The Physics of Fitness

Chapter Twenty-Five
Internal & External Obliques,
Transverse Abdominis
& Shoulder Rotators

The Obliques
The “Internal Obliques” and “External Obliques” are two sets of muscles located on
each side of our midsection. The External Obliques are the more superficial (closer to
the surface) of the two muscles. Only the External Obliques fibers are visible to an
observer, and only when the person’s body fat level is low enough (usually below 6%
body fat). The Internal Obliques lie beneath the External Obliques, and cannot be
seen by an observer, regardless of how lean the person is.

The primary anatomical function of the Obliques is lateral flexion of the spine (“side
bending”), and also torso rotation. These two movements would be parallel to the
direction of these muscle fibers, as well as torso movements that combine lateral and
rotational movements. The External and Internal Obliques work together,
simultaneously - each assisting the other.

The illustrations above show the origins and insertions of the External Obliques (above-
left) and the Internal Obliques (above-right), as also the direction of their fibers. Their
attachments are on the ribs, the Iliac Crest (sides of the pelvis), the Pubic bone (front /
center of the pelvis), and the fascia of the Rectus abdominis.

- - - - - - - - -
Development of the Obliques
When speaking about “physical fitness” or “physique development”, there is no benefit
in attempting to distinguish between the function of the External Obliques versus that of
the Internal Obliques, because they work together. So, to keep things simple, we’re
going to refer to these two muscles singularly - as “the Obliques” or the “Oblique
muscles”.

The Obliques have several overlapping functions - lateral torso flexion, torso rotation,
assisting the Abs in forward flexion, providing support for the internal organs and
assisting in breathing. However, the primary anatomical movement which best allows
us to visibly develop this muscle, is Lateral Torso Flexion, also known as “Side Bends”.

The Side Bend movement is the best way to “stretch” (elongate) and contract (flex) this
muscle. If we are competing in a bodybuilding competition - or otherwise displaying our
physique - we would bend our torso laterally, in order to fully flex our Obliques (shown
below). This muscle contraction can be felt between the side of the ribcage and the hip
bone on the lateral side of the pelvis. That is also where a Side Bend exercise typically
concludes its range of motion.
There are several versions of Side Bends - but each has a different degree of
productivity*, ranging from “mostly not productive” to “very productive”. We’ll review
each of them below, and see what makes the difference between the productive and the
unproductive versions.

(* Note: “productivity” - in this context - refers to the successful development of the Obliques
muscle. Side Bends do not reduce nor diminish body fat deposits that have accumulated in that
area. So, “productivity” does not refer to the loss of body fat in that area.)

- - - - - - - -
Below, we see a man performing a “standard” Side Bend, while holding a dumbbell in
his left hand. His other hand is on his head, although it doesn’t need to be there. It can
be on his waist, or just hanging straight down.

The “operating lever” of the Obliques is the torso itself, just like the operating lever of
the Biceps is the forearm. But instead of the elbow (i.e., the pivot for the Biceps), the
“pivot”, when working the Obliques, is the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae (i.e., middle
and lower spine / multi-pivotal). In these photos above, the man is attempting to work
the Obliques on his right side (arrow), because the load is coming from his left side.
We’ve already established that - ideally - the operating lever of a target muscle should
cross resistance perpendicularly, somewhere in the range of motion. But - as you can
see above - that does not happen in this version.

On the image of the man above left, I’ve placed a line on his torso to show that it’s
parallel to the arrow (pointing down from the dumbbell), which shows the direction of
resistance. Clearly, those two lines are not perpendicular to each other.

You might think that the torso (as a lever for the Obliques) is in the neutral position
(parallel to resistance), but actually the resistance is not “zero”. This is because the two
lines are not on the same plane (overlapping each other). However, they are fairly
close to each other, so the resistance that is loading his right Oblique not much greater
than zero.

In the image on the right, we see that the man has tilted his torso to his left by about 20
degrees from the vertical position. His torso is now a bit more perpendicular with
resistance, but it’s still far from being a fully “active” lever (100% perpendicular with
resistance). Since his torso is still mostly parallel with resistance, he’s only loading his
left Obliques with about 30% of the weight that is in his hand. The other 70% of the
weight he’s holding is essentially wasted, because it’s not loading his intended target
muscle (his left Obliques). This is extremely inefficient.

What’s needed is a better (more efficient) direction of resistance, as indicated in the

photos below.
In the photos above, I’ve placed an arrow showing what would be a better direction of
resistance. This resistance would be provided by a cable, coming from a pulley that is
set at about knee-height.

A left-lateral (from the left side) direction of resistance would load the right Obliques with
a significantly higher percentage of the weight being used, as compared with the
straight-down direction of resistance provided by a “free weight” dumbbell. This
translates to more load on his left Obliques, even if the same amount of weight is held in
both exercises.

In the photos above, I have set the pulley at about the height of my hip. This slightly
higher setting causes the resistance to pull on the torso-lever from a more perpendicular
angle, which loads the Obliques with a higher percentage of the load being used, than if
the pulley had been set at the level of my knee. The more perpendicular to the torso,
the higher the percentage of the load being used that loads the Obliques. As such, less
weight can be used while still optimally loading the Obliques.

(Note: You’ll need a slightly wider foot stance when you use a lateral resistance like this,
because if the stance is too narrow, the resistance will pull you off balance.)

The least efficient version of a Side Bend is holding two dumbbells simultaneously - one
in each hand (shown below). This was explained in Chapter 6. Doing this is like putting
the same amount of weight on each side of a balance scale - each side neutralizes the
other side. When Side Bends are (foolishly) done like this, the downward force loads
the Trapezius (both sides, although not enough to benefit them) and there is more
downward compression of the intervertebral discs of the spine (which increases spinal
injury risk), but the Obliques get no more opposing resistance than they would if no
weight (in either hand) were used at all.
When doing Cable Side Bends, with a lateral resistance, there is very little spinal
compression (almost zero spinal compression), and it does not load the Trapezius. This
translates to more of what you want (efficient loading of the Obliques) and less of what
you don’t want (spinal compression and Trapezius loading).

It is impossible to load both Obliques (left side and right side) simultaneously, because
they are agonist / antagonist to each other. Each side requires a direction of resistance
that comes from the opposite side. When working the right side, a left-lateral resistance
must be used. When working the left side, a right-lateral resistance must be used.

Range of Motion
The recommended “safe” range of motion for Lateral Torso (spinal) Flexion - as per
orthopedic / physical therapy guidelines - is 15 to 20 degrees. Compare this to the safe
range for Forward Flexion (40 to 60 degrees) and Backward Extension (20 to 35
degrees).

The spine has less lateral mobility, than it does forward or backward mobility. This is
worth noting. It is unwise to use an extreme range of motion when bending sideways.
More lateral stretch is not more productive, and only increases the risk of damaging one
or more intervertebral discs.

When doing Side Bends with resistance, there is more risk in bending too far toward
the resistance (the eccentric phase), than there is when bending away from the
resistance (the concentric phase).

If you excessively bend your torso toward the resistance (the eccentric phase), it is the
resistance that is pulling on your spine. This is called “passive stretch”, and it has a
much higher injury risk.

When you bend your torso away from the resistance (the concentric phase), it is your
Oblique muscle that produces that degree of bend, and the body naturally limits that.
This is demonstrated in other parts of our body. For example, Biceps force alone
cannot over bend your elbow. But an external force - like resistance provided by free
weights or a cable - can indeed over bend (over flex or over extend) a joint, or the spine.

So, the part of the range of motion that should be avoided - during Side Bends - is the
excessive stretch at the conclusion of the eccentric motion. It’s perfectly safe to utilize
the full range of motion on the contraction side, at the conclusion of the concentric
motion. I would recommend avoiding the first 20 to 30 degrees, on the stretch side. But
then take the range of motion all the way to full contraction, on the other side.

Also, I would recommend trying to bend your spine as a rounded “curve”, rather than
“jack-knifing” your spine only at the base. “Curving” the spine produces a very slight
lateral bend at each vertebrae. “Jack-knifing” places all of bend at just one place near
the Lumbar spine, and also fails to adequately engage the Obliques through its full
range of motion.

In the composite photo / illustration below, I show a “stiff spine” side bend - bending only
the base of the spine - on the left. On the right, I show the correct “curved spine” side
bend, which evenly distributes the movement through multiple vertebrae of the spine.
It’s common for people to lean sideways, while their spine is still straight. The spine is
not like an arm or a leg, which have only one pivot. The spine is multi-pivotal, like a
chain link. It is designed to bend at all its pivots, and the Obliques are meant to cause
the spine to move at multiple vertebrae.

- - - - - - - -

Other Exercises for Obliques?

The exercise below is another version of a Side Bend. The position of the torso is more
perpendicular to gravity, than that of the standing version. This is a reasonably good
substitute for the Standing Cable version. However, there are a couple minor problems
with this version.
The main problem is that it requires the use of “bodyweight” - actually, torso weight -
which is too much for most people from this angle.

When using a pulley, an appropriate resistance would be between 30 and 50 pounds.

The weight of the average torso is usually around 80 pounds. Using too much weight
on this movement - whether because body weight is being used, or because too much
weight was selected on the pulley machine - makes it difficult (possibly dangerous) to
produce that “curving” of the spine.

Thus, people tend to do this version above with a mostly straight spine, which is not
ideal. It’s especially risky in the stretch phase (above-left), because the spine is most
“active” (perpendicular with gravity) at that point. Forcing the vertebrae to bend laterally
while using excessive weight is not prudent. Adding additional weight to this version
(i.e., holding a dumbbell) is completely unnecessary, and potentially dangerous.

People tend to think that using a very heavy resistance on Side Bends will be more
conducive to dissipating the body fat that has accumulated around the waistline. That
reasoning is entirely incorrect. Nothing (other than liposuction) will selectively dissipate
body fat from the place of one’s choosing, and using heavier resistance won’t change
that fact.

The version shown above is also very uncomfortable. The feet must be crossed, in
order to “fit” into the small space that is typically provided on this type of bench. This
bench is not designed to be used this way. Also, the hip placement on the pad is
usually very uncomfortable, and the thighs are essentially squeezed together.

If no pulleys are available (for Standing Cable Side Bends), this version might be a
reasonably good alternative. But, if an adjustable pulley is available, Standing Cable
Side Bends is a much better choice. It provides a lateral pulling resistance, while
allowing you to stand more comfortably, and it allows you to use resistance level that is
comfortably challenging.

Side Planks
The exercise below - known as the “Side Plank” - is commonly seen in gyms. However,
its first of several demerits is that it’s an isometric exercise. We’ve already discussed
how isometric exercise (without movement) is significantly less productive than is
dynamic exercise (with movement). The second demerit is that it’s a body weight
exercise. For many people, “body weight resistance” is excessively difficult, and there
is no way of allowing you to select a lesser resistance. This is one of those exercises
people “hate”, and the reason is that it’s “all or nothing” - full body weight is the only
option. This degree of “difficult” is not necessary for good results.
In addition, there is also a significant strain on the shoulder joint. Approximately one
third of your bodyweight is loaded onto that left shoulder joint. It essentially forces the
humerus inward, against the Glenoid socket, with about 60 pounds of force (for a 180
pound person). A young, healthy shoulder joint might easily tolerate this. But an older,
arthritic or previously injured shoulder joint would NOT do well with this amount of
inward force.

Plus, there is also a significant amount of sideways force that is placed on the knee
closest to the ground - “trying” to bend the knee sideways. Approximately two-thirds of
your bodyweight is loaded onto the side of that foot, and then it’s magnified by the
length of the lower leg. That could be as much as 2,400 pounds (120 pounds of
bodyweight magnified by 20).

So, this exercise (Side Planks) has two demerits related to “productivity” - it’s isometric
and excessively heavy; plus two skeletal strains - the shoulder and the knee.

Compare that with performing Cable Side Bends, where you can select the resistance
based on your individual level of strength, there is dynamic movement, and there is no
shoulder or knee strain. One is clearly better than the other.

- - - - - - - -
Additional Comments About Side Bends & Obliques
Lateral Torso Flexion (Side Bends) is assisted by a muscle called the “Quadratus
Lumborum” - also known as the “QL” (shown below). It is a small muscle at the base of
the spine - one on each side of the spine. People often have pain in this area. This is
another reason why it’s not wise to force excessive stretch, or to use excessive
resistance, when doing Side Bends.

If you are experiencing lower back pain, and you are under the care of an orthopedic
doctor or a physical therapist, ask them if your particular condition allows you to do
“Lateral Spinal Flexion”, before you attempt to do Side Bends with resistance.

It may be necessary for you to abbreviate (shorten) the range of motion, or to use no
motion at all (“isometric”), if you have a condition / injury that precludes you from moving
your spine laterally. If that is the case, you could do an isometric version of the Side
Cable Raise, using that same lateral cable resistance, but without any motion. Just hold
the cable resistance, with your torso in a stationary position, for a count of 30 seconds.

Torso Rotation (shown below) is another movement that is produced primarily by the
Internal and External Obliques. From a functional standpoint, this is a good movement,
provided the direction of resistance is correct - it should be pulling in the opposite
direction as your concentric motion. There is no need to rotate your torso at an upward
angle, nor at a downward angle. Simply rotate horizontally, like you’re swinging a
baseball bat - but slowly and deliberately - without initiating momentum. Do not over-
rotate (excessively twist) your spine - especially on the eccentric phase. Try to stay in
the middle 80% of the range of motion of Torso Rotation.
The resistance curve of this exercise (above) can be easily varied, simply by adjusting
where you stand, in relation to the pulley. If you are standing with the pulley slightly
behind you (but still to the side), the resistance will feel “heavier” at the beginning of the
movement, and “lighter” at the end of the range of motion.

If you stand with the pulley slightly in front of you (but still to the side), the resistance will
feel lighter at the beginning of the movement, and heavier at the end of the range of
motion. This latter option is better, because it prevents over-rotation of the spine in the
early (stretch) position.

As mentioned, Torso Rotation (as an exercise) - performed with a moderate resistance -

is functionally useful. The strength gained from this movement can be applied to any
activity that requires a similar movement - like Golf, Baseball, Tennis and Martial Arts.
Unfortunately, this movement is not likely to produce much (if any) visible development
of the External Obliques. For this reason, it is not commonly used in physique
development.

- - - - - - - -
 Transverse Abdominis

The Transverse abdominis is located three layers down from the surface. It lies
beneath the Internal Obliques, which lie beneath the External Obliques (illustration
above-left). The two illustrations above-right (from the front and from the back) show
that the fibers of this muscle are mostly on our sides, running horizontally to the torso.
The Tranverse Abdominis originates on the Thoraco-lumbar fascia (on the lower back),
and connects to the fascia of the posterior Rectus abdominis (the sides of the Abs) and
also the Inguinal ligament (shown below-right).
This muscle mostly connects to and from fascia (connective tissue). It does not
connect very much from “bone to bone”, like most other skeletal muscles do. There are
some peripheral connections to boney areas, but since the fibers run horizontally, and
those horizontal connections are from fascia to fascia, it does not produce any actual
skeletal movement.

Rather, it acts as a sort of “girdle” for the abdomen and provides spinal support. It also
assists in breathing and participates in torso coordination - proprioceptively and
kinesthetically. In other words, it provides “feedback” to the brain, as relates to torso
position.

Because the “TVA” (Transverse abdominis) is three layers deep and cannot be seen,
one might wonder whether it’s worth exercising this muscle. However, it is one of the
muscles associated with “The Core”, along with the Rectus abdominis, the Obliques and
the Erector spinae. So, it does have some functional importance.

The Tranverse abdominis participates in activities that could be characterized as

“athletic”. It provides coordination during activities like Tennis, Volleyball, Basketball,
and Dancing, where the body moves spontaneously in a variety of directions. In fact,
performing activities like these help improve the TVA’s ability to provide the coordination
required for these activities.

There is one specific exercise, however, that can be used to directly strengthen this
muscle. It’s called an “Abdominal Vacuum”.

In this exercise, the abdomen is drawn inward (toward the spine) and held for a few
seconds. The best way to learn how to do this is by first lying on your back, on a floor
mat (below-left). It would be helpful to elevate your tailbone with a pad. Allow your
Lumbar spine to arch upward. Then exhale and - without inhaling - try to pull the
abdomen inward, toward your spine. The more you attempt this, the more your
coordination to do this will improve. A partial vacuum can be achieved without a full
exhale, but a full vacuum requires a full exhale.
Once you have mastered doing this while lying on your back, you can then attempt it
while standing. I suggest you place both hands on a shelf or other firm surface in front
of you, about the height of your chest. Gently push downward with your hands on the
shelf (which helps you lift your chest and arch your Lumbar spine), then draw your
abdomen inward - holding it for about 5 seconds. You may feel a muscle contraction in
your lower back, on each side of your spine. That’s the origin of the TVA, pulling the
front part of the abdomen towards the rear (arrow above-right).

The “Vacuum” can also be used as a pose on the bodybuilding stage. The bodybuilder
who is most famous for this particular pose is the great Frank Zane (3X Mr. Olympia
winner in 1977, ’78 and ’79), whose Vacuum pose is still considered iconic (below, far
left). The center photo is me at the age of 22, and the far right photo is me at the age of
54 - trying to emulate the man whose physique most inspired me when I first starting
training.
Practicing a Vacuum pose on a regular basis - either lying on the floor or while standing
- can help keep your that part of your core strong, your lower back supported, and helps
improve your ability to keep your abdomen from protruding.

As I’ve mentioned before, it’s virtually impossible to do a “vacuum” if your lower back is
not slightly arched (tailbone back). Yet, it’s common to hear trainers tell their clients to
pull their abdomen inward, while the client is doing Abdominal Crunches. Ab Crunches
require spinal flexion (tailbone under), which is the opposite spinal position.

It is impossible to contract the Rectus abdominis - to flex your Abs - while

simultaneously pulling your abdomen inward. They are mutually exclusive. Either you
contract your Abs with your tailbone tucked under (your spine rounded), or you pull your
abdomen inward (Vacuum) with your tailbone back (arched spine). But you cannot do
both at the same time.

- - - - - - - - - -
Shoulder Rotators
(also known as the “Rotator Cuff” muscles)

I left this group of muscles for last because they are not normally considered “physique
muscles”. Yet, understanding these muscles - when they participate, when they should
not participate, how and why they are so often injured during weight training - is
extremely important in the application of exercises used for physique development.

The four muscles that constitute the “Rotator Cuff” are the Supraspinatus, the
Infraspinatus, the Teres Minor and the Subscapularis. These muscles collectively
hold the humeral head in the Glenoid fossa (shoulder socket), and they rotate the
humerus internally (forward) and externally (posteriorly).

The illustration above-left, shows the perspective we would see if we were looking at
someone from the front, and could see through their chest cavity, at the front side of the
right scapula. The illustration above-right, shows the perspective we would see if we
were looking at someone from behind, and could see through their skin, at the back side
of their right scapula.
 - - - - - - - -
Supraspinatus
The Supraspinatus is a small muscle that runs along the top of the scapula. It
originates on the inside edge of the top of the scapula, and then passes under the
Acromion process, and attaches onto the upper / outer part of the humeral head.

Of the four Rotator Cuff muscles, this is the only one that does not participate in rotation
of the humerus. Rather, it mainly helps hold the humeral head in the Glenoid socket.
And, when it contracts, it pulls the upper outer part of the humeral head, inward. This
produces the first 10 degrees of lateral abduction of the humerus (shown below). This
action is assisted by the Lateral Deltoid, of course.
In the illustration below, we can see that the “Acromion” is a bony protrusion (part of
the scapula), which is situated just above the head of the humerus. You can also see
the end of the Supraspinatus, and its tendon, coming out from under the Acromion, and
attaching onto the top of the humeral head.
The illustration below shows an even better perspective of how the Acromion process is
positioned directly over the Supraspinatus tendon, like a guillotine waiting to clamp
down on that tendon, when the humerus is elevated too high. In other words, the
humerus should not often be elevated higher than the Acromion process, or else there
will be consequences.

One of the most common causes of shoulder pain is irritation or rupture of that
Supraspinatus tendon (below left). This is typically caused by repeatedly pinching it
between the humerus and the Acromion process. It’s called “Impingement
Syndrome” and it happens as a result of repeatedly raising the arms overhead.
The illustration above right (arrow) shows the Bursa, which is also vulnerable when the
arms are moved overhead with frequency. The purpose of the Bursa sac is to provide a
smooth pad between the humerus and the Acromion. It helps reduce the friction that
occurs when the humerus pushes against the Acromion. However, the Bursa is not
designed to withstand the frequency and the pressure that occurs when heavy
Overhead Presses are performed regularly. That type of abuse often leads to
“Subacromial Bursitis”.

In the illustration above, I’ve placed a horizontal line at the level of the Acromion
process. The curved arrow below that line indicates the limit of safe humeral
movement. The curved arrow above the horizontal line indicates the range of humeral
movement that is beyond perfectly safe. Moving the humerus beyond that point will
inevitably result in the Supraspinatus tendon and the Subacromial Bursa being
compressed. The higher the arm is raised, the more compression of the tendon and the
bursa that occurs.

Occasionally squeezing the Supraspinatus tendon and the Subacromial Bursa, as

happen sometimes during day to day activities, usually does not cause a problem.
However, squeezing this tendon and bursa repeatedly, with heavy weight bearing
downward, for months or years (as happens when various types of Overhead Presses
are performed regularly) could easily cause irritation, inflammation and/or rupture of the
tendon or bursa, or both.

As you can see, it’s very obvious how and why Overhead Presses can be injurious.
Frankly, it is truly perplexing how it is that the Fitness Industry - an agency charged with
the task of ensuring that exercise guidelines are keeping consumers safe - has failed to
inform all trainers who are seeking Trainer Certification that Overhead Presses should
be discouraged. It is also ironic that the Fitness Industry “warns” consumers (by way of
Personal Trainers) about other movements that are demonstrably not dangerous (like
Leg Extensions, and allowing the knees to go over the toes when Squatting), but then
fails to acknowledge the above-illustrated dangers of Overhead Presses, and fails to
discourage its use.

In addition to Overhead Presses not being entirely safe, it is not a necessary movement
for complete Deltoids development. Although the Deltoids do participate during an
Overhead Press movement, it is clearly not the best anatomical movement for the
Anterior Deltoids, Lateral Deltoids nor the Posterior Deltoids.

It is an unnatural movement (not consistent with the evolutionary design of the shoulder
anatomy) which was “grandfathered” into bodybuilding by former Powerlifters and
people who performed “strength exhibitions”, and it was naively embraced by early
bodybuilders who did not understand biomechanics in the late 1800s and early 1900s.

Those seeking optimal muscular development, while simultaneously seeking to maintain

the integrity of their shoulder joints, should be aware that Overhead Presses are very
inefficient for developing the Deltoids, and have a high probability of causing
Impingement Syndrome and/or Subacromial Bursitis. Overhead Presses can also injure
the Infraspinatus, as will now be explained.

- - - - - - - - - -
Infraspinatus
The Infraspinatus is the second-most vulnerable muscle of the Rotator Cuff group,
especially for bodybuilders and those who do traditional Weight Lifting.

This muscle covers a significant portion of the posterior side of the scapula. It
originates on the inside edge of the scapula (“A”, above). It then stretches across the
shoulder joint, wraps around the back side of the humeral head, and connects onto the
“greater tubercle” on the humeral head (“B” above).

Like all muscles, when this muscle contracts, it pulls its insertion point toward its origin.
So, in the illustration below, you can see that this would result in “external rotation of the
humerus”. It pulls the humerus around, “posteriorly”, rotating it toward the rear (below).
The exercise below (External Rotation of the Humerus / with elastic band) is typically
performed for the purpose of exercising and strengthening the Infraspinatus.

Although “external rotational of the humerus” can be isolated during an exercise like the
one above, contraction / activation of the Infraspinatus rarely occurs as an isolated
movement. It usually occurs in conjunction with a “backhand” type of action.

For example, in the photo below, we see that the tennis player’s (Roger Federer’s)
elbow is bent. This allows the forearm to act (potentially) as a rotational mechanism for
the upper arm. So, in this move, two motions could occur at the same time - a
backward swing with the upper arm (which engages the Posterior Deltoid) PLUS an
external rotation of the upper arm (which engages the Infraspinatus).
In this photo below, we see that Roger Federer’s elbow is nearly straight. This virtually
eliminates the possibility of engaging the Infraspinatus much, because now the forearm
is on the same plain as the upper arm. There is no rotational mechanism - with which
the humerus can be rotated - when the arm is straight.

Let’s look at a couple of examples of how you may be unintentionally - and dangerously
- engaging your Infraspinatus, even though you may be entirely unaware of it.
In the two photos above, we see a man doing Overhead Presses. Notice how he
inadvertently allows his forearms to tilt forward, during the motion. His forearms (when
viewed from the side) should be perfectly vertical, so as to not produce any rotational
force on his humerus. I have placed a vertical line (starting at his elbow) showing where
his forearms should be.

A forearm that is tilted forward (as is happening in the scenario above) acts like a
wrench handle, trying to rotate (twist) the humerus forward. Then, in order to prevent
the forearm from falling farther forward, the Infraspinatus must work very hard to resist
this forward rotation.

In the inset photo of the wrench, “A” represents the forward force caused by gravity,
trying to rotate the forearm forward. “B” represents the forced required by the
Infraspinatus, trying to resist that forward pull. The farther forward the forearm tilts
(away from the vertical / neutral position), the greater the percentage of load that is
shifted onto the Infraspinatus.

The exercise above is intended to work the larger Deltoid muscles, but it often ends up
loading and straining the Infraspinatus muscle as much - if not more - than the Deltoids.
The Infraspinatus is not nearly as large, nor as strong as are the Deltoids. Therefore,
this forward tilt of the forearm creates a significant risk of injuring the Infraspinatus.

It should be noted that this forward tilt of the forearm occurs frequently, and it happens
for two reasons. When a barbell is used, the person must move the barbell forward to
prevent hitting himself on the head. Plus, most people are unable to externally rotate
their upper arms enough to cause their forearms to be vertical.

Even when dumbbells are used (thereby eliminating the concern about hitting your head
with the bar), people’s forearms are STILL tilted forward, when doing Overhead Presses
- and even when doing Incline Presses or Flat Bench (Supine) Presses.

In the photo below, you can see how I’ve allowed my forearm to tilt forward. This
happens unintentionally, but when it does, it results in a forward rotation of the humerus,
against which the Infraspinatus must struggle to prevent. In the photo below, the black
arrow represents the forward pull of gravity on the forearm, trying to rotate the upper
arm forward, within the shoulder joint. The light blue arrow represents the effort of the
Infraspinatus, trying to rotate the humerus “externally” (backward), to prevent that
forward pull, or to bring the forearm back up to the vertical position.
When Improper Alignment Combines With Mechanical Disadvantage

The two examples above show how a forward tilt of the forearm, which often happens
unintentionally when doing Presses (Overhead, Incline or Flat Bench), causes the
forearm to act like a wrench on the humerus, twisting it forward inside the shoulder
socket. The Infraspinatus must then fight to prevent the humerus from rotating father
forward.

This was discussed briefly in Chapter 7 (“Alignment”). As you’ll recall, the direction of
resistance, the direction of anatomical motion, the origin and insertion of the target
muscle, must all be on the same plane. But, when the forearm tilts forward like this, the
alignment is disrupted, which causes a percentage of the weight that is being used to
shift onto other non-target muscles, and even onto some tendons. In the two cases
above, a percentage of that load shifts onto the Infraspinatus.

What makes this so dangerous is that - when the humerus is operating from a position
that is perpendicular to the torso (instead of alongside the torso) - the force which the
Infraspinatus must produce is enormous, due to Mechanical Disadvantage.

In the photo below, I’ve placed the image of an Infraspinatus (with scapula, etc.) on the
man’s left side. And I’ve placed a red line on his right side, showing where the
Infraspinatus originates on his right Scapula. Keep in mind that “muscles always pull
toward their origin”. So, let’s see what happens when the Infraspinatus tries to rotate
this man’s RIGHT humerus, while his humerus is perpendicular to his torso.
Imagine that this man is doing a press of some kind (a military press or a supine
dumbbell press), and that he has inadvertently allowed his RIGHT forearm to tilt forward
from the neutral position.

So as to prevent his humerus from rotating farther forward, his Infraspinatus must exert
an (opposite) “external rotation” force on his humerus - like that which is represented
by the arrow (“A”). However, the Infraspinatus can only pull FROM its point of origin,
which is located on the medial edge of his right Scapula (“C”).

Obviously, that rotating “A” arrow is NOT pointing toward the origin of the Infraspinatus
(“C”). The man is trying to rotate his humerus in the direction of “B” (because he’s trying
to prevent forward rotation), but his Infraspinatus cannot easily pull in the “B” direction,
because it is not located there.

Therefore, his Infraspinatus must generate an enormous amount of force, since most of
that force will be pulling in the “C” direction. Only about 10% of the force can be used in
the “B” direction. Because of this mechanical disadvantage, the Infraspinatus could
easily be overloaded, strained or torn - while you are doing Overhead Presses, or any
other type of press during which your forearm tilts forward.

By comparison, let’s look at what happens on the LEFT side of this body -
when the humerus is down alongside the torso. From this position, rotating the
humerus externally allows the Infraspinatus to pull directly toward its origin on the inner
edge of the scapula. Here, the Infraspinatus is able to pull on the humerus from a
Mechanical Advantage. All of its effort is utilized productively (in the same direction as
the desired direction of humeral rotation), so it doesn’t have to produce as much effort
to get the job done. This is much more efficient and creates little (if any) risk of injury.

Conversely, when the Infraspinatus tries to externally rotate the humerus, and the
humerus is perpendicular to the torso, the force required may be as much as 8 to 10
times more than when the arm is down alongside the torso.

How often does the forearm tend to tilt forward, during any kind of Presses (either
dumbbell or barbell)? It’s most likely to happen during Overhead Presses; a bit less
likely during Incline Presses; and a bit less likely during Flat Presses. It’s least likely to
happen during Decline Presses. It is more natural (easier) to internally rotate the
humerus, and less natural (more difficult) to externally rotate the humerus. The more an
exercise “requires” the humerus to be externally rotated, the higher the risk is.

In other words, the more we need to externally rotate the humerus - in order to
accommodate a particular exercise - the more strenuous it is for us to externally rotate
the humerus far enough. The farther we move away from the Decline angle of
Pressing (in terms of external humeral rotation), the farther we are from “normal
anatomical shoulder movement”.

The more upward the angle of the Pressing movement, the more difficult it is for the
humerus to accommodate that degree of external rotation. This causes many people to
unintentionally tilt their forearms forward (slight internal rotation of their humerus) -
mostly during Overhead presses, secondarily during Incline Presses, and thirdly during
Flat (supine) Presses.

I encourage you to observe people in the gym (from a side view), and you’ll notice this
for yourself. Any time you see a person (from the side) tilting their forearm forward
during any kind of Pressing movement, you can be assured that they are straining their
Infraspinatus - especially if they are using a heavy weight.

This is why the Infraspinatus is the second most vulnerable muscle of the Rotator Cuff,
during traditional “weight lifting”. Many people perform Incline Presses and Overhead
Presses (and sometimes Flat Presses) with a slightly forward-titling forearm, and this
greatly overloads (strains) the Infraspinatus.

When you consider the risk of straining the Infraspinatus during Overhead Presses,
plus the risks of Shoulder Impingement and Subacromial Bursitis which also occur when
doing Overhead Presses - you can understand how these risks must be factored into
the decision of whether to perform Overhead Pressing motions. This is especially true,
given the compromised benefits of Overhead Pressing exercises.

It should be no surprise that many people who routinely perform these lifts with heavy
weight often have achy shoulder joints and Rotator Cuff injuries. Many of the leading
bodybuilders from the 80s and 90s (and before, of course) have had shoulder surgeries
or shoulder replacement, due to this unnecessary abuse.

To those who have been lucky enough to have had shoulder injuries, despite doing
heavy Overhead Presses, I say this: Some people live their entire lifetime smoking
cigarettes, yet somehow never get lung cancer or heart disease. They are the
exception to the rule. That is not “proof” that cigarette smoking is “safe”. Overhead
Press exercises are like smoking cigarettes - a lot of risk, but not very productive. Both
are bad choices.

- - - - - - - -
Exercising the Infraspinatus
Having established that external rotation of the humerus with the arms down alongside
the torso, is the ideal movement for the Infraspinatus, the exercise below would
obviously not qualify as one of the better exercises for the Infraspinatus. Yet, we often
see people doing this in the gym.
Ironically, this person is risking injury while trying to strengthen - and therefore,
protect - his Infraspinatus. If this exercise is performed with a very light weight (like 2
or 3 pounds), the risk is low. But a better choice would be to do an exercise that allows
the Infraspinatus to work from a Mechanical Advantage - with the arms down alongside
the torso - using a slightly heavier weight.

Of course, if a person participates in a sport that requires this exact movement (shown
above), than it would be necessary for him to perform this exact exercise - provided the
weight he uses is not too heavy. Remember that angle produces a dramatically
increased force requirement, due to the Mechanical Disadvantage. For the average
fitness consumer, and the person pursuing physique development, the exercise above
is not the wisest way to strengthen or to develop the Infraspinatus.

The two exercises below are better options, because the humerus is held alongside the
torso while it’s being rotated. However, these two exercises are still not quite ideal.
Each can be improved by using a better direction of resistance, and by modifying the
range of motion.

In order to get a better understanding of what might be a better range of motion, and a
better resistance curve, let’s do a little experiment. Stand in front of a mirror, with your
right arm alongside your torso. Now, bend your right elbow to 90 degrees - as if you are
halfway into a Biceps Curl.

Now, ensuring that your elbow is held tightly against your side, allow your humerus to
rotate “internally”, as far as possible. You’ll find that you can easily bring your forearm
all the way IN, so that it touches your abdomen (“A”, below). Now, rotate your humerus
externally, as far as is comfortably possible, while keeping your elbow tightly against
your side. You’ll notice that you do not have the same degree of mobility rotating
“externally” (toward the outside), as you do “internally”. You may only be able to rotate
externally to the point where your forearm is pointing straight ahead, or barely 10 to 15
degrees past that “straight forward” point (“B”, below).

Most people who perform an “external humeral rotation” exercise, rotate their humerus
much farther than is safe and comfortable. You may also notice that rotating the
humerus farther to the outside requires you to move your elbow away from your side,
which then misrepresents your actual degree of shoulder mobility.

Performing an Infraspinatus exercise that incorporates the range motion shown above -
more toward the inside and less toward the outside - represents a normal, natural, safe
range of humeral rotation. Forcing the humerus to rotate farther out
(externally) than the range shown above - unless it’s completely comfortable -
is likely to cause irritation.

Here’s another irony. People who perform “shoulder rotation exercises” typically do so
because they are having shoulder pain. Someone (a trainer or physical therapist, or
maybe a magazine article) has recommended that they do an exercise like this,
ostensibly to “reduce” their shoulder pain. Then, they over-rotate (externally) their
humerus when performing the exercise, which further aggravates their shoulder pain.

When their shoulder pain persists, they fail to realize that the exercise they’ve been
doing (rather, the way they’ve been doing it) has been exacerbating their shoulder
problem. They simply assume their shoulder problem “has still not gone away”, and
then they proceed to their heavy Overhead Presses - entirely unaware of the multiple
reasons they’re having shoulder problems.

Many bodybuilders assume that developing shoulder pain is an unavoidable part of

“training hard”. They never question whether the exercises they’ve been doing are “bad
choices”, and are unaware that there are “better choices”. They’ve been lead to believe
that Overhead Presses, Incline Presses, Upright Rows, Parallel Bar Dips, etc., are all
“perfectly good exercises”, by people who are blind to the science of biomechanics.

Then, they think that by doing an “External Humeral Rotation” exercise, they will
magically resolve the shoulder problems that have been caused by doing multiple
“bad” (abusive) exercises, for years and years. Adding “insult to injury”, they then
perform the External Rotation exercise improperly, which likely makes the problem
worse.

- - - - - - - -
Now that you know the “ideal” range of motion for the Infraspinatus, let’s look for the
“ideal” direction of resistance, which will provide the ideal resistance curve.

In the exercise illustrated farther up - external rotation using the elastic band (“A”) -
we have two issues effecting the resistance curve. One is the direction of the
resistance - meaning, where the elastic band is anchored. The other is the fact that
using an elastic band causes the resistance to increase (become more difficult) the
farther the band is outstretched.

So, in that example, there are two factors that are causing the resistance to drastically
increase toward the end of the range of motion. But, the latter part of the Infraspinatus’
range of motion is where the muscle gets weaker (as per the standard resistance curve
of all skeletal muscles). Therefore, doing that particular exercise - as shown above -
would deprive the muscle of valuable resistance in the early phase (where it’s stronger),
and would then cause pain and irritation in the latter phase because the resistance is
increasing where the muscle is unable to handle that increase.

The other exercise illustrated above - the person lying on his side, using a dumbbell
(“B”) - is a slightly better version, but is still not good. Since he’s using free weight, he
does not have to deal with the increasing resistance of an elastic band, as he moves
though the range of motion. However, the resistance curve is still backward.

It’s “lightest” at the beginning of the range of motion (because his forearm is mostly
parallel with gravity at that point), but that’s where the Infraspinatus is strongest. It then
becomes “heaviest” when his forearm is perpendicular with gravity (parallel with the
ground), but by then the Infraspinatus is at the end of its range of motion, where it has
the least strength potential.

The ideal Infraspinatus exercise should provide the most resistance at the beginning
of the range of motion, and the least resistance at the end of the range of motion. This
is precisely what occurs with the exercise shown below.
In this exercise above, you can see that the forearm - in the starting position - is very
close to horizontal. That would make the forearm about 90% “active”, at that point. This
is good, because it means that the Infraspinatus is getting about 90% of the available
resistance, in the early phase of the range of motion - where it’s strongest.

Then, the forearm moves upward, and ultimately reaches the vertical position, as the
resistance progressively lessens to the point of becoming “neutral” (when the forearm is
vertical), precisely when the Infraspinatus is fully shortened and therefore, weakest.

Keep in mind that (in this exercise) the forearm is acting as the Secondary Lever to the
Humerus, and is being used as the “tool” for rotating the humerus. This is why we focus
our attention on the forearm - even though it’s the secondary lever. It is the only lever
that can be used to load the Infraspinatus.

When I do this exercise above (“Lying Supine External Humeral Rotation” w/dumbbell), I
start with a 3 pound dumbbell for 50 repetitions - first one arm, then the other arm. I
then move to a 5 pound dumbbell for 40 repetitions; then a 7 pound dumbbell for 30
reps, a 9 pound dumbbell for 20 reps, and a 12 pound dumbbell for 15 reps. That’s a
total of 5 sets, every four or five days.

Also, you’ll recall that when we were discussing the muscles of the “Upper
Back” (Chapter 19), we looked at this photo below, highlighting the Infraspinatus in red.
The Infraspinatus is the only muscle, of the four Rotator Cuff muscles, that is actually
visible in a “Back Double Biceps” pose. The other three Rotator Cuff muscles lie
beneath / behind other more superficial muscles and bones.
The exercise recommended above - “Lying Supine External Rotation w/Dumbbell” - is
not only good for shoulder joint integrity. It’s also good for physique display.

- - - - - - - - - -
Teres Minor

The Teres Minor is positioned alongside the Infraspinatus. Its origin is closer to the
outer (lateral) edge of the scapula, whereas the origin of the Infraspinatus is on the
inner (medial) edge of the Scapula. However, their insertion points are side-by-side, on
the humeral head. Like the Infraspinatus, the Teres minor is also an external rotator of
the humerus. However, it is obviously a smaller, weaker assistant to the Infraspinatus,
in that task.

Anytime the Infraspinatus is activated / loaded, the Teres minor (shown below-left)
participates as well. Since the Teres minor’s origin is slightly lower on the scapula than
that of the Infraspinatus, it is slightly better positioned to help rotate the humerus, when
the humerus is perpendicular to the torso. But, because it is small and can be easily
overwhelmed, it’s also more prone to injury, when that type of situation (forward titling
forearm during Overhead or Incline Presses) occurs.

The Teres major (shown above-right, alongside the Teres minor) is not considered part
of the Rotator Cuff group, because it plays very little role in humeral rotation. Notice
that its insertion is lower on the humerus, which gives it better leverage for pulling
downward / inward. It is mostly a humeral adductor - almost like a mini Latissimus -
but with much less strength potential that the Latissimus dorsi.

The attachment of the Teres major is on the front of the humeral shaft, and its origin is
on the posterior (back) side of the scapula. So, when it contracts, it does produce some
degree of internal humeral rotation. Therefore, it could be classified as an assistant to
the Subscapularis, whose primary function is internal rotation of the humerus.

- - - - - - - - - -
 Subscapularis

The illustration of the Subscapularis (above - far right) is a view from the front - as if we
could see through the chest cavity of a person’s right shoulder. It is the only “front view”
in this line-up. The illustrations of the other three Rotator Cuff muscles (to the left) are
“posterior views” (from the rear) of a person’s right shoulder.

The Subscapularis is on the anterior (front) side of the scapula. It originates on the
medial edge of the anterior wall of the scapula (small arrows below), and attaches onto
the Lesser Humeral Tuberosity (“B” arrow, below).

The illustration below shows how the Subscapularis is tucked between the anterior wall
of the scapula and the posterior side of the ribcage. In this view, you can also see how
this muscle’s attachment wraps around the front of the humeral head (“B”) - over the
Biceps tendon. When this muscle contracts, it pulls that outside edge of the humeral
head, forward - toward the origin of the Subscapularis. This rotates the humerus
“internally” - toward the front.
Also on the illustration above, you can see the Supraspinatus tendon (“A”), as it comes
out from under the Acromion, and attaches onto the top portion of the humeral head.
The other two Rotator Cuff muscles (Infraspinatus and Teres minor) would not be visible
from this view, because they are both on the back side of the scapula.

The illustration above is an overhead view, showing how the Subscapularis muscle
originates on the medial edge of the anterior wall of the Scapula, and then attaching
onto the front of the humeral head. I’ve placed a curved arrow in front of the shoulder
joint, showing the action that occurs when the Subscapularis contracts - internally
rotating the humerus, as the Subscapularis pulls its insertion toward its origin.

Just as happens with the Infraspinatus (but in the opposite direction), rotation of the
humerus occurs most naturally when the upper arm is down alongside the torso. In the
illustration below, you can see that rotating the humerus when it’s in this position, allows
the Subscapularis to pull from a Mechanical Advantage.
Conversely, we cause our Subscapularis to pull from a Mechanical DIS-advantage
when the upper arm is perpendicular to the torso. Just as happens with external
humeral rotation, when internal humeral rotation is performed, while the upper arm is
held away from the side of the torso, the Subscapularis must pull with significantly more
force. Arm wrestling (below) is one example of this. There is a very high degree of
injury risk that occurs when great force is exerted in this way (internal rotation of the
humerus while in mechanical disadvantage / humerus horizontal to the torso).
The photo of the tennis player below (Novak Djokovic) shows another example of this,
although this move has a much lower risk of injury, as compared with Arm Wrestling.
Hitting the ball forward - with a bent elbow - creates a sudden external rotational force
on the humerus, against which the Subscapularis must brace. Concentric contraction of
the Subscapularis then produces a forward thrust of the forearm, which propels the
racket forward.

In the photos below, we see two baseball pitchers in the early part of a forward throw.
This is forceful activation of the Subscapularis in “forward humeral rotation”. Baseball
pitching requires a significant amount of force by the Subscapularis, because of the
Mechanical DIS-advantage of having the humerus perpendicular to the torso. There is
also an extreme degree of external (backward) rotation of the humerus in the “wind-up”,
with which the pitch begins. This greatly exacerbates the Mechanical DIS-advantage,
as well as the strain, placed on the Subscapularis.
In day to day activities, we engage the Subscapularis anytime we squeeze our hands
together with our elbows are bent, as we would when picking up a heavy box (below). If
we are unable to “hook” the box - by grabbing handles or clutching the lower edges of
the box - we must squeeze our hands against the sides of the box, which requires force
from the Subscapularis. The more bent the elbows are, the more engaged the
Subscapularis is. If the arms are straight, there is very little engagement by the
Subscapularis.
This is why we usually prefer grabbing a box by putting our hands under it, or grabbing
it by a handle or strap, which would reduce the need to engage the Subscapularis. The
heavier the box, the more inward force we would have to use to keep the box from
slipping. The more inward force we must use, the more we load the Subscapularis,
which is not an especially strong muscle.

The Subscapularis only engages when our elbows are bent, and an inward or frontward
force is applied. And, most of the time, when we engage the Subscapularis, we also
engage the Pectorals.

The Subscapularis is obviously never be visible. The rationale for working this muscle
would be strictly functional - to maintain the strength and integrity of the shoulder joint,
and also for sports that specifically involve forceful inward rotation of the humerus. This
would include most “throwing” sports.

The exercise illustrated below (overhead view) is good for strengthening the
Subscapularis - although using a cable would be better than using an elastic band.
Notice that the movement starts with the forearm pointing straight forward (“A”). There
is no need to begin with a more external rotation. Doing so would increase the risk of
straining the shoulder joint, and would not add any significant advantage. Even
stretching the joint beyond this point - without resistance - would have questionable
merit.

Notice that the direction of resistance (indicated by the straight arrow pointing to the
right) is lateral to the torso (originates from the side). This allows the forearm to be
perpendicular with that direction of resistance at the beginning of the movement -
providing “early phase loading”. Then, at the conclusion of the movement (“B”), the
forearm is parallel with the elastic band. This results in the Subscapularis experiencing
a lesser resistance as the it enters the weaker part of its range of motion. Thus, the
resistance curve of this exercise matches the strength curve of the muscle.

The resistance curve can also be altered, simply by stepping slightly backward (but still
facing the same direction). This would place the origin of the resistance slightly more in
front of you (although still to the side). This would cause the resistance to be a little bit
less at the beginning of the range of motion (“A”), and a little bit more at the end of the
range of motion (“B”).

Using a cable (instead of an elastic band) would be better - with the pulley set to about
the height of your elbow, when standing alongside the pulley. This would provide
alignment between the direction of resistance and the direction of movement. Select a
weight that allows approximately 20 or 30 repetitions, with a moderate amount of
challenge. An elastic band is acceptable, but is less ideal. It would still provide some
degree of benefit, although the fact that the resistance increases as the band stretches
is not ideal.