Anaphy Reviewer connection to the body and is used

for the appendicular region only.

Anatomy - is the study of structures, - Distal is farther from the
and physiology is the study of how connection to the body and is used
structures function. for the appendicular region only.
Pathology - is the study of disease.
Anatomical Terms
The standard anatomical position is
standing with arms at the sides and
palms and head facing forward.

- Superficial is closer to the

surface.
 Anatomical Terms of Direction - Deep is farther from the surface.
- Anterior or ventral means “front” - Right is on the body’s right side.
or “belly side.” - Left is on the body’s left side.
- Posterior or dorsal means “back
side”.
- Superior is closer to the top of
the head and is used for the axial
region only.
- Inferior is farther away from the
top of the head and is used for the
axial region only.

 Anatomical Regions
 Anatomical Terms of Direction
- Medial is toward the midline of
the body.
- Lateral is away from the midline
of the body.
- Proximal is closer to the
Axial region is the head, neck, and
trunk.
• Abdominal is belly.
• Axillary is armpit.
• Cranial or cephalic is head.
• Cervical is neck.
• Facial is face.
• Inguinal is groin.
• Pelvic is lower trunk.
• Thoracic is chest.
• Umbilical is navel.
Anatomical Regions Anatomical Positions
The Appendicular region includes arms - Supine is anterior surface facing
and legs. up.
• Brachial is arm. - Prone is anterior surface facing
• Carpal is wrist. down.
• Cubital is elbow.
• Femoral is thigh. Anatomical Cavities
• Palmar is palms of the hands.
• Patellar is knee. The dorsal cavity
• Plantar is soles of the feet. • Cranial cavity - lined by the
• Tarsal is ankle. meninges.
• Vertebral cavity- lined by the
meninges.

The thoracic cavity

• Two pleural cavities - lined by
pleural membranes.
• Pericardial cavity - lined by the
pericardial membranes.
• Mediastinum - space between the
pleural cavities.

The abdominopelvic cavity

• Abdominal cavity - lined by the
Anatomical Planes peritoneum.
- The sagittal plane separates right • Pelvic cavity - lined by the
from left. peritoneum.
- The transverse or horizontal plane
separates top from bottom.
- The frontal or coronal plane
separates front from back.
Serous Membranes
- form two layers when surrounding an
organ, similar to a water balloon
surrounding a fist.
• The pericardial membranes surround
the heart.
• The pleural membranes surround the
lungs.
• The peritoneal membranes surround
many of the abdominopelvic organs.
• The area posterior to the peritoneal
membranes is the retroperitoneal
space.

- The portion of the serous membrane

in contact with the organ is the
visceral pericardium, visceral pleura,
or visceral peritoneum.
- The portion of the serous membrane
not in contact with the organ is the
parietal pericardium, parietal pleura,
or parietal peritoneum.

Homeostasis
- is a steady internal environment in
which the body works best.
• If the body detects a change away
from homeostasis, it will use either
of two feedback mechanisms.

• Negative feedback - is the process

Serous Membranes
- The mesenteries are sections of the
peritoneum that neatly arrange blood
vessels and nerves to organs.
• The greater and lesser omentums are
extensions of the peritoneal membrane.
the body uses to reverse the direction
of movement away from homeostasis.
• Positive feedback - is the process
the body uses to increase the movement
away from homeostasis.

Terms of Pathology
Pathology is the study of disease.
Disease - abnormally functioning
organs or organ systems resulting from
a disruption in the normal state of
the body’s internal environment
(homeostasis).
Predisposing Factors of Disease
Predisposing factors are risk factors
or activities that people participate
in that can affect their health.
• Ones that cannot be controlled:
1. Age.
2. Gender.
3. Heredity.
• Ones that can be controlled:
4. Lifestyle.
5. Environment.
Predisposing Factors of Disease
1. Age
• More susceptible to disease:
• Elderly: as the body gets older,
organ systems can become less
efficient.
• Children: babies are born with
partially developed
immune systems.
• More susceptible to infectious
disease.
Children may also suffer from:
• Congenital disorders: present at
birth.
• Genetic disorders: caused by
inherited genes,which are passed to
children by their parents.
• Developmental disorders: occur while
the child is developing in the womb,
at birth, or after birth; may
interrupt normal development.
The Elderly
• As the body ages, there is a general
reduction in function.
• There is an inability of certain
organs such as the brain and heart to
regenerate.
• Overall, women live longer than men.
2. Gender
• Gender refers to the sex of an
individual— male or female.
• Some diseases affect only males or
females due to the differences in
anatomy.
3. Heredity
• There is a combination of the
genetic codes from both parents.
• There are genetic links to certain
diseases and pathological conditions—
predisposition.
• Many times, predisposition combined
with the presence of certain lifestyle
risk factors make a person more prone
to a particular disease or
condition.
4. Lifestyle
• Bad lifestyle choices can contribute
to disease.
• Lifestyle risk factors can be
controlled and altered by the
individual.
5. Environment
• Environmental stressors that can
contribute to poor health:
• Polluted air/water.
• Chronic stress.
• Loud noise.
• Poor and unsanitary living
conditions.
• Contaminated food.
Signs and Symptoms of Disease
Signs
• Objective signals: can be measured.
• For example, fever.
Symptoms
• Subjective signals relative to the
patient:
cannot be measured.
• For example, headache or nausea.
Pain
• Serves as a defense mechanism to
warn the person that there is a
problem.
• Prevents further injury.
Inflammation - is the body’s normal
immune response to injury and disease.
Redness, heat, swelling, and pain are
signs and symptoms of inflammation.
• Mediators: chemicals released by
damaged tissue that dilate blood
vessels.
Classification of Disease
Diseases can be classified as:
1. Infectious diseases.
2. Cancers.
3. Immune disorders.
4. Genetic disorders.
5. Mental disorders.
6. Conditions caused by trauma or
injury.
Classification of Disease
1. Infectious Disease
• Caused by pathogens.
• Damage local tissue.
• Produce substances that are toxic to
the infected individual.
2. Cancers
• Uncontrollable cell growth and
proliferation.
• Mostly caused from mutations.
• Form tumors, or neoplasms, that
compete with healthy tissue for
nutrients.
• Angiogenesis.
3. Immune Disorders
• 3 Types.
• Hypersensitivities.
• Immunodeficiency disorders.
• Autoimmune disorders.
• Hypersensitivities.
• An overreaction of the immune system
to an allergen.
• Anaphylaxis: a severe, systemic
reaction that can cause tightening of
the airway.
• Immunodeficiency disorders
• Deficiency in the immune system’s
ability to defend the body.
• Body is left vulnerable to
pathological conditions.
• Autoimmune disorders
• Inability of the immune system to
distinguish between self and non-self.
• The body’s immune system attacks its
own cells.
4. Genetic Disorders
• Characterized as abnormalities
caused by:
• A mutation in the genetic code.
• Presence of abnormal chromosomes.
• The alteration of chromosomal
structure.
5. Mental Disorders
• A class of conditions of the mind
and include disorders associated with
behavior or psychological well-being.
• Various etiologies.
6. Trauma / Injury
• Trauma can be defined as a wound or
shock produced by an injury.
Diagnosing Disease
- Diagnosis is the interpretation of
all the data collected or the process
of determining the cause or nature of
the problem.
- Diseases are found by either a
routine screening or a patient
experiencing signs and symptoms.
- The medical professional evaluates
the chief complaint, by performing a
history and physical exam.
- Diagnostic tests and laboratory
screenings are performed.
- Based on the history, physical exam,
diagnostic and lab tests, the
differential diagnosis is made.
- Treatment is then planned.
Differential Diagnosis
- A differential diagnosis is used
when there is more than one disease
that might be responsible for the
patient’s condition.
Treatment of the Disease
4 Types of Treatment Plans:
1. Palliative treatment: make patient
comfortable when there is no cure.
2. Curative treatment: to cure
disease.
3. Therapeutic treatment: to restore
normal function.
4. Preventive treatment: steps can be
taken to prevent disease from
happening.
Introduction to Epidemiology1
Epidemiology is the study of how
disease affects the overall health and
well-being of a population.
Incidence of disease refers to the
rate and range of the occurrence of
the disease.
Prevalence of disease refers to how
widespread the occurrence of the
disease may be.
--------------------
Levels of Organization of
the Human Body
- Our bodies are organized in a
hierarchy, from simplest to most
complex:
• chemical → organelles → cells →
tissues → organs → systems → organism
Levels of Organization
Chemical Level
• All matter is composed of atoms
containing protons, neutrons, and
electrons.
• Atomic number equals the number of
protons.
• Atomic mass equals the number of
protons plus the number of neutrons.
Chemical Level
• Atomic structure
• Protons and neutrons are contained
in the central nucleus of an atom.
• Electrons circle the nucleus.
• Charges of subatomic particles
• Protons are positively charged.
• Neutrons have no electrical charge.
• Electrons are negatively charged.
• Atoms contain the same number of
protons and electrons and are
electrically neutral.
• Isotopes are atoms that have
additional or missing neutrons.
• If an isotope freely gives off
particles, it is called a
radioisotope.
Bonding to Form Molecules
• Atoms bond to form molecules.
• Atoms share electrons to form a
covalent bond.
• Atoms give up and receive electrons
in an ionic bond.
• Ionically bonded molecules separate
to become ions in water.
• Ions are charged atoms.
• Ions in solution are electrolytes.
Water
• Water carries out five vital
functions in the body:
1. It allows for ions in solution.
2. It works as a lubricant.
3. It aids in chemical reactions.
4. It helps with transportation.
5. It is used for temperature
regulation.
Solutions
• A solution is composed of a solute
dissolved in a solvent.
• Concentration refers to the amount
of solute relative to the amount of
solvent.
• In comparing solutions, a hypertonic
solution is more concentrated, an
isotonic solution is the same
concentration, and a hypotonic
solution is less concentrated.
Acids, Bases, and pH
• Acids are hydrogen ion (H+) donors.
• Bases accept hydrogen (H+) ions.
• The pH scale is used to measure
acidity and alkalinity.
• Every one-number difference is a
tenfold difference in the amount of H+
or OH−.
Organic Molecules
• The four types of organic molecules
are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids.
• All organic molecules must contain
atoms of carbon and hydrogen.
• Organic molecules are composed of
building, which are sub-units of
complex molecules.
Carbohydrates
• Formed of carbon, oxygen, and
hydrogen atoms.
• 2 hydrogen atoms for every oxygen
atom.
• They are the primary source of
nutrient energy for body cells.
• Classified by molecular size due to
numbers of bonded sub-units.
• Monosaccharides
• Disaccharides
• Polysaccharides
- Monosaccharides or simple sugars
• Simplest carbohydrates.
• Building blocks of carbohydrates.
• Glucose (C6H12O6) is major fuel for
cells.
• Fructose and galactose are 6-carbon
simple sugars found in foods.
• Disaccharides
• Formed by chemically combining 2
monosaccharides.
• Maltose.
• Sucrose.
• Lactose.
Polysaccharides
• Formed by chemically combining many
monosaccharides.
• Glycogen: animal carbohydrate
storage.
• Starch: plant carbohydrate storage.
Lipids
• Consist of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen atoms.
• Carbon atoms form the backbone of
lipid molecules.
• There are many more hydrogen atoms
than oxygen atoms.
• Building blocks are often glycerol
and fatty acids.
• Most abundant in the body are
• Fats (triglycerides)
• Phospholipids
• Steroids
Proteins
• Amino acids are the building units
of proteins.
• Composed of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen atoms.
• Consist of an amine group, acid
group, and a R group.
• 20 different types of amino acids,
each differ in their R groups.
• Long strings of amino acids called
polypeptides fold to form functional
proteins.
Nucleic Acids
• Two types in cells:
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
• Building blocks are called
nucleotides.
• Composed of 1 pentose sugar, 1
phosphate, and 1 nitrogenous base.
The nitrogenous bases are:
• guanine, cytosine, adenine, and
thymine in DNA.
• guanine, cytosine, adenine, and
uracil in RNA.
The pentose sugars are:
• deoxyribose in DNA
• ribose in RNA
Nucleic Acids
• Nucleotides are arranged in three-
letter sequences called triplets.
• Triplets determined the genetic
code.
• A “word” in the genetic code is a
gene.
• Genes code for instructions such as
how to make a protein molecule.
Chemical Reactions
• Molecules must come together to
react.
• Metabolism is the total of all the
chemical reactions in the body.
• Reactants → Products
Speed of Reactions
• Reactions happen faster if:
1. The concentration of the reactants
is increased,
2. The speed of the reactants is
increased by adding heat, and
3. A catalyst is used.
• Enzymes are the major catalysts in
the human body.
Cellular Respiration
• Cellular respiration is one of the
most important chemical reactions in
the body.
- C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
- Glucose + Oxygen yields Carbon
dioxide and Water
• This process yields a great deal of
energy which is used to produce
molecules of ATP.
ATP
• The molecule ATP contains the usable
form of energy for the cell.
Energy + ADP + P → ATP
Energy + Adenosine Diphosphate +
Phosphate → Adenosine Triphosphate