Learning occurs when experiences cause a relatively permanent change

in an individual’s knowledge and behavior. ● Cognitive Views of Memory

○ Sensory Memory
Cognitive Views of Learning - The initial processing which transforms incoming stimuli
(tremendous amounts of information about the
Comparing Cognitive and Behavioral Views
environment) into information that we can make sense
● Behavioral View
of.
- Behaviors are learned.
- Information lasts for less than 3 seconds.
- (Reinforcement) reinforcement strengthens responses.
- The purpose of sensory memory is to retain information
long enough for it to be recognized.
● Cognitive View
- Knowledge and strategies are learned, then the changes
Types of Sensory Memory:
in knowledge and strategies make the changes in
■ Iconic Memory
behavior possible.
- Also known as visual sensory memory.
- (Reinforcement) Source of information about what is
- This type of sensory memory typically lasts for
likely to happen if behaviors are repeated or changed.
about one-quarter to one-half of a second.
■ Echoic Memory
Cognitive Learning Theory
- Also known as auditory sensory memory.
- Explains how thinking and mental processes are influenced
- Involves a very brief memory of sound a bit like
by internal and external factors in order to produce learning
an echo.
in individuals.
- This type of sensory memory can last for up to
- Focuses on how information is processed by the brain.
three to four seconds.
- How learning occurs through the internal processing of
■ Haptic Memory
information.
- Also known as tactile memory.
- Implies that the different processes concerning learning can
- This type of sensory memory lasts for
be explained by analyzing the mental processes.
approximately two seconds.
Social Cognitive Theory [Albert Bandura]
o Working Memory/Short-term Memory
- Views individuals as active agents who both influence and are
- Also known as primary or active memory, is the capacity
influenced by their environment.
to store a small amount of information in the mind and
● Observational Learning: keep it readily available for a short period of time.
- Learning desirable and undesirable behaviors by - Most information kept in short-term memory will be
observing others, then reproducing learned behaviors. stored for approximately 20 to 30 seconds.
- Individuals’ beliefs in their own self-efficacy influences - Some information can last in short-term memory for up
whether or not they will reproduce and observe to a minute, but most information spontaneously decays
behavior. quickly.
- The information in short-term memory is also highly
Cognitive susceptible to interference (any new information that
- Refers to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and enters short-term memory will quickly displace old
comprehension. information.)
- Include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem- | Example: Maintenance, rehearsal, chunking, mnemonics
solving.
o Long Term Memory
Types of Cognitive Processes: - The storage of information over an extended period.
● Attention - This type of memory tends to be stable and can last a
- Allows people to focus on a specific stimulus in the long time.
environment.
| Example: When listening to instructions given in class. Types of Long-term Memory
● Explicit Memory
● Language - Also known as declarative memories.
- Involve the ability to understand and express thoughts - Include all of the memories that are available
through spoken and written words. in consciousness.
- Allows individuals to communicate with others and - Divided into episodic memory and semantic
comprehend a variety of situations. memory
■ Episodic Memory
● Learning - Responsible for storing
- Process new information and integrating it with prior information about event,
knowledge. experiences.
- Gain new knowledge. ■ Semantic Memory
| Example: Learning a new topic discussed in class. - Responsible for storing
information about the world
● Memory (Meaning of words, general)
- Allows people to encode, store, and retrieve information. knowledge.
- Allows us to recall and recognize objects and helps us to ● Implicit Memory
respond and react to different situations. - Includes procedural memory
| Example: Names of people which involves memories of
body movement and hot to use
● Perception objects in the environment.
- Allows people to take in information through their | Example: how to use a
senses (sensation) and then. computer.
- Use this information to make sense of, respond to and
perceive different situations. Behavioral Views of Learning
- Behaviorism (behavioral psychology), is a theory of learning
• Thought which states all behaviors are learned through interactions
- Allows people to engage in decision-making, problem- with the environment through a process called conditioning.
solving, and higher reasoning.

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
- Also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning is
learning through association.
- Focuses on the learning of involuntary emotional or
physiological responses (such as increased muscle tension,
salivation, sweating)
- Humans (and animals) can be trained to react involuntarily to
a stimulus that previously had no effect.
How Classical Conditioning Works?
● Before Conditioning:
- The unconditioned stimulus produces an
unconditioned response in an organism.
○ Unconditioned Stimulus
- A stimulus that is innately capable of
eliciting a response (meat powder).
○ Unconditioned Response
- A innate reflex response elicited by an
unconditioned stimulus (salivation).
● During Conditioning:
- A stimulus which produces no response (neutral
stimulus) is associated with the unconditioned
stimulus at which point it now becomes known as
the conditioned stimulus.
○ Neutral Stimulus
- A stimulus that does not evoke a
response (bell).
○ Conditioned Stimulus
- A stimulus, that because of learning, will
evoke a response (bell).
● After Conditioning:
- The conditioned stimulus has been associated with
the unconditioned stimulus to create a new
conditioned response.
○ Conditioned Response
- A learned response elicited by
conditioned stimulus (salivation).
Elements of Classical Conditioning:
● Acquisition
- A period in conditioning during which a
response is reinforced.
● Expectancy
- An anticipation that concerns future events.
● Extinction
- The weakening of a conditioned response
through the removal of a reinforcement.
● Spontaneous Recovery
- Refers to the return of a conditioned response
(in a weaker form) after a period of time
following extinction.
● Generalization (Stimulus Generalization)
- A tendency to respond to a stimulus that is
similar to a conditioned stimulus.
● Discrimination (Stimulus Discrimination)
- A learned ability to responds differently to
similar stimuli.
b. If a student is hesitant to speak in front of the whole
class, allow the student to read the report to a smaller
group then moving towards reading or reporting in front
of the class
c. Help students recognize the similarities and differences
among situations (taking entrance exams).
Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
- It is also referred to as instrumental conditioning which is a method
of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior.
- The learning process involved in operant behavior is called operant
conditioning because people learn to behave in ways as they
operate on the environment.
- Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a
behavior and a consequence for that behavior.
[ Antecedent - Behavior - Consequences ]
● Antecedents
- Are the events preceding the behavior.
- Provides information about which behaviors will lead to
positive consequences or unpleasant ones.
Types of Consequences:
○ Reinforcement
- Strengthens the behavior.
○ Punishment
- Decrease the behavior.
■ Reinforcement
- Is any consequence that strengthens the
behavior it follows.
- Reinforced behaviors increase in frequency or
duration.
- In operant conditioning individuals (animals)
will not persist in a certain behavior if the usual
reinforcer is held long enough (extinction).
[ Behavior - Consequence: Reinforcer -
Strengthened or repeated behavior ]
a
● Positive Reinforcers
- Are favorable events or outcomes
that are presented after the
behavior.
● Negative Reinforcers
- Involve the removal of an
unfavorable events or outcomes
after the display of a behavior.

Guidelines for Applying Classical Conditioning:

- There is a need to try to make sure that students associate positive
emotional experiences with learning.
- Emotional learning can sometimes interfere with academic
learning.
- Classical conditioning can be used to help learn more adaptive
emotional responses.

Examples:
a. Make reading appealing through a comfortable reading
corner or display of colorful books.
 Schedule Definition Response Pattern

Continuous Reinforcement after Rapid learning of

every response response.

A schedule in which
every correct
response is followed
by a reinforcer

Fixed-Interval Reinforcement after Response rate

a set period of time increases as the time
for reinforcement
A reinforcer is given approaches, then
only when a correct drops after
response is made reinforcement.
after a set amount of
time has passed
since the last
reinforced response

Variable-Interval Reinforcement after Slow, steady rate of

varying lengths of responding, very
time little pause after
reinforcement.
A reinforcer is given
for the first correct
response made after
a varied amount of
time has passed.

Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement after Rapid response rate,

a set number of pause after
responses reinforcement.

A set number of
correct responses
must be made to get
a reinforcer
(Example: a
reinforcer is given for
every 5 correct
responses).

Variable-Interval Reinforcement after Very high response

a varying number of rate, little pause after
responses reinforcement.

A varied number of
correct responses
must be made to get
a reinforcer (example
a reinforcer is given
after 3, 4, or 5
responses).

■ Punishment
- Negative reinforcement is often confused with
punishment
- It involves decreasing or suppressing the
behavior.

[ Behavior - Consequence: Punishment - Weakened

or decreased behavior ]

Guidelines in Applying Operant Conditioning

● Recognize positive behaviors.
● Make sure all students receives praise, privileges, or rewards
when they do something well.
● After new behaviors are established, give reinforcement on an
unpredictable schedule to encourage persistence.
● Establish a variety of reinforcers.