Learning occurs when

experiences causes a relatively

permanent change in an
individual's knowledge and
behavior.
Lecture 6
Comparing
Behavioral View
Cognitive and
Behavioral
-Behaviors are
Views learned
-(reinforcement)
reinforcement
strengthens
responses
 Comparing
Cognitive View
Cognitive and
- Knowledge and strategies
are learned, then the
Behavioral
changes in knowledge and
strategies make the changes
Views
in behavior possible
- (reinforcement) source of
information about what is
likely to happen if behaviors
are repeated or changed
Cognitive
Learning - explains how thinking
Theory and mental processes are
influenced by internal
and external factors in
order to produce
learning in individuals.
Cognitive - focuses on how
information is processed by
Learning the brain
Theory - how learning occurs
through the internal
processing of information.
- implies that the different
processes concerning learning
can be explained by analyzing
the mental processes
Social
Cognitive
- views individuals as
Theory active agents who both
(Albert Bandura) influence and are
influenced by their
environment.
Social Observational learning:

Cognitive Learning desirable and

undesirable behaviors by
Theory observing others, then
reproducing learned behaviors
(Albert Bandura)

Individuals' beliefs in their

own self-efficacy influences
whether or not they will
reproduce an observed
behavior.
Cognition
- refers to the mental
processes involved in
gaining knowledge and
comprehension.
- include thinking,
knowing,
remembering, judging,
and problem-solving
Types of
Attention:
Cognitive
Processes - allows people to focus on
a specific stimulus in the
environment

Example: when listening to

instructions given in class
Types of Language:
Cognitive
Processes - involve the ability to
understand and express
thoughts through spoken
and written words
- allows individuals to
communicate with others
and comprehend a variety
of situations.
Types of Learning:
Cognitive
Processes - process new
information and
integrating it with prior
knowledge
- gain new knowledge

Example: learning a new

topic discussed in class
Memory: Types of
- allows people to encode,
store, and retrieve Cognitive
information. Processes
- allows us to recall and
recognize objects and
helps us to respond and
react to different
situations
Example: names of people
Types of Perception:
Cognitive
Processes - allows people to take in
information through their
senses (sensation) and
then
- use this information to
make sense of, respond to
and perceive different
situations.
Thought:
Types of
Cognitive
- allows people to engage in Processes
decision-making, problem-
solving, and higher
reasoning.
Cognitive
Views of Sensory Memory
Memory
Working Memory

Long term Memory

 The initial processing which
Sensory transforms incoming stimuli
(tremendous amount of
Memory information about the
environment) into an
information that we can make
sense of.

Information last for less than 3

seconds

The purpose of sensory

memory is to retain
information long enough for it
to be recognized
Sensory
Iconic Memory:
Memory - also known as visual
(Types of Sensory Memory) sensory memory,

- this type of sensory

memory typically lasts for
about one-quarter to one-
half of a second.
Sensory Echoic memory:
Memory
(Types of Sensory Memory) - also known as auditory
sensory memory
- involves a very brief
memory of sound a bit
like an echo
- this type of sensory
memory can last for up
to three to four seconds.
Sensory
Haptic memory:
Memory
(Types of Sensory Memory)
- also known as tactile
memory,
- this type of sensory
memory lasts for
approximately two
seconds
Short-term - also known as primary
Memory or active memory, is
the capacity to store a
small amount of
information in the
mind and keep it
readily available for a
short period of time.
Short-term - most information kept in
Memory short-term memory will
be stored for
approximately 20 to 30
seconds
- some information can last
in short-term memory for
up to a minute,
- but most information
spontaneously decays
quickly
Short-term - the information in short-
Memory term memory is also
highly susceptible to
interference (any new
information that enters
short-term memory will
quickly displace old
information)

- Maintenance rehearsal,
Chunking, Mnemonics
Long-term
- the storage of
Memory information over an
extended period

- this type of memory

tends to be stable and
can last a long time
Long-term Explicit Memory:

Memory - also known as declarative

memories
- include all of the
memories that are
available in consciousness
- divided into episodic
memory and semantic
memory
Long-term Episodic Memory:
- responsible for storing
Memory information about event,
experiences

Semantic Memory:
- responsible for storing
information about the
world (meaning of words,
genera) knowledge.
Long-term Implicit memories:
Memory - includes procedural mem
ory which involves
memories of body
movement and how to use
objects in the
environment

Example: how to use a

computer
Lecture 7
 Behaviorism (behavioral
psychology), is a theory of
learning which states all
behaviors are learned through
interaction with the environment
through a process called
conditioning.
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
• also known as Pavlovian or respondent
conditioning) is learning through association
• focuses on the learning of involuntary emotional
or physiological responses (such as increased
muscle tension, salivation, sweating)
• humans (and animals) can be trained to react
involuntarily to a stimulus that previously had
no effect.
 Unconditioned
How Classical stimulus – a stimulus
that is innately
conditioning Works: capable of eliciting a
response (meat
powder)
Before Conditioning:
the unconditioned Unconditioned
stimulus produces an response – an innate
unconditioned response reflex response
in an organism. elicited by an
unconditioned
stimulus (salivation)
 How Classical
conditioning Works:
During Conditioning:
a stimulus which produces no
response (neutral stimulus) is
associated with the
unconditioned stimulus at
which point it now becomes
known as the conditioned
stimulus.
Neutral stimulus – a
stimulus that does not
evoke a response (bell)
Conditioned stimulus –
a stimulus, that because
of learning, will evoke a
response (bell)
 How Classical
conditioning Works:
Conditioned response –
a learned response
After Conditioning: elicited by a
the conditioned stimulus conditioned stimulus
has been associated with (salivation)
the unconditioned stimulus
to create a new conditioned
response.
Elements of Classical conditioning:

Acquisition - a period in conditioning

during which a response is
reinforced

Expectancy - an anticipation that

concerns future events
Extinction - the weakening of a conditioned
response through the removal of a
reinforcement
Spontaneous Recovery - refers to the return of a conditioned
response (in a weaker form) after a period
of time following extinction

Generalization (stimulus - a tendency to response to a stimuli that

generalization) is similar to a conditioned stimulus
Discrimination (stimulus - a learned ability to respond differently
discrimination) to similar stimuli
 Guidelines in Applying Classical
conditioning:
• There is a need to try to make sure that students
associate positive emotional experiences with
learning.
• Emotional learning can sometimes interfere with
academic learning
• Classical conditioning can be used to help learn
more adaptive emotional responses.
Examples:
a. Make reading appealing through a comfortable
reading corner or display of colorful books
b. If a student is hesitant to speak in front of the whole
class, allow the student to read the report to a smaller
group then moving towards reading or reporting in
front of the class
c. Help students recognize the similarities and
differences among situations (taking entrance exams)
 Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
- It is also referred to as instrumental conditioning
which is a method of learning that employs
rewards and punishments for behavior.
- The learning process involved in operant behavior
is called operant conditioning because people
learn to behave in ways as they operate on the
environment.
- Through operant conditioning, an association is
made between a behavior and a consequence for
that behavior.
Antecedent Behavior Consequences
 Types of
Antecedents Consequences

- are the events preceding the Reinforcement Punishment

behavior
- provides information about which Strengthens the Decreases the
behaviors will lead to positive behavior behavior
consequences or unpleasant ones.
I. Reinforcement
• Is any consequence that strengthens the behavior it follows
• Reinforced behaviors increase in frequency or duration
• In operant conditioning individuals (animals) will not
persist in a certain behavior if the usual reinforcer is held
long enough (extinction)

Consequence: Strengthened or repeated

Behavior
Reinforcer behavior
Positive reinforcers - are favorable events or outcomes
that are presented after the behavior

Negative reinforcers - involve the removal of an

unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a
behavior.
Reinforcement Schedules:
Schedule Definition Response pattern
- reinforcement rapid learning of
after every response
response
Continuous - a schedule in
which every
correct response
is followed by a
reinforcer
 - reinforcement response rate
after a set period increases as the
of time time for
- a reinforcer is reinforcement
given only when a approaches, then
Fixed-interval correct response drops after
is made after a set reinforcement
amount of time
has passed since
the last reinforced
response
 - reinforcement slow, steady rate of
after varying responding, very
lengths of time little pause after
Variable-interval - a reinforcer is reinforcement
given for the first
correct response
made after a
varied amount of
time has passed
 - reinforcement rapid response rate,
after a set number pause after
of responses reinforcement
- a set number of
correct responses
Fixed-ratio must be made to
get a reinforcer
(example: a
reinforcer is given
for every 5 correct
responses)
 - reinforcement after very high response
a varying number rate, little pause
of responses after reinforcement
- a varied number of
correct responses
must be made to
Variable-ratio
get a reinforcer
(example a
reinforcer is given
after 3, 4, or 5
responses)
II. Punishment

• Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment

• It involves decreasing or suppressing the behavior.

Consequence: Weakened or decreased

Behavior
Punishment behavior
Guidelines in Applying Operant
conditioning
• Recognize positive behaviors
• Make sure all students receives praise, privileges,
or rewards when they do something well
• After new behaviors are established, give
reinforcement on an unpredictable schedule to
encourage persistence
• Establish a variety of reinforcers