cause your
forearm to tilt “back” (toward your butt) instead, which will shut off the activation of the
Biceps. This will also extend the upper-arm-lever, rather than shortening it. This would
increase the magnification a bit, which would load the target muscle more, even with
less weight being used. Of course, this requires the ability to SENSE fatigue, in one
muscle or the other. Some people are better able to do this than others.

The same “adjustment” can be made during the exercise (below) - the One Arm Lat
Pull-In.

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If you feel fatigue in either the Biceps or the Triceps, while doing any exercise that is
intended for the Lats, it is an indication that you are failing to keep that lever (the
forearm) perfectly “neutral” - parallel with the direction of resistance. When doing One
Arm Lat Pull-Ins, the direction of resistance is the cable, not vertical “free weight”
gravity.

When we’re using a cable resistance, the Base is that which is parallel with the cable,
and closest to the pulley (“B” below). The Apex is directly opposite the Base - parallel
with the cable, but farthest from the pulley (“A” below). The elbow is the pivot. And,
what we previously called the “horizontal lines” are now whatever angle is perpendicular
with the cable. All the same rules of “transition of load” still apply.

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If you feel fatigue in your Biceps, when you perform this exercise, you need only tilt your
forearm (slightly) to the other side of the Base, and it will de-activate the Biceps.
Instead, it will activate the Triceps a bit - and you decide which (a bit of Biceps fatigue or
a bit of Triceps fatigue) facilitates the exercise better for you.

- - - - - - - - - -
Summary
In the previous chapter, we learned that the Base and the Apex are part of the
Resistance Curve.

In this chapter, we learned that when a loaded lever crosses over to the other side of
the Base or Apex, it results in a “transition of load” . This transition always shifts the
load directly to the muscle that is on opposite side of that lever.

For example, in the photos above, we see a woman in three positions. In the center
photo, her torso-lever is at the Apex - balanced directly over the pivot. In this case, her
torso is acting as the operating “lever” of her Obliques. In the vertical position, her torso
lever is neutral, and therefore neither of her Oblique muscles (right side nor left side)
are loaded.

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When she tilts her torso to her right side (photo above-left), the weight of her torso
loads the Oblique muscles (External and Internal Obliques) that are on the LEFT side of
her waistline. The rule that “whichever muscle is positioned directly opposite resistance,
will be most loaded” will be further discussed in Chapter 8. In this example, her left
Obliques are positioned on the opposite side of her right-leaning torso, so they are
loaded by the weight of her torso.

Then, when she tilts her torso to her left side (photo above-right) - crossing past the
Apex - the weight of her torso transfers to the Oblique muscles that are on the RIGHT
side of her waistline.

The two sides (right Obliques and Left Obliques) cannot both be loaded at the same
time, because each is the “agonist / antagonist” of the other. We’ll learn more about this
concept in Chapter 11.

This transition of load is typical of what happens whenever a loaded lever (i.e., limb)
crosses the Apex or the Base, during an exercise. Whenever this happens, the
questions we should ask ourselves are the following:

1. Am I aware that I am crossing the Apex (or Base) right now, and that the load
has shifted to the antagonist muscle?

2. Am I aware that this transition of load usually compromises

the benefit of this exercise, to my target muscle?

3. Is there a better way of achieving my objective of optimally loading the target

muscle?

The exercise above (Bodyweight Side-bends), is not an especially good exercise -

unless one’s objective is simply stretching the Obliques, and providing them with a
moderate resistance for only half their range of motion. If the objective is to really
“work” (to develop) the Oblique muscles, the above version of Side Bends is not
optimally productive.

The exercise below (Side Bends with Lateral Cable Resistance) shows the ideal
solution for eliminating the Apex that exists in the version above. By adding a cable
resistance that originates from the side (from an angle that is perpendicular to the
torso), we create a much better Resistance Curve.

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In this version, the vertical torso position is no longer “neutral”, because the downward
force of gravity is NOT the primary resistance source.

Here, I am loading my right Oblique muscles, using a left pulling resistance - and I am
providing resistance to my target muscle through its entire range of motion.

A similar situation occurs when we do Torso Rotation with a Cable - shown below.

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In the above scenario, the man is rotating his torso toward the right, against a left-
pulling resistance. This is the correct way of doing this exercise. The complete range
of motion of this exercise is from a fully rotated torso angling right, to a fully rotated
torso angling left, and a left-pulling cable resistance provides load through that entire
range.

The photo in the middle (above) is the mid-way point of the movement, and that is the
point where the greatest resistance will occur - in this scenario. That is the point where
the lever (his extended arms, acting as the secondary lever of the torso) meets
resistance (the cable) perpendicularly.

However, if the resistance were pulling straight forward (rather from the left side or the
left side), that center photo would be the neutral / Base position. If that was the case,
rotating to the left or to the right, from that center position, would only provide resistance
for HALF the range of motion, for each side’s Oblique muscle. It would also fail at
providing resistance for either side, at a critical point in the range of motion.

- - - - - - - - - -
If we were seated on a bench, with our torso perfectly upright (vertical), our torso would
be positioned at the Apex (photo below-left). It is neutral there, and balanced over the
pivot (which is our pelvis). If we tilt our torso to the posterior side of the Apex (below-
center), we load the abdominal muscles - because they are positioned on the opposite
side of the torso’s tilt. If we tilt our torso to the anterior (front) side of the Apex (below-
right), the load transitions to the opposite side of the torso - the Erector Spinae (“lower
back” muscles). The Erector spinae would then be the muscles that are positioned on
the opposite side of the torso’s tilt.

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The Apex and the Base are neutral positions, but they are also the point at which the
load transfers from the muscle that is on one side of the “limb”, to the opposing
muscle(s) on the opposite side of the limb.

Knowing when your operating lever is (or would be) at the Apex or Base, allows better
exercise selection, better form during certain exercises, and the ability to manipulate
exercises - by adjusting your body position or the direction of resistance - so as to get
maximum benefit.

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