Chapter 5: Sleeper types 75

Chapter 5: Sleeper types

5.1 TRADITIONAL SLEEPERS

The main functions performed by sleepers are holding the rails to correct gauge
and distributing loads in the rail to the ballast. They:
• provide vertical support to the rail in bearing
• maintain gauge between the rails
• provide longitudinal restraint to the rails.
To do this, the sleeper has to effectively transfer vertical and lateral loads from
the rails through to the ballast without compromising the stability or integrity
of the total track structure. Rail-to-sleeper fastenings play an important role in
this system (Queensland Rail (QR) 2007d).
Sleepers are very important components of the track structure and they also
represent a considerable proportion of the cost of the track. It is therefore most
important to use sleepers correctly and to obtain the maximum life from them
(QR 1992, Chapter 4).
Traditional sleepers are those manufactured in timber, concrete and steel.

5.1.1 Timber sleepers

The following Australian Standards apply to the design and manufacture of
timber sleepers:
• AS 3818.2:2004, Timber—Heavy Structural Products—Visually Graded,
Part 2, Railway Track Timbers.
• AS/NZS 4491:1997, Timber—Glossary of Terms in Timber-related
Standards.
• AS/NZS 1148:2001, Timber—Nomenclature—Australian, New Zealand and
Imported Species.
There are rules to measure knots and knot holes, bow and spring, twist and the
combinations of bow, spring and twist1.

Types of timber sleepers

Timber sleepers are of two types due to the manner in which they have been
cut:
• Rectangular sleepers: these are sawn rectangular in cross-section and are
square edged; they may contain a small amount of sapwood. The older
term for these was ‘squared sleepers’.
• Flat-backed sleepers: these are sawn generally rectangular in
cross-section, but the top surface may contain both sapwood and wane.
Edges of sleepers with wane may not be square.
In most cases, rectangular sleepers will be of better quality than flat-backed
sleepers and they are more suitable for use with sleeper plates and rail
anchors. Wherever possible, they should be reserved for these purposes (QR
1992, Chapter 4).

1 QR Specification no. CT.106.

 76 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

Sleepers cut from dead timber are not acceptable. Want, wane and sapwood
should not exceed 10 ten per cent of the width of the face in or below the rail
seat area2.

Timber sleeper size

A good timber sleeper, besides being tough and durable, should be of sufficient
size to carry the load at the rail seats. It should also be large enough to
accommodate the boring and reboring of holes for spikes, and deep enough to
cope with a reasonable amount of rail cutting and to provide sufficient
resistance against the crib ballast. Excessive boring reduces the available
cross-sectional area until the sleeper is spike-killed; it must then be replaced.
Rail cutting at the base of the rail caused by crushing of the top fibres of the
timber weakens the sleeper by reducing its cross-section. This tendency is more
pronounced on curves, and this condition must be corrected by re-adzing the
sleepers and reseating the rails squarely on them. When steel sleepers plates
are used, a larger area of the sleeper carries the load (QR 1992, Chapter 4).

Timber sleeper profiles and dimensions

The ARTC (2001) National Code of Practice (NCOP) stipulates for current use on
the Defined Interstate Rail Network (DIRN) (standard gauge tracks)
sleepers/bearers should be of:
• Length 2500mm
• Width 230mm
• Height 130mm
• Spacing 610mm3
Typical tolerances for sleepers are:
• Length + 50 / –0mm
• Width + 10mm / –0mm
• Height + 10mm / –0mm
Half-size sleepers are used in certain tunnels and other approved locations,
their requirements being as follows:
• The minimum half sleeper is 800mm long.
• The minimum distance from the centre line of the rail to the nearer end of
the timber in either direction is 345mm.
• The minimum distance from the end of the sleeper plate to the end of the
sleeper is 90mm4.
On narrow gauge tracks, two standard sizes of timber sleepers, both for plain
track and turnouts, are used:
• 230mm wide x 115mm deep
• 230mm wide x 150mm deep (heavy duty).
Sleepers are nominally 2150mm long5.

2 RailCorp Specification SPC 231 (refs 6, 13, 86, 121) RailCorp Standard ESC 230 (ref. 9).
3 National Code of Practice, Section 2.
4 RailCorp Civil Engineering Standard C3108.
5 QR Specification nos CT.104 and CT.106.
 Chapter 5: Sleeper types 77

Timber sleeper weight

The weight of standard gauge timber sleepers is approximately 90kg, while
narrow gauge sleepers are approximately 67kg for a 115mm sleeper and 91kg
for a 150mm sleeper.

Timber sleeper life

It is found that the average life of a timber sleeper in Australia today is about
18 years. However, actual life can vary greatly from about five years to thirty
years depending on the timber species, quality, density of traffic, position in the
track (for example, on a curve or in a tunnel), climate, maintenance, termite or
fungal attack, effect of derailments and other damage (QR 2007d).
One common policy of defective sleeper replacement in Australia is to partially
re-sleeper the track on a cyclic basis and not face re-sleeper sections of the
track. This cyclic partial re-sleepering implies:
• The sleepers in any section of track are a mixture of sleepers of various
ages, distributed so that the safety of the track is maintained if a portion
of the sleepers fail from age-related problems.
• The failed sleepers are replaced only when a Sleeper Gang works in a face
through a section on a cyclic program, nominally every five years.
• Between cyclic passes of a Sleeper Gang, only those sleepers that have
failed—and where this failure will allow the track to deteriorate below the
standard for the class of line—are replaced by ‘housekeeping staff’ until
the next pass of the Sleeper Gang6.

Preservation treatments for timber sleepers

In other parts of the world, preservative treatment of timber sleepers, normally
softwoods, has been common, but the practice has been discontinued in
Australia because of health implications for workers. Sleepers, turnout timbers
and bridge transoms to which any treatments or preservatives are added to the
natural timber, except as end sealants as specified, should not be purchased7.
All timber sleeper ends should be treated with an approved wax emulsion-type
end sealing compound applied in accordance with the suppliers’ directions.
End sealing should occur as early as practicable and within 12 hours of the
sleepers being cut8.

Timber sleeper components and features

Fastenings and pads used with timber sleepers are dealt with in Chapter 6,
Section 6.2.

6 RIC Civil Engineering Standard B11126 [No longer current in RailCorp (ref. 12)].
7 RailCorp Civil Engineering Standard C3108.
8 QR Specification no. CT.106.
 78 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

5.1.2 Concrete sleepers

Figure 5.1: Concrete sleepered track

The use of concrete sleepers has grown steadily throughout the world during
the past half century. Ongoing development has established concrete sleepers
as the premium choice of sleeper, justified by the quality, reliability, technical
performance and whole-of-life cost benefits.
Like any product, concrete sleepers have their limitations, and an
understanding of these limitations and of the appropriate measures taken at
the design and specification phases can assist in achieving an optimum
technical and economic sleeper solution for the railway system (QR 2007d).
The following Australian Standards apply to the design and manufacture of
concrete sleepers:
• AS 1085.1:2002, Railway Track Material—Part 1: Steel Rails.
• AS 1085.14:2003, Railway Track Material—Part 14: Prestressed Concrete
Sleepers.
• AS 1085.19:2003, Railway Track Material—Part 19: Resilient Fastenings.
• AS 1310:1987, Steel Wire for Tendons in Prestressed Concrete
[Superseded].
• AS 1313:1989, Steel Tendons for Prestressed Concrete—Cold-Worked
High-Tensile Alloy Steel Bars for Prestressed Concrete [Superseded].
• AS 1379, The Specification and Manufacture of Concrete.
• AS 1478, Chemical Admixtures for Concrete.
• AS 1480SAA, Concrete Structures Code.
• AS 1481SAA, Prestressed Concrete Code [Superseded].
• AS 2758.1, Aggregates and Rock for Engineering Purposes, Part 1: Concrete
Aggregates.
• AS 3582.1, Supplementary Cementitious Materials for Use with Portland
Cement, Part 1: Fly Ash.
• AS 3600, Concrete Structures.
• AS 3610, Formwork for Concrete.
 Chapter 5: Sleeper types 79

• AS 3900, Quality Management and Quality Assurance Standards, Parts 1,

2, 3 and 4.
• AS 3972, Portland and Blended Cements.
• AS/NZS ISO 9001, Quality Systems—Model for Quality Assurance in
Design, Development, Production Installation and Servicing9.

Concrete sleeper types

Conventional mainline sleeper types include:
• Prestressed monoblock, comprising 70–80 per cent of all sleepers made
• Prestressed duo-block
• Reinforced duo-block
• Longitudinal sleepers.

Figure 5.2: Concrete sleeper types: general configuration of monoblock and duo-block
sleepers

The vast majority of concrete sleepers used in Australia are monoblock, while
duo-block sleepers are common in Europe, particularly on the TGV lines of
France. The choice depends on the types of traffic using the track and the need
for the greater stability afforded by the monoblock type, and the significance
placed on the possible cracking of the duo-blocks at the junction with the
joining bar.
• Special sleeper types: there is a requirement for a variety of special
concrete sleepers to enable concrete sleeper track to be continuous. This
is desirable to maintain a continuous level of track modulus:
♦ Turnout sleeper sets:
– Splay rail sleeper sets
– Guard rail sleepers
– Transition sleeper sets
– Level rail seat sleepers
– Gauge widened sleepers
– Dual gauge sleepers.
• Turnout and diamond sleepers: these are required to support the switch
lever assembly, stock rails, switch rails, lead rails, guard rails, crossing
and a section of the through track and turnout track behind the crossing
see (see Figure 5.3).

9 QR Specification no. CT.162.

 80 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

STRAIGHT STOCK RAILS

TOE OF SWITCH HEEL OF

HEAD OF SWITCH
SWITCH
TURNOUT GUARD RAIL
CENTRELINE
CENTRE OFSLEEPERS
LINE OF SLEEPERS
TURNOUT LEAD RAIL

LEFT HAND SWITCH MAINLINE

RIGHT HAND SWITCH
S E T IN S TO C K

STRAIGHT CLOSURE RAIL

SIDING
LONG SLEEPERS
LONG TIMBERSFOR
FOR
SWITCH
SWITCHLEVER
LEVER
R A IL

TURNOUT GUARD RAIL

(LEVER
(LEVERNOT
NOTSHOWN)
SHOWN)
RBM STEEL CROSSING
TURNOUT STO
CK RA ILS

THE GAUGE AT HEELS OF ALL

SWITCHES TO BE 1067 mm
CLEARANCE TO BE 63.5 mm

Figure 5.3: Typical turnout layout

Splay rail sleepers: these may be used at bridge approaches so that derailed
wheels are directed towards the centre line of the bridge (see Figure 5.4). They
are ordered in sets and are used in conjunction with guard rail sleepers to
prevent a catastrophic accident should a derailment occur at the bridge
approach. The system is a form of risk alleviation, as the consequences of a
derailment at a bridge may be potentially much more threatening to life and
property than in open track.

Figure 5.4: Guard rail and splay rail system

Guard rail sleepers: these may be placed on bridges to guide the wheels of
derailed locomotives or wagons across the bridge, thus preventing damage to
the bridge and rollingstock (see Figure 5.5).

Figure 5.5: Guard rail sleeper

 Chapter 5: Sleeper types 81

• Transition sleepers: Many mainline sleeper designs specify that the rail be
canted. As turnout sleepers have level (horizontal) rail seats there is a
need to transition the rail orientation gradually from the level to the
canted position. This is achieved through special transition sleepers,
ordered in sets.
• Level rail seat sleepers: used in conjunction with transition sleeper sets at
turnouts or in specific circumstances (for example, between turnouts) to
minimise transitions.
• Gauge widened sleepers: sleepers with the gauge widened 6mm and
12mm for sharp curves of radius of less than R300m and R160m,
respectively. Transition sleepers with gauge widening of 3mm and 9mm
are also used.
• Dual gauge sleepers: these incorporate a third rail seat to enable the
operation of two different gauges on the one track (QR 2007b) (see
Figures 5.6 and 5.7).

Figure 5.6: Dual gauge sleeper

Figure 5.7: Dual gauge concrete sleeper track with timber turnout
 82 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

Concrete sleeper profiles and dimensions

Concrete sleepers generally vary in section through their length, but typically,
profile, dimensions for length, width at rail seat, width at rail base, depth under
rail seat and profile for standard gauge sleepers can be found in Figure 5.8.
Other size sleepers and dimensions can be sourced from manufacturers such
as Rocla or Austrak.

Figure 5.8: Profile of standard gauge concrete sleepers

Source: Reproduced with kind permission of Rocla.

Concrete sleeper components and features

Fastenings and pads used with concrete sleepers are dealt with in Chapter 6,
Section 6.3.
 Chapter 5: Sleeper types 83

5.1.3 Steel sleepers

The following Australian Standards apply to the design and manufacture of
timber sleepers:
• AS 1085.17:2003, Railway Track Material—Steel Sleepers.
• AS 1085.19, Resilient Fasteners.
Most railways in Australia use steel sleepers. The majority have been installed
during the past 25 years as a replacement for timber sleepers. Steel sleepers in
general have been accepted to be versatile, viable and economic alternatives to
other sleeper types for the construction and maintenance of quality railway
track.

Figure 5.9: Steel sleepers

The wide acceptance of steel sleepers is a result of product development and

technical support, together with in-track experience by Australian railways (QR
2007c).
Steel sleepers behave differently to conventional track sleepers, mainly because
they are relatively light in comparison to their rigidity. They rely on the ballast
to provide support and to add to their effective mass. The service life of steel
sleepers is governed by fatigue that is not apparent until the sleeper has started
to fail. It is important to prevent excessive fatigue loads (such as where a steel
sleeper carries more than its share of the load) being imposed if the design
service life of the steel sleepers is to be achieved. Fatigue failure involves
cracking of the steel sleeper in and around the rail seat.
Steel sleepers are also good conductors of electricity, which could result in
problems with signalling. As a result, insulated sleepers are used in track
circuited areas. In non-track circuited areas consideration should be given to
future signalling requirements. In circuited areas consideration should be given
to hazards that could electrically bridge the gap across the insulators provided
between rail and fastenings.
Steel sleepers should not be used in situations where problems such as the
presence of contaminants or continual wetness will reduce their life or degrade
their insulation properties. Steel sleepers must not be used as transoms10.
It is important to recognise the different behaviour characteristics of steel
sleepers compared to flat-bottomed sleepers and adopt appropriate installation
and maintenance procedures to achieve quality track (QR 2007c).

10 RIC Civil Engineering Standard TS 20 540 3 00 SP [No longer available in RailCorp

withdrawn (refs 19, 21, 100, 104, 115)].
 84 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

Situations causing high levels of fatigue could drastically shorten the life of the
sleepers and should be avoided. These could include:
• sleeper support deficiencies
• where there is backcanting in the adjoining timber sleepers (unless this is
compensated for by a denser pattern of the steel sleepers)
• where there is wide or tight gauge in adjoining timber sleepers that would
result in a high level of gauge variation (which, in turn, induces additional
fatigue loads in the steel sleepers)
• where the steel sleeper will be required to carry more than its
proportionate share of the load due to the poor condition of adjacent
sleepers.
The fatigue impact of the above situations will cause premature failure of the
fastenings and/or insulators (where fitted).
Where steel sleepers creep through the ballast, additional hazards arise
because of the tendency to lose ballast from the pods and for steel sleepers to
rise up. It may be necessary to install rail anchors with the steel sleepers to
control this creep.
Environmental damage will be more severe because the sleepers are in more
intimate contact with the ballast and subgrade materials. Steel sleepers should
not be used in locations where corrosion or chemical damage is likely to be a
problem. These locations could include:
• slag ballast
• areas of frequent locomotive sanding (for example, steep grades)
• areas of high salinity (including coastal locations)
• continually wet or moist areas, such as some tunnels or some types of
level crossings
• areas where corrosive materials invade the track area (coal, minerals,
mud, clay dirt, etc.)11.

Sleeper profiles and dimensions

Overall (nominal) dimensions of standard gauge steel sleepers are:
• Length 2500mm
• Width (at base) 250 to 260mm
• Width (at seat) 150 to 160mm
• Depth 95 to 100mm
• Thickness 7.5 to 10mm
• Rail seat: the rail seats are normally inclined at 1 in 20 towards the
centre, but in special cases they may be horizontal. The incline is
achieved by bending sleeper sections, but not by pressing out steel at the
rail seat area.
• End section: the end sections of the sleeper are bent down from the seat
area, so that end sections of sleepers are not above the level of the sleeper
centre.

11 RIC Civil Engineering Standard TS 20 540 3 00 SP [No longer available in RailCorp

withdrawn (refs 19, 21, 100, 104, 115)].
 Chapter 5: Sleeper types 85

• End spade: the top surface of the sleeper is bent down at both ends to
provide ‘spades’ for lateral stability. The angle of the spades is
approximately 25º from vertical, with the bottom edge approximately level
with the lower sleeper edge and the gap at the corners (from metal
distortion) at no more than 30mm.
• Sleeper section: the sleepers are manufactured either from pressed hot
rolled steel strip or from pre-formed steel sections12.
Most steel sleepers are manufactured from either ‘M’ or ‘W’ rolled sleeper
sections produced, for example, by OneSteel’s Whyalla Steelworks. Various
thicknesses of each rolled section are available and are selected depending
upon the duty required of the sleeper (see Figure 5.10 below).

Figure 5.10: ‘M’ and ‘W’ sleeper sections

Typical dimensions for narrow gauge steel sleepers are shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: OneSteel sleeper section details

Centroid Cx
Distance to
Mass kg/m

Ztop103 x

Zbot103
Section

Ixx 106
B mm

B mm

D mm
T mm

T mm

M6.5 19.5 6.7 5.1 260 160 97 31.9 2.73 85.1 41.9
M7.5 21.1 7.5 5.4 260 160 98 31.6 2.94 92.6 44.4
M8.5 23.1 8.5 5.7 260 160 99 31.3 3.22 101.9 47.6
M10 26.2 10 6.2 260 160 100.5 31.1 3.64 115.2 52.6
W10 30.5 10 6.3 300 160 118 77.6 6.12 153 78.5
W12 35.3 12 7.0 300 160 120 79.8 6.98 175 87.3
W14 40.0 14 7.7 300 160 122 81.6 7.86 197 96.0

12 RIC Civil Engineering Standard C3110 [No longer available in RailCorp withdrawn
(refs 22, 24, 60, 89, 94, 96, 98)].
 86 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

Trak-Lok sleepers have been manufactured to three basic longitudinal shapes

(see Figure 5.11 below).
Where no rail cant is required, sleepers are flat across the top surface. Flat
sleepers (with vertical rails) require minimal forming, the main work being the
forming of the end spades.
Canted sleepers require the rail seats to be inclined, thereby giving inclination
to the rails. This has been achieved by two methods. Firstly, the whole sleeper
section may be bent at various positions along the sleeper. Secondly, the rail
seat only may be inclined, leaving the remainder of the sleeper flat. This is
known as ‘Cant in the rail seat’.

Figure 5.11: Sleeper profiles

The end spades on Trak-Lok sleepers have the following features:

• The end spades are fully enclosed to effectively retain the ballast in the
sleeper trough.
• The end spade is formed at an angle, giving both high lateral holding in
track and the ability to stack for easy handling and transport.
• The bottom edge of the end spade is formed to a position level with the
nominal underside of the sleeper allowing easy installation in existing
track (QR 2007c).

Settlement characteristics of trough vs. flat-bottomed sleepers

Steel sleepers with trough-shaped cross-sections have different settlement
characteristics compared with flat-bottomed sleepers. For equivalent ballast
and tamping conditions, a steel sleeper will always settle more than a
flat-bottomed sleeper before supporting an equivalent load.
 Chapter 5: Sleeper types 87

When all sleepers are of the same type and settle a similar amount, then the
amount of settlement in itself is not so important. However, when steel sleepers
are mixed with flat-bottomed sleepers, the difference in settlement is important
if each sleeper is to support its fair share of load and if excessive vertical
deflections (which could result in loss of track geometry and ballast crushing)
are to be avoided.
To achieve even support, additional tamping with extra lifting needs to be
carried out with the steel sleepers.

Steel sleeper types

Sleepers can be made to fit at least two different rail sizes. They are made as
single fastening sleepers or multi-fastening sleepers.
Single fastening sleepers allow the direct fitting of one rail size only, without
spacers. They have four 36mm diameter holes for lock-in shoulders and four
20mm diameter inspection holes. Holes are located at the centre line of the top
of the sleeper section, and inspection holes spaced along the centre line at 90 to
100mm from the lock-in shoulder holes (away from the seat). Spacers can be
provided for the fitting of smaller rail sizes until replacement with larger rail
sizes takes place.
Multi-fastening sleepers allow the alternative fitting of two different rail sizes
without the use of spacers. These sleepers have eight 36mm diameter holes for
lock-in shoulders (four holes are used for lock-in shoulders at any time). Holes
are located at the top of the sleeper section. For alternative fastening of
different rail sizes, holes are arranged diagonally at each seat with a
mirror-image arrangement on the second rail seat of the sleeper, and any
unused holes may serve as inspection holes. Where more than two rail sizes are
to be used during the life of a sleeper, spacers must be provided for the smaller
rail size. For larger differences in rail foot dimensions, the fastening assembly
(with all of its spacers) must pass an ‘Uplift Test’ as specified in AS 1085.19.
Insulators may be used in conjunction with single fastening and
multi-fastening insulated sleepers, but not in sleepers with spacers. Where two
rail sizes are used, special insulators are needed for the smaller rail. The
fastening assembly and its special insulator must pass the ‘Uplift Test’ as
mentioned above (QR 2007c).

Steel sleeper components and features

Components used with steel sleepers are dealt with in Chapter 6, Section 6.4.

Sleeper mass and track uplift

Track uplift usually occurs in front of trains due to the ‘bow wave’ effect. It may
also occur between the bogies of long-length wagons. Excessive uplift may
cause disturbance and loosening of the ballast, resulting in a loss of track
geometry.
While increased sleeper mass helps to reduce this effect, it is not a major factor.
The most important factor is vertical track stiffness.
A track structure that has low vertical stiffness will have a high vertical
deflection under train loading compared to a track structure with high vertical
stiffness: the higher the vertical deflection under the train, the greater the uplift
in front of or between bogies under the train. Therefore, to reduce track uplift,
suitably high vertical track stiffness is required.
 88 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

Generally, steel sleepered tracks that have a vertical track stiffness giving a
maximum deflection of approximately 5mm or less should not suffer from
excessive track uplift.
Despite the relatively low sleeper mass, steel sleepered tracks generally have
good track stability because of the high vertical stiffness of the track structure
(QR 2007).

Steel bearers for turnouts and other special applications

There are both insulated and non-insulated steel bearers for turnouts and
other special applications (such as guard rail sleepers). Steel bearers enable
rapid assembly of turnouts, ensure that the precise geometry of the turnout is
achieved, and provide all of the benefits of steel sleepers. An example of a steel
bearer turnout and diamond crossing installation is shown below (QR 2007c).

Figure 5.12: Steele bearer turnout with diamond crossing installation

Use of steel sleepers with pressed fastener housings

In sharp curves, steel sleepers with pressed housings have a higher risk of
failure in the following modes than steel sleepers with lock-in shoulders:
• cracking in the rail seat area originating from the corners of the pressed
housing
• clip failure—due to the inferior fatigue performance under loading
conditions with high lateral forces—of the pressed housing fastener
systems relative to those on sleepers with lock-in shoulders.
Steel sleepers with pressed housings should not be used in curves with a
radius of less than 400m. If these sleepers have been installed in existing
curves, the maintainer should implement suitable controls and inspection
regimes to identify any early failure that might occur13.

5.1.4 Comparison of traditional sleeper types

A consideration of which type of sleeper best fits a particular application has to
involve many considerations such as availability, cost and life expected under
the traffic to be imposed, handling and construction costs, and maintenance
anticipated, and these factors must be taken into account in a detailed
cost–benefit analysis.

13 QR Civil Engineering Track Standards 3.

 Chapter 5: Sleeper types 89

During the past few decades, concrete sleepers have been installed in railway
systems throughout the world as the premium type for most rail traffic. This
extensive experience has demonstrated many advantages of concrete sleepers
and increased awareness of their limitations.

Technical comparison of sleeper types

Source: Queensland Rail 2007b, Railway Civil Engineering Course: Concrete Sleepers.

The advantages of concrete over timber and steel sleepers are:

• Long life compared with timber sleepers (estimated at two to three times
the average life).
• They can be designed specifically to suit particular applications.
• Their mass provides a high level of lateral and longitudinal track stability.
They are consequently favoured for heavy haul and high-speed passenger
lines. This inherent stability generally translates into reduced track
maintenance.
• Significantly higher track lateral resistance provides higher resistance to
buckles.
• Concrete sleepers settle more uniformly than other sleeper types,
retaining good top and line for longer service periods. This high track
quality results in a smoother ride for both freight and passenger trains
and reduced maintenance for track and rollingstock.
• Manufactured correctly, they are more resistant to corrosion and other
forms of environmental attack than timber and steel sleepers.
• They better maintain gauge and alignment.
• They have better resistance to rail creep.
• They have reduced risk of derailment due to higher track quality and
stability.
The limitations of concrete when compared with timber and steel sleepers are:
• Derailment damage can be repaired, but this is often time and labour
intensive.
• They generally have a greater depth, which produces a greater
rail-to-formation height. This can be a problem in some areas of restricted
vertical clearance, particularly when relaying an existing timber or steel
sleeper track structure.
• They are relatively heavy when compared to other sleeper types, resulting
in the need for mechanisation to install. This extra weight often also
results in increased freight costs (depending on site location).
• Greater weight makes it more difficult to handle concrete sleepers when
installation and/or replacement is carried out by mechanised flying
gangs. However, for the track laying or sleeper laying machine (the TLM or
SLM), there is very little difference in handling between concrete, steel and
timber sleepers.
• Insulation in track circuited areas is required.
• Certain types of otherwise acceptable ballast (such a limestone) will
severely abrade the base, often to the extent of exposing the prestressing
wires.
 90 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

• They are more susceptible to damage from impact loading than timber or
steel.
• They cannot be randomly interspersed with timber satisfactorily due to
sleeper depth constraints (unless specifically designed for reduced depth)
and track modulus variation.
Steel sleepers are used both on a face and interspersed with timber sleepers in
1:2, 1:3 and 1:4 patterns. With insulated pads, steel sleepers can be used
where track circuits are installed in signalled lines.
The advantages of steel over timber sleepers are:
• They are resistant to attack by termites and rot.
• They are all made uniformly and are easy to handle and install.
• They have a long life if properly maintained, normally designed for
50 years.
• They will probably have a scrap value.
The disadvantages of steel sleepers are:
• Corrosion significantly reduces service life in aggressive environments,
(corrosion can be environmental, for example, due to salt in coastal areas,
or result from leaked product carried by traffic, such as minerals, fruit,
sugar, cattle, etc.).
• They require careful installation and maintenance for optimum
performance.
• Fatigue cracking has been known to occur in older-style sleepers used in
sharp curves on corridors with 20 Tonnes Axle Load (TAL) and greater.
• They are easily damaged in a derailment (however, bent sleepers can be
reformed to some extent).
Source: Queensland Rail 2007d, Railway Civil Engineering Course: Track Description
Components.

Successful in-track performance of steel sleepers depends not only on the

selection of a suitable sleeper configuration, but also on the method of
installation and tamping used. This is especially true when interspersing with
timber sleepers.
Like all sleeper types, the ability of steel sleepers to survive a derailment is
variable. In some derailments damage is confined to minor indentations in the
sleeper, which can possibly be repaired. In others, the sleepers are damaged
beyond repair. Some loss of fatigue life of the sleeper may result from the
damage and repair procedure. However, if the sleeper is used in a straight
section of track or in a lower duty track, the practical effect of loss of fatigue life
may be minimal (QR 2007c).
While in many instances the type of damage sustained will be a function of the
type of derailment and the behaviour of the derailed vehicles, the adoption of
the following factors may reduce the damage to the sleepers:
• use sleepers with a greater top plate thickness
• ensure cribs are full of ballast
• cover the sleepers with ballast.
The properties of timber, being easy to work, structurally sound, resilient,
electrically insulating and—until recent years—economical and plentiful, has
made it still the most predominant sleeper material in railway tracks today.
 Chapter 5: Sleeper types 91

The advantages of timber sleepers over other types are in their local availability,
their possible cost advantage for lesser class lines where sleeper plates or
anchors may not be necessary, and their forgiving nature to absorb impact.
Disadvantages include the tendency to deteriorate due to environmental
influences or termite attack (QR 2007a).

Comparison of costs of traditional sleeper types

The initial cost of concrete sleepers is generally higher than that of timber or
steel sleepers, although whole-of-life costs are often lower due to longer life and
lower maintenance.
In Australia in recent years, the cost of steel or timber sleepers (including
fastenings to provide equivalent heavy haul track) has been slightly above that
for concrete sleepers. Approximate total comparative costs (at 2006 rates) for
narrow gauge are:
• Concrete $70–75
• Steel $70–80
• Timber $70–75.
Concrete sleepers have significantly higher logistical costs. They also attract
higher capital cost compared with timber or non-insulated steel for light duty
track applications. Approximate capital costs (QR 2007b) for narrow gauge
sleepers themselves are:
• Concrete $70–75 (includes all associated items)
• Steel $60–65 (including all associated items)
• Timber $35–40 (does not include plates, spikes or anchors).

5.2 ALTERNATIVE SLEEPERS

An extensive amount of research is being put into the development of
alternatives to conventional sleepers. Alternative railway sleepers are any
proposed sleepers other than prestressed concrete, steel and timber, including
low-profile concrete, fibre composite and plastic sleepers (QR 2007d).

5.2.1 General
The following Australian Standards apply:
• AS 1085.1, Railway Track Material—Part 1: Steel Rails.
• AS 1085.14:2003, Railway Track Material—Part 14: Prestressed Concrete
Sleepers.
• AS 3900, Quality Management and Quality Assurance Standards, Parts 1,
2, 3 and 4.
• AS/NZS ISO 9001, Quality Systems—Model for Quality Assurance in
Design, Development, Production Installation and Servicing.
 92 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

5.2.2 Alternative materials

Because of the increased cost and reduced availability of quality timber
sleepers, authorities are seeking alternative materials in which to manufacture
sleepers. Generally, the need is to produce a sleeper with a similar depth to the
timber sleepers in track and with similar characteristics so that track modulus
does not vary greatly, all at a reasonable whole-of-life cost.
Experiments have been made in Australia with low-profile concrete sleepers,
normally of prestressed concrete but of depths between 130mm and 150mm.
Suppliers are researching the design of replacement sleepers in fibre composite
materials, plastic materials (such as high density polyethylene), and inorganic
polymers. Other materials being considered or used in experimental quantities
include laminated timber or reconstituted wood chip products.
Research into these alternatives is in very early stages and the outcome of these
experiments is awaited with great interest. The main concerns are to produce a
system that is durable, strong, flexible and cost effective.

5.3 SLAB TRACK TECHNOLOGIES

In certain locations, ballasted track is impractical or undesirable for reasons of
use, drainage or maintenance. Such locations include:
• loading facilities (coal and grain)
• tunnels
• maintenance facilities
• sheds and warehouses
• some platforms
• inspection pits.
Increasingly, non-conventional, resilient track forms are also being used for
railway tracks in applications where noise and vibration control are key
requirements (QR 2007d).
Esveld (2001) in his book, Modern Railway Track, devotes Chapter 9 to a full
description of the technologies available and some experiences with slab track,
particularly in Europe and Japan, where slab tracks are employed for a range
of applications, but particularly for high-speed railways, replacing conventional
ballasted track. Applications in Australia include tracks in the zigzag tunnels of
the Blue Mountains in New South Wales and the STEDEF form of construction
in the Melbourne ‘City Loop’.

5.3.1 Types
Source: Queensland Rail 2007d, Railway Civil Engineering Course: Track Description
Components.

Types of non-ballasted track include:

• Rail-on-plinth: rails are supported by discrete plinths or columns. This
track form is used for wash down and inspection facilities.
• Rail-on-beam: rails are laid either directly onto a girder, or onto base
plates on a girder spanning a pit. This is a common track form for
load-outs.
 Chapter 5: Sleeper types 93

• Encased track: the rails are supported and surrounded by reinforced

concrete to top of rail level. This track form is common for level crossings,
workshops, warehouses and container terminals.
• Base plate-on-slab: the rails are supported by resilient base plates that
are fixed to a reinforced concrete slab. This is a common track form in
tunnels.

Figure 5.13: Base plate on slab

• Sleepers-in-slab: a hybrid between encased and base plate-on-slab track

in which rails are fixed to concrete sleepers that are then surrounded by
reinforced concrete to either top of sleeper or top of rail level. This concept
removes some of the difficulty with fixing rail alignment and level prior to
the concrete pour.
• Booted track: rails are fixed to small concrete blocks that rest within a
larger concrete slab. The blocks are isolated from the slab by a layer of
resilient material such as rubber.
• Floating slab track: this is the most complex of the non-ballasted track
forms. Rails are supported by resilient base plates (or booted blocks),
which are fixed to precast concrete slabs. Each slab is supported by
discrete, resilient bearings. Resilient bearings also restrain each slab
laterally and longitudinally. The advantage of this track form—although
difficult and costly to construct—is that it can be engineered to meet
specific vibration reduction requirements.
Products in this group are often the patented designs of the various suppliers,
and it is necessary to negotiate with these suppliers to use such installations.

5.3.2 Comparison to traditional technologies

The advantages of slab track, compared to ballasted track, are:
• low maintenance
• high availability
• low structure height
• low weight
• whole-of-life costs may not be as disparate as the initial capital costs
• there is no ballast to disintegrate under traffic
• far higher lateral and longitudinal stability
• track details such as turnouts can be accommodated by special designs
• deviations of top and line are smaller and less likely to occur
• minimum adjustments of top and line are possible
• noise and vibration are abated.
 94 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

The disadvantages are:

• higher construction costs
• production rates will be of the order of 150–200m in an eight-hour shift
• higher airborne noise reflection
• major adjustments of top and line are difficult
• repair of derailment damage may be time consuming and expensive
• an excellent subgrade foundation is essential to eliminate settlements
• repairs due to settlement are difficult
• transitions from the slab to ballasted track are necessary.

Figure 5.14: Transition from slab track in tunnel to ballasted track

5.3.3 Construction and maintenance

Details of construction methods will be found in Esveld (2001). Of special
interest is the technique of constructing the track from the top down, setting up
the rails and attached sleepers or fastenings to a high degree of accuracy, then
pouring the slab around the suspended structure to encase it to the design
depth.
 Chapter 5: Sleeper types 95

5.4 SLEEPER TRANSITIONS—SPECIAL APPLICATIONS

5.4.1 Sleeper interspersing

Source: Queensland Rail 2007c, Railway Civil Engineering Course: Steel Sleepers and the
Trak-Lok Fastening System.

Interspersal of steel sleepers amongst existing timber sleepers

To alleviate timber sleeper supply problems, to maximise existing timber
sleeper life, and to tie together long lengths of timber sleepered track,
Australian railways have established the practice of interspersing steel sleepers
amongst existing timber sleepers, either randomly or in fixed patterns. A typical
length of 1 in 4 pattern steel interspersal is shown in Figure 5.15.

Figure 5.15: Timber–steel sleeper interspersal pattern (1 in 4)

Pattern interspersal
The experience of a number of railways has shown that when steel sleepers are
interspersed amongst existing timber, the best track performance is obtained
when a fixed interspersal pattern is used. A fixed pattern minimises the effects
resulting from any differential settlement between the different sleeper types
and provides a regular anchor pattern to minimise any longitudinal rail
movement.
Common fixed interspersal patterns used are 1 in 2, 1 in 3 and 1 in 4.

Random interspersal
Random interspersal has been trialled by a number of railways with varying
resultant track performance. Some of the earliest trials of interspersing steel
sleepers amongst timber using a purely random insertion of steel sleepers were
unsuccessful in that poor track performance resulted. In purely random
insertion, all timber sleepers that need to be removed are replaced by steel
sleepers. At some locations, groups of two or more timber sleepers are replaced
by an equivalent number of steel sleepers. It was observed that the vertical
deflection performance of these groups of steel sleepers under traffic became
excessive, resulting in poor top alignment of the track. Most of the railways
involved with these early trials abandoned purely random insertion and either
adopted a fixed interspersal pattern or installed steel sleepers on face.
 96 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

Semi-random interspersal
A disadvantage of fixed pattern re-sleepering is that a proportion of good timber
sleepers are displaced by the steel sleepers.
While these good timber sleepers may be re-inserted to replace poor timber
sleepers nearby, there is a cost penalty associated with this work. Recent
interspersal installations by a major railway in medium duty secondary tracks
and straight higher duty mainline using semi-random insertion have been
deemed successful. The semi-random insertion method adopted requires poor
timber sleepers to be replaced by steel sleepers; however, a prohibition is
enforced on the grouping together of two or more steel sleepers.
Semi-random insertion of steel sleepers in higher duty mainline curved track
under approximately 600 metres radius has not been proven to be satisfactory
to date. This class of track has a requirement for higher geometrical standards.
Timber sleepers found in curved track generally are in poorer condition than
those found in straight track due to the higher lateral loads found in curved
track. This results in higher degradation rates, especially with regard to gauge
holding and backcant as a result of plate or rail cut. Experience indicates that
in higher duty mainline curves, fixed pattern interspersal gives the best
geometric performance and—considering the generally poorer sleeper
condition—may prove to be the more economical method in the longer term.

Interspersal in curves
Generally, interspersal of steel sleepers in curves less than 500 metre radii is
not recommended because of cant and gauge mismatch resulting from wear
and degradation of the existing timber sleepers. It should be noted that cant
mismatch due to rail or plate cut may also occur in curves with radii greater
than 500 metres and in straight track.
The lives of the steel sleepers and fastening components may be significantly
shortened when mixed with timber sleepers with cant and gauge mismatch. It
may be more economical to replace all of the timber sleepers in the curve,
rather than re-gauge or adze the degraded timber sleepers (which generally
have only limited life remaining).

Effect of timber sleeper condition

The track quality resulting from the interspersal of steel sleepers depends very
much on the condition of the existing timber sleepers. Best results have been
observed where a high proportion of the existing timber has been of reasonable
quality with minimal backcanting and gauge widening.
Most railways with a high proportion of poor timber sleepers have opted for
total replacement of sleepers on a section-by-section basis. Some railways have
attempted interspersing steel sleepers in track with a high proportion of poor
quality timber sleepers; however, these have been short lived, being fully re-
sleepered in steel within a few years.
Severely centre-bound timber sleepers will also affect the resulting track
performance of interspersed steel sleepers. Vertical rail seat deflections of a
centre-bound timber sleeper under traffic will cause an adjacent steel sleeper to
deflect to a similar amount.
 Chapter 5: Sleeper types 97

If excessive, the deflection may be sufficient to cause disturbance of the ballast

within an adjacent steel sleeper, causing the ballast to lose compaction. This
may result in a partial loss of vertical support and lateral restraint provided by
the steel sleeper.
Elimination of the centre-bound condition by lifting and tamping (or by some
other method) is required if satisfactory performance of the interspersed track
is to be achieved.