ANIMAL FORM AND

FUNCTION I
LECTURE 1+2
Chap 23: Protection, Support and Movement
i). Protection: The integumentary system of invertebrates and
vertebrates
Protection: Integumentary Systems

• It is the set of organs forming the outermost layer/ external covering of an

animal's body.
• It comprises the exoskeleton, skin, hair, scales, feathers, hooves, and nails.
Functions
• Protect the body's internal living tissues and organs
• Protect against invasion by infectious organisms
• Protection from dehydration
• Protect the body against abrupt changes in temperature and maintain homeostasis
• Help excrete waste materials through perspiration
• Act as a receptor for touch, pressure, pain, heat, and cold.
• Protect the body against sunburns by secreting melanin
• Generate vitamin D through exposure to ultraviolet light
• Store water, fat, glucose, vitamin D
• Maintenance of the body form
• Formation of new cells from stratum germinativum to repair minor injuries
• Protect from UV rays.
• Regulates body temperature
Integumentary system of Invertebrates (Unicellular)
Plasma Membrane
• In protozoa, plasma membrane act as an external covering that can provide larger
surface area to volume ratio for uptake of nutrients, gaseous exchange and
excretion.
• Paramecium have pellicle (thick protein coat)
that provides environmental protection.
Integumentary System in Multicellular Invertebrates
• They have covering of single columnar epithelial cells
• Outer layer is known as epidermis lies above basement membrane.
• Epidermal cells may contain cilia at the upper surface.
• Glandular cells secretions encase part or most of the animal.
Cuticle
• It is a highly variable structure outside the epidermis of many invertebrates, in which it
forms an outer covering or exoskeleton.
• The main structural components of the nematode cuticle are proteins, collagens,
specialized insoluble proteins known as "cuticlins", glycoproteins and lipids
• Cuticle can be thin and elastic as in rotifers.
• Thick and rigid as in insects, crustaceans or arachnids)
Exoskeleton in Arthropods
• Most complex form of integument.
• Exoskeleton ectodermal in origin.
• Provide support, shape and strength to body
• Protection from injuries.
Structure:
• 3 layers are:
i) Cuticle: a) Epicuticle
b) Procuticle (exocuticle and endocuticle)
ii). Epidermis/ Hypodermis (living cells)
iii). Inner basement membrane (composed of proteins, glycosaminoglycans)
• Sclerotization: Process of hardening of exoskeleton. It provides armor like protection.
• Ecdysis: shedding or molting of exoskeleton
Shell
• In Cnidarians, epidermis is few cell thick as in Hydra.
• Deposition of calcium carbonate secreted by
mucus glands forms a shell, as present in corals.
Tegument
• Complex syncytium present outside the body
of parasitic flukes (tape worm, liver fluke)
• Provide protection and helps in nutrients
ingestion.
Annelids and nematodes have single cell thick epidermis that secrete multilayer cuticle.
• Echinoderms: thin, usually ciliated epidermis and an underlying connective-
tissue dermis containing CaCO3
• In Mollusks, soft bodies are enclosed in a hard shell made of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3), which functions as an exoskeleton.
The Integumentary system of Vertebrates
• Skin is the vertebrate integument
• It is the largest organ (with respect to surface area) of the vertebrate body.
• Basic Plan
i). Epidermis: Epithelial tissue, one to many cell thick
ii). Dermis : Thicker layer of connective tissue beneath the epidermis
iii). Hypodermis : Loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, nerve endings and
separates the skin from deeper tissue
Skin of Fishes
i). Skin of Jawless fishes (lamprey or hagfishes)
• Scales are absent
• Relatively thick skin
• Epidermal cells secrete protective cuticle.
• Mucus producing glands produce slime.
• They are also known as ‘Slime eels’
ii) The Skin of Cartilaginous Fishes:

• The skin of cartilaginous fishes (e.g., sharks) is multilayered and contains

mucous and sensory cells
• The dermis contains bone in the form of small placoid scales called
denticles
• Denticles contain blood vessels and nerves and are similar to vertebrate
teeth
• New denticles are produced to maintain enough of these protective
structures at the skin surface
• Like teeth, once denticles reach maturity,
they do not grow and are lost
• Since denticles give a sandpaper texture
The Skin of Bony Fishes
• The skin of bony fishes (teleosts) contains scales composed of dermal bone
• A thin layer of dermal tissue overlaid by the epidermis normally covers scales
• Scales are not shed and grow at the margins and over the lower surface
• Growth lines are useful in determining the age of a fish.
• The skin of bony fishes is permeable
and functions in gas exchange
• The dermis is richly supplied with capillary beds
to facilitate its use in respiration
• The epidermis also contains many mucous glands
• Mucus production prevent infections, and reduces friction while swimming.
• Some species have granular glands that secrete an Irritating or poisonous alkaloid
• Many teleosts have photophores that facilitate species recognition or act like lures and warning
signals
iv) The Skin of Amphibians
• Amphibian skin consists of a stratified epidermis and a dermis containing mucous and
serous glands plus pigmentation cells
• During amphibian evolution, keratin production increased in the outer layer of skin cells.
• Keratin is a tough, impermeable protein that protects the skin in the physically abrasive,
rigorous terrestrial environment
• The increased keratin in the skin also protects the cells, especially their nuclear material, from
ultraviolet light.
• The mucus that mucous glands produce helps prevent desiccation, facilitates gas exchange and
makes the body slimy, which facilitates desiccation.
• Within the dermis of some amphibians are poison glands that produce an unpleasant-
tasting or toxic fluid that acts as a predator deterrent
• Sensory nerves penetrate the epidermis as free nerve endings
• Interestingly, the “warts’’ of toads seem to be specialized sensory structures, since they contain
many sensory cells
v) The Skin of Reptiles
• The outer layer of the epidermis (stratum corneum) is thick , lacks glands, and
modified into keratinized scales, scutes (thick scales) in snakes and turtles, beaks
in turtles, rattles on snakes, and claws, plaques, and spiny crests on most other reptiles.
• This thick, keratinized layer resists abrasion, inhibits dehydration, and protects like a suit
of armor.
• During shedding or molting of the skin of many reptiles (e.g., snakes and lizards), the
old outer layer separates from newly formed epidermis.
• Diffusion of fluid between the layers aids this separation
Scutes, beak, scales, rattle, claws & spiny crest are keratinized structures
vi) The Skin of Birds:
• Typically no epidermal glands (the only epidermal gland of birds is the uropygial
or preen gland).
• Epidermis is usually thin and only two or three cell layers thick.
• The outer keratinized layer is often soft. The most prominent parts of the
epidermis are the feathers. Feathers are derived from the scales of reptilian
ancestors and are the most complex of all the derivate of the vertebrate stratum
corneum.
• The dermis contains blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves, and sensory bodies
derived from epidermis.
• Air spaces are extend into the dermis. These air spaces are involved in thermal
regulation.
•Smooth muscles controlling the position of feathers are in dermis, important for
flight, thermoregulation & avian behavior.
•Fat deposits in hypodermis of water birds help in insulation & are energy reserves
vii) The Skin of Mammals:
• The notable features of mammalian skin are:
(1) hair;
(2) a greater variety of epidermal glands
(3) a highly stratified, cornified epidermis; and
(4) a dermis many times thicker than the epidermis.
• The epidermis of is composed of stratified squamous epithelium and consists of
several layers of a variety of cells. Rapid cell divisions in the deepest layer of the
epidermis push cells toward the surface of the skin. As cells progress toward the surface,
they die and become keratinized (contain the protein keratin).
• Keratinized cells make up the outer skin layer, called the stratum corneum.
• The stratum corneum prevents dehydration and is a first line of defense against many
toxic substances and microorganisms.
Dermis is thickest & contains
• Blood vessels
• Lymphatic vessels
• Muscles
• Glands
• Nerves
• Hair follicles
Hypodermis beneath the dermis
• Loose connective tissue
• Adipose tissue
Protective & other Roles:
• Thermoregulation by sweat glands regulation
• Screening UV-rays
• Vitamin D synthesis
• Sensory reception for heat, cold, touch, pressure & pain
Glands:
• Sudoriferous : Sweat glands for Perspiration. May produce pheromone
• Sebaceous : Produce Sebum, a permeability barrier, emollient &
protective against microorganisms. May act as pheromone
Skin Color:
• Pigments or other anatomical differences
• Chromatophores are skin cells containing melanin
• Bright skin colors deter predators in animals
• Help in camouflage
• Help in communication
• Skin of Mammals
Hair
• Hair are keratin filled structures secreted by the epidermal cells
• Shaft protrudes out of the skin
• Root remains inside
• Arrector pilli muscle binds with the connective tissue surrounding the
bulb of hair
• Contraction of arrector pilli leads to the erection of hair shaft, referred as
‘goose bump’.
• Warm air is trapped in the fur of erected hairs
Nails:
• Modification of the epidermis
• Horney plates on the dorsal surface of distal digits
• Horns and Baleen plates are also keratinized derivatives