Culture (in an Anthropological
Perspective)
 Is a complex whole which
encompasses beliefs, practices,
values, attitudes, laws norms,
artefacts, symbols, knowledge, and
everything that a person learns and
shares as a member of society (E.B.
Tylor).
Elements of Culture
Enculturation- A diffusion of one’s culture
to another through diverse means, namely
learning, imposition by force, and conquest,
among others.
Enculturation leads to:
Identity formation- the formation of the
identity of an individual through his interaction
with other people.
ex. Chinese foods and traditions. Korean
language and culture
Beliefs- the conceptions and ideas of man
regarding his environment.
Symbols- anything that has meaning and
represents something else (Kendall, 2013)
Language- a set of symbols that expresses
ideas which enables people to formulate
thoughts and communicate with one another.
Values- a sum of all ideas and concepts that
is desirable in a particular culture.
Norms- a concrete set of rules and standards
to be observed by man in his cultural setting.
Law- a rule or policy that governs the conduct
of men which is mostly enacted by a
sovereign power
Norms
 are culturally determined rules that
guide people regarding what’s right,
wrong proper, or improper.
 It creates predictability in daily affairs
and interactions, making it easier to
live with other members of societies.
o Wearing decent clothes for
specific events or occasions.
 not laughing when
someone commits
mistake.
Values
 Are experimented by a particular
society to check its relevance and
appropriateness to existing norms and
laws.
 Are created and shaped in the
community through time.
Status
 is any position that an individual can
occupy in society. It is not a ranked
position, but simply label that implies
certain roles that must be performed.
o Ex. Being a singer, a student,
and an artist at the same time.
2 Types of Status
Ascribed: it is given at birth, or
assigned later in life.
Ex. Age, sex, ethnicity, and
membership in a family.
Achieved: It is acquired willfully and
consciously through effort, talent,
decisions, and accomplishments.
Ex. Being someone’s girlfriend
/boyfriend, being atop student, etc.

Aspects of Culture
Culture is Learned
Enculturation- the process of learning the
accepted norms and values of the culture or
society where the individual lives.
Culture is Shared- it is not something that an
individual alone can possess.
Culture is Cumulative- based on the
knowledge and understanding gained from
specific experiences.
Culture is Dynamic- It exists as a continuous
process.
Culture is Diverse- It varies from society to
society.
Culture is Communicated- it is communicated
from one generation to another through
language.
Culture (in a Sociological
Perspective)
1. Mainstream Culture - Includes the cultural
patterns that are broadly in line with a
society’s cultural ideas and values.
A. Low Culture (Pop Culture)- includes
the cultural behaviors and ideas that
are popular with most people in a
society.
B. High Culture- refers to cultural
patterns that distinguish society’s elite.
2. Subculture - Refers to the cultural patterns
that seta part a segment of a society’s
population.
3. Counter-culture - pushes back on
mainstream culture in an attempt to change
how society functions.
-ex. Feminism, LGBTQI Rights
Ethnocentrism
 seeing one culture as superior than
the other.
 the practice of judging one culture by
the standards of another.
o It encourages the solidarity of
a group in a negative way.
o It hinders the understanding or
the cooperation between
groups.
o It leads to cultural conflict.
Xenocentrism
 It is characterized by a strong belief
that one’s own culture(products, style,
or ideas) is inferior to those which
originate elsewhere.
o Ex. Filipino’s preference for
imported goods because
anything abroad is
better(Balikbayan Box).
Xenophobia
 It is the fear of what is perceived as
foreign or strange. It may include:
a. The fear of losing identity
b. Suspicion of the other group’s
activities
c. Aggression
d. The desire to eliminate the
presence of the other group to secure
a presumed purity.
Multiculturalism (Cultural
Relativism)
 recognizes cultural diversity while
advocating for equal standing for all
cultural traditions.
 Appreciation of other cultures may
come from two reasons:
a. Acquisition of sufficient
knowledge about other culture.
 b. Direct exposure to other
cultures.
PERSONALITY IN THE
PHILIPPINE CONTEXT
PERSONALITY
 It is the sum total of behaviors,
attitude, beliefs, and values that are
characteristics of an individual.
FACTORS IN PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
1. Hereditary- Characteristics that are present
at birth, such as body of build, hair type, eye
color, and skin pigmentation.
2. Birth Order- The order in which we are born
into our families also influence our
personalities.
3. Parental Characteristics- Personality
development in children is also influenced by
the characteristics of the parents.
4. The Cultural Environment- Cultural
environment determines the basic types of
personality traits of a person.
THE FILIPINO CONCEPT OF
PERSONALITY
1. “Bahala na” Attitude- The Bahala na trait
or the equivalent of the Spanish QueSera
Sera became a defense mechanism for
Filipinos, to preserve mental balance and
mitigate the adverse effects of their failures.
2. Hospitable and Peaceful Filipinos-
consider it a privilege to be able to offer help
and friendship to all foreigners, including their
former colonial masters.
3. Religiosity- Filipinos have strong beliefs
about their religion and these beliefs are
stronger, than more urbanized the area.4.
Loyalty and grateful Filipinos are loyal and
grateful to friends who are good and ever
reliable in both good times and in adversity.
Filipinos are ever grateful to their benefactors
and their utangna loob.
5. Adaptability and Resiliency- Filipinos
can integrate in any culture and can cope in
any climate.
6. Respect for Elders- A character trait that
has remains a customary law among Filipinos
respect for elders. Respect for elders includes
respect for the authority of elder brothers and
sisters.
DEVIANCE
 is a violation of established contextual,
cultural, or social norms, whether
folkways, mores, or codified law.
 Anything that deviates from what
people generally accepts as normal.
Types of Deviant Activities
1. Crime
- the violation of formally enacted laws
- -also known as FORMAL DEVIANCE
ex. Robbery, theft, rape, murder, and
assault
2. Violations of informal social norms
- violation of norms that have not been
codified into laws
- also refers to as INFORMAL
DEVIANCE
ex. Wearing revealing clothes, doing
inappropriate behaviors.
FORMAL SANCTIONING OF DEVIANCE
occurs when norms are codified into law, and
violation almost always result in negative
sanctions from justice system. Ex. The police,
the courts, the prison system

DEGREES OF DEVIANCE
PRIMARY DEVIANCE- It is the occasional
violation of norms. Individuals who commit act
of primary deviance do not see themselves as
deviant and neither does society.
SECONDARY DEVIANCE- It refers to
deviance as a lifestyle and results in the
individual being labeled as deviant and
believing that label.
Three main forms of Social
Sanction for Deviance:
1.Legal sanction
2.Stigmatization(ostracization)
3.Preference for one behavior over another.
Sociological Perspectives on
Deviance
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVES
- It is a natural part of the society.
- Deviance results from the strain of
goals incompatible with the available
means of achieving them.
- According to Strain Theory, deviance
is a natural growth of the values,
norms, and the structure of society.
FIVE TYPES OF DEVIANCE
CONFORMIST- It accepts the society’s goals
and the socially acceptable means of
achieving them.
INNOVATION- It is a response due to strain
generated by our culture’s emphasis on
wealth and the lack of opportunities.
RITUALISM- It rejects the society’s goals but
accepts society’s institutionalized means.
RETREATISM- It is the rejection of both
cultural goals and means, letting the person in
question “drop out.“
REBELLION- Similar to retreatism but they go
one step further to a “counterculture” that
supports other social order.
CONFLICT PERSPECTIVES
- Deviance is a result of competition
and social inequality.
- People without power commit deviant
acts to obtain economic rewards or to
improve their low self-esteem and stop
feeling powerless.
- The ruling classes label as deviant
any behavior that threatens their
power.
INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
- Interaction among individuals
influences deviance.
- Control theory suggests that strong
bonds make people conform to norms
and refrain from deviance.
- Cultural transmission theory proposes
that deviance is a learned behavior.
- Labeling theory examines how
individuals are identified as deviant.
1. CONTROL THEORY
- Control theory explains deviance
as a natural occurrence.
- It is interested in why people
conform rather than in the causes
of deviance.
According to Travis Hirschi, a leading control
theorist, people develop bonds to their
communities in four ways:

a. FIRST. They form attachments with

others- parents, teachers, and friends-
who accept the norms of society.

b. SECOND. They have a strong belief in

society’s moral codes, accepting that
some behavior is simply wrong.

c. THIRD. They show commitment to

traditional societal values and goals,
such as getting a good education or
job.

d. FINALLY. They are fully involved in

nondeviant activities, leaving no time
for deviant behavior.

2. CULTURAL TRANSMISSION
THEORY

- Socialization is also central to cultural

transmission theory.

- It explains deviance as a behavior

learned in much the same way that
nondeviant behavior is learned
through interaction with others.

3. LABELING THEORY

- It focuses on how individuals come to

be identified as deviant.

- It believes in the idea that all people

commit deviant acts, yet not everyone
is labeled as deviant.

Economy Institution
 Economy is a social institution that
organizes the production, distribution
and consumption of goods, and
services are the resources that
individual, groups, organizations and
nations need to survive (Hughes &
Kroehler, 2009)
 Thus, economic institution is any
establishment whose activities have
bearing of society, whether these
institutions are business or not.
 It also refers to a network of
commercial organizations (such as
manufacturers, producers,
wholesalers, retailers, and buyers)
who generate, distribute, and
purchase goods and services).
HOW ARE ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS
FORMED?
Institutions are developed in two ways:
š informally through repeated
interactions between individuals or
organizations that establish expected
norms of behavior;
š formally through deliberate design. In
the latter case, it might be an initiative
from private enterprise or civil society.
Difference between DISTRIBUTION
and EXCHANGE
The movement of resources or goods from
where they are found or produced to where
they will be used is referred to as distribution
(Crapo, 2002). While transfer of goods
between individuals or groups is termed as
exchange.
1. Reciprocity
 Refers to the voluntary giving or taking
of objects without the use of money in
the hopes that, in the future, they
could be given back.
 Reciprocity could take the form of
barter, hospitality, gift-giving, and
sharing.
2. Transfer
 Also called “government transfer” or
“transfer payments,” transfers are a
redistribution of wealth and income
where no goods or services are being
given to the donor in return.
 Among state societies, transfers are
required payments that could take
form through the collection of taxes,
social services, pensions, housing,
and healthcare.
 Among the different allocations of
transfer payments, governments
usually give priority to retirement and
disability benefits, medical benefits,
unemployment insurance, and
education and training.
3. Redistribution
 It occurs when individuals’ goods or
services are pooled together by a
central authority to be used at a later
time.
 The central authority may refer to a
regional collection point, a storehouse,
or the national capital.
 Note that the main difference between
redistribution and reciprocity is that the
latter refers to an exchange where
goods are passed back and forth from
one group to another.
4. Market Transactions
A market, in economic terms, refers to a
bigger setting where buyers or sellers
simultaneously trade or exchange goods or
services. Markets could imply a global setting
where states engage in market transactions to
exchange goods or services.
Thus, all forms of market exchange would
require the following:
1. a medium of exchange,
2. a rate at which products are
exchanged for money,
3. and parties who are involved in the
exchange
5. Markets and States
 The state contains mechanisms
that are essential to the existence
of markets themselves, and these
mechanisms are not “natural”
given.
 Economies are actually
institutional production systems
wherein the material density of the
state both as organization and
administration is of relevance.
 States need to foster economic
growth to provide a good standard
of living to its citizens.
 At the same time, markets exist
because of the economic activities
done by the state.
Types of State According to
Market Roles
1. Laissez – faire State  effects on the lives of the citizens in a
- Laissez-faire is derived from French
words that mean “to leave alone.”  combination of these types.
- According to the principle of laissez-
faire, the economy functions best
when the government does not
intervene through regulations,
subsidies, privileges, and other types
of intervention. 
- The laissez-faire state, therefore,
completely does not have any role in
managing the market.
2. Interventionist or Developmental State
- a state that intervenes in the market
and sets the direction and pace of
economic development.
- To bring about economic
development, developmental states
implement policies, such as subsidies,
protection of tariffs and local
industries, and prioritization of some
industries over others.
- the state and the market are closely
intertwined, and their relationship is
managed by a special bureau or
department that coordinates the
developmental efforts of the state on
the economy.
3. Welfare State
- The welfare state is one that plays an
important role in the achievement and
protection of the economic and social
well-being of its citizens.
- In contrast to the developmental state,
the welfare state’s involvement is
aimed at achieving a good quality of
life for the citizens, rather than merely
driving economic development.
- Examples of programs of the welfare
state are the provision of health
services, low-cost housing, and basic
education.
- Within the welfare state, the
government itself is not the only actor
tasked with providing welfare.
Businesses and organizations may
also contribute to providing welfare
services.
- Various forms of state-market
relationships can bring about different
country. Some states are a
WHAT ARE NON-STATE
INSTITUTIONS?
- These are groups and organizations
which operate outside the support of
any state or government. 
- Referred to be ‘stateless’ since they
are considered to be independent of
any state, although, they usually
collaborate with the government in
implementing projects.
 - Non-state institutions assume different
functions and focus on a specific
objective.
- In general, they develop certain
services needed by members of the
society for their progress.
EXAMPLES OF NON-STATE
INSTITUTIONS
1. Banks and Corporations
Bank is a financial institution licensed to
provide several financial services to different
types of customers.
Banks typically offer a variety of services to
assist individuals in managing their finances,
including:
- Checking accounts
- Savings accounts
- Debit & credit cards
- Insurance
- Wealth management
- A corporation is an organization,
created by a group of people known
as shareholders, which is legally
recognized to act as a single person in
carrying out certain goals and
objectives.
Types of Corporations
1. Business corporation is created to
operate and to generate profit.
Companies like McDonald’s and
Starbucks are examples of a business
corporation.
2. Non-profit corporation is established
with a purpose of serving the public
rather than pursuing profits.
2. Cooperatives and Trade Unions
- A cooperative is an autonomous
association of persons united
voluntarily to meet their common
economic, social, and cultural needs
and aspirations, through a jointly
owned and democratically controlled
enterprise.
- Members of a cooperative usually
joins together in order to achieve a
specific objective, an objective which
usually benefits the members of the
organization itself.
- In short, cooperatives are mainly
structured to benefit its members and
to satisfy its members’ needs.
- A trade union or labor union is an
organization with a membership
composed of workers or employees
from related fields, which aim to
represent the interests and rights of its
members, both in the workplace and
in the society.
3. Transnational Advocacy Groups
-  A transnational advocacy group is a
collection of actors (individuals or
groups) characterized by their fluid
and open relations with each other,
united by their commitment to work on
and defend certain issues and causes
that are relevant across several
nations.
-  A transnational advocacy group is a
collection of actors (individuals or
groups) characterized by their fluid
and open relations with each other,
united by their commitment to work on
and defend certain issues and causes
that are relevant across several
nations.
- The word ‘transnational’ characterize
this network of actors since members
of a transnational advocacy group
come from different nations involved.
- Transnational advocacy networks are
vital in international relations for
people seeking to change the
behavior of states or non-states
because they create international
awareness, thus causing global
pressure for policy change.
Examples of Transnational Advocacy Groups
in the Philippines
š Alyansa Tigil Mina (ATM)
š Philippine Miserior Partnership
Incorporated (PMPI)
 š Task Force Detainees of the
Philippines (TFDP)
š Focus on the Global South
š Coalition Against Trafficking in
Women Asia Pacific (CATW-AP)
š Indigenous Women Group (LILAK)
ideas, which in turn strengthen the
relationship among member states.
š These norms also serve as guides on
how to regulate and manage these
member states.

4. Development Agencies

- Development agencies are

international and local non-
governmental organizations that are
tasked and committed to pursue
certain developmental agendas of a
state.
- They are institutions that provide help
in support of a state’s economic
growth and social progress.

5. International Organization

- The Term International Organization is

an umbrella term used to refer to
institutions established by three or
more states as voluntary members,
formed through a formal agreement or
treaty, in order to promote cooperation
and coordination among them.
- Members of an international
organization work together for the
development and management of their
common interests.
- The main feature and characteristic of
an international organization which
distinguishes it from other non-state
institutions, is that its membership is
entirely composed of national states or
governments.
- These member states give power to
the international organization which
gives the institution some degree of
authority to manage and govern the
same member states.

Significance of International
Organizations

š International organizations provide an

avenue for different countries and
states to connect.
š This connection among countries help
form international laws, norms, and

Cultural, Social, and
Political Institutions
Definition of Terms
- Kinship- blood relationship
- Genealogy- a line of descent
traced continuously from an
ancestor.
- Descent- the origin or background
of a person in terms of family or
nationality.
What is KINSHIP?
• It is the bond of blood or marriage
which binds people together in group.
• According to the dictionary of
anthropology, kinship system includes
socially recognized relationships
based on supposed as well as actual
genealogical ties. These relationships
are the result of social interaction and
recognized by society.
Types of Kinship
- Affinal kinship
o Relationship based upon
marriage of cohabitation
between collaterals (people
treated as the same
generation)
- Consanguineous
o Connections between people
that are traced by blood.
Descent Systems (kinship by blood)
• Descent, the system of acknowledged
social parentage, which varies from
society to society, whereby a person
may claim kinship ties with another.
• The practical importance of descent
comes from its use as a means for
one person to assert rights, duties,
privileges, or status in relation to
another person, who may be related to
the first either because one is
ancestor to the other or because the
two acknowledge a common ancestor.
Descent has special influence when
rights to succession, inheritance, or
residence follow kinship lines.
• In kinship diagrams, one individual is
usually labeled as ego. This is the
person to whom all kinship
relationships are referred. In the case
below on the right, ego has a brother
(Br), sister (Si), father (Fa), and
mother (Mo). Note also that ego is
shown as being gender non-specific –
that is, either male or female
FOUR TYPES OF DESCENT
SYSTEMS
Unilineal Descent
This traces descent only through a single line
of ancestors, male or female. Both males and
females are members of a unilineal family, but
descent links are only recognized through
relatives of one gender. The two basic forms
of unilineal descent are referred to as
patrilineal and matrilineal.
Patrilineal Descent
Both males and females belong to their
father’s kin group but not their mother’s.
however, only males pass on their family
identity to their children. A woman’s children
are members of her husband’s patrilineal line.
Matrilineal Descent
The form of unilineal descent that follows a
female line. When using this pattern,
individuals are relatives if they can trace
descent through females to the same female
ancestor. While both male and female children
are members of their mother’s matrilineal
descent group, only daughters can pass on
the family line to their offspring. The green
people below are related to each other
matrilineally
Bilateral Descent
In bilateral descent, Ego must trace his
relationships through both males and females
(hence automatically), and he must do so on
both sides symmetrically if the category of
relative exists on both sides.
What is marriage?
In general, Western cultures consider
marriage as an exclusive and permanent bond
between a man and a woman that is centrally
concerned with assigning sexual rights in
each of the partners and establishing parental
responsibility for the children of the union. In
its traditional form, it also organizes parents
and children into domestic groups in which
basic roles are allocated according to age and
gender. This specific institutional pattern has
been heavily sanctioned in moral and legal
codes.
Monogamy
The practice of having only one spouse at one
time. In some cases, monogamy means
having only one spouse for an entire life span.
Out of the different types of marriage,
monogamy is the only one that is legal in the
United States and most industrial nations.
 Social Monogamy
– Two persons/creatures that
live together have sex with one
another, and cooperate in
acquiring basic resources such
as food, clothes, and money.
 Sexual Monogamy
– Two persons/creatures that
remain sexually exclusive with
one another and have no
outside sex partners.
 Genetic Monogamy
– Two partners that only have
offspring with one another.
 Marital Monogamy
– Marriages of only two people.
 Serial Monogamy
– A series of relationships. One
person has only one partner at
a time, and then moves on to
another partner after severing
the relationship with the first.
Polygamy
The practice or custom of having more than
one wife or husband at the same time.
There are TWO types of polygamy:
1. Polygyny – the practice of having more
than one wife or sexual partner at a time. (ie.
Mormonism)
2. Polyandry – this involves one woman
having multiple husbands, within Polyandry
there are many variations on the marriage. (ie.
Tibet and Nepal Fraternal Polyandry)
POST-MARITAL RESIDENCY RULES
Post-marital residence rules specify where a
person resides after marriage and,
accordingly, influence the structure and size of
household units. Anthropologists have
identified several basic rules and related
domestic forms.
FOUR MAJOR POST-MARITALRESIDENCY
PATTERNS
The following FOUR MAJOR patterns that
have been observed in varying societies
around the world.
1. Neolocal Residence
- This system is determined by a rule
that each spouse leaves his or her
family of origin and jointly forms a
new household, which develops as
nuclear family. This is of course the
basic pattern in modern industrial
societies
 2. Patrilocal Residence
- The married couple’s normal
residence is with or near the
husband’s patrilineal kinsmen
3. Avunculocal Residence
- The married couple’s normal
residence is with or near the maternal
uncle or the husband’s other male
matrilineal kinsmen.
4. Matrilocal Residence
- this is the most familiar among
horticultural groups. It is where the
couple moves to live where the wife
grew up; usually found with matrilineal
kinship systems.
What is Compadrazgo? (Kinship by ritual)
• This is a type of ritual kinship in the
form of godparenthood.
• Parents select godparents (ninongs
ang ninangs) for a child at his/her
baptism, confirmation, and marriage.
The godparents were then tied to the
parents as co-parents.
Family and the Household
There are FIVE types of family:
1. Nuclear Family
A family consisting of a married man and
woman and their biological children. Nuclear
family may have any number of children. This
is also called Conjugal Family.
2. Extended Family
This type of family extends beyond the
immediate family, the basic example of which
is a married couple and his children that live
with either the husband’s or the wife’s parents.
3. Reconstituted Family
This type of family is formed by the joining of
two adults through marriage, cohabitation, or
civil partnership, in which either one or both of
the adults have a child of children from a
previous relationship living in their home.
This type of family is formed by the joining of
two adults through marriage, cohabitation, or
civil partnership, in which either one or both of
the adults have a child of children from a
previous relationship living in their home.
4. Transnational Family
These families live in more than one country.
They members adopt separate living
arrangement but retain close links with their
homeland.
5. Conditionally Separated Families
A family member is separated from the rest of
the family. This may be due to employment far
away, military service, incarceration, or
hospitalization. They remain significant
members of the family
Politics of Kinship
• Kinship politics is commonly found in
tribal societies across the world where
kin genealogy is applied to determine
the system of communal leadership. It
is where traditional pattern of passing
on political power to family members.
• This is built based on the classic
political principle: blood is thicker
than water. It asserts that power
should be distributed among family
members.
• For the sake of family security,
power should not be seized from
those who have kinship connections
and must be circulated only among
those who are tied by blood.
What is Political Alliance?
As political parties may be formed by the
joining of forces of political families, political
alliances may be created by the collaboration
among some political parties.
What is Political Dynasty?
This refers to the system of succession of
political leaders from the same family or clan
that maintains power for many generations.

Evolution in a Social
and Cultural Conte
Evolution
 The theory of evolution is based on
the idea that all species are related
and gradually change overtime.
 Evolution relies on there being genetic
variation in a population which affects
the physical
characteristics(phenotype) of an
organism.
 Some of these characteristics may
give the individual an advantage over
other individuals which they can then
pass on to their offspring.
What is Natural Selection?
 Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution
states that evolution happens by
natural selection.•
 Individuals in a species show
variation in physical characteristics.
This variation is because of
differences in their genes?
 Individuals with characteristics best
suited to their environment are more
likely to survive, finding food,
avoiding predators and resisting
disease. These individuals are more
likely to reproduce and pass their
genes on to their children.
 Individuals that are poorly adapted to
their environment are less likely to
survive and reproduce. Therefore
their genes are less likely to be
passed on to the next generation.
 As a consequence those individuals
most suited to their environment
survive and, given enough time, the
species will gradually evolve.
How is this related to culture?
The Mesolithic Period
also known as Middle Stone Age, was the
second part of the Stone Age. This age is
characterized by the appearance of
Microliths(small bladed stone tools). The
Mesolithic Age was a transitional phase
between the Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic
Age. The people of this age lived on hunting,
fishing, and food gathering; later on they also
domesticated animals.
The Neolithic Evolution
The Neolithic Revolution, also called the
Agricultural Revolution, marked the transition
inhuman history from small nomadic bands of
hunter-gatherers to larger, agricultural
settlements and early civilization. The
Neolithic Revolution started around 10,000
B.C. in the Fertile Crescent (the west by the
Mediterranean Sea and on the east by the
Persian Gulf), a boomerang-shaped region of
the Middle East where humans first took up
farming.
Agricultural Inventions
Plant domestication: Cereals such as emmer
wheat, einkorn wheat and barley were among
the first crops domesticated by Neolithic
farming communities in the Fertile Crescent.
These early farmers also domesticated lentils,
chickpeas, peas and flax.
Livestock: The first livestock were
domesticated from animals that Neolithic
humans hunted for meat. Domestic pigs were
bred from wild boars, for instance, while goats
came from the Persian ibex.
The first farm animals also included sheep
and cattle. These originated in Mesopotamia
between 10,000and 13,000 years ago. Water
buffalo and yak were domesticated shortly
after in China, India and Tibet.
This leads to the creation of empires.

How is Evolution related to
EVOLUTION IN A SOCIAL AND
POLITICALCONTEXT:
Social Darwinism
The application of the principles of evolution
proposed by Darwin to sociology and
politics.
Society and Politics?
“SURVIVAL OFTHE FITTEST”
 A term coined by Herbert Spencer
was an English philosopher who
initiated a philosophy called ‘Social
Darwinism’. He coined the term
‘survival of the fittest’ seven years
before Darwin’s publication of his
theory of natural history, The Origin of
the Species in 1859
An Excerpt of Social Darwinism(by H.
Spencer)
 All legislation which assists the people
in the satisfaction of their natural
wants or in any other way does for
them what they may be fairly expected
to-do for themselves, arises from a
radically wrong understanding of
human existence. It wholly neglects
the condition of man’s earthly being,
and altogether loses sight of one of
the great and universal laws of
creation (Every man for himself)
 [It] defeats its own end. Instead of
diminishing suffering, it eventually
increases it. It favors the multiplication
of those worst fitted for existence, and,
by consequence, hinders the
multiplication of those best fitted for
existence—leaving, as it does, less
room for them
 [Such] legislation ... rests upon the
assumption, that men are not fitted to
take care of themselves. It treats them
as so many children
Social Darwinism inaction
 The most infamous instance of Social
Darwinism in action is in the genocidal
policies of the Nazi German
Government in the 1930s and 40s.
 It was openly embraced as promoting
the notion that the strongest should
naturally prevail, and was a key
feature of Nazi propaganda films,
some which illustrated it with scenes
of beetles fighting each other.
Social Darwinism and Racism
 During the process of recruiting for the
Philippine Exhibit, there was evident
use of trickery on some occasions in
order to gather tribal people for the
Exhibit. Some of the recruits were not
aware of their destination until they
arrived in St. Louis. Similarly, a
knowledgeable recruit had signed up
as belonging to an Igorot tribe to
which he does not belong in his desire
to come to America.
 The head-hunting, dog-eating Igorots
were the greatest attraction at the
Philippine Exhibit, not only because of
their novelty, the scanty dressing of
the males and their daily dancing to
the tom-tomb eats, but also because
of their appetite for dogmeat which is
a normal part of their diet.
 The city of St. Louis provided them a
supply of dogs at the agreed amount
of 20 dogs a week, but this did not
appear to be sufficient, as they had
also encouraged local people to bring
them dogs which they bought to
supplement their daily needs.