NAME ASHHAR HUMMAM

REG. NO 70124630
SUBJECT MICROBIOLOGY
SUBMITTED TO PROF. SAJIDA
KINGDOM FUNGI

Fungi Definition
Fungi (singular: fungus) are a kingdom of usually multicellular
eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophs (cannot make their own
food) and have important roles in nutrient cycling in an ecosystem.
Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually, and they also have
symbiotic associations with plants and bacteria. However, they are also
responsible for some diseases in plants and animals. The study of fungi
is known as mycology.

Fungi Characteristics
Some fungi are single-celled, while others are multicellular. Single-
celled fungi are called yeast. Some fungi alternate between single-celled
yeast and multicellular forms depending on what stage of the life cycle
they are in. Fungi cells have a nucleus and organelles, like plant and
animal cells do. The cell walls of fungi contain chitin, which is a hard
substance also found in the exoskeletons of insects and arthropods such
as crustaceans. They do not contain cellulose, which commonly makes
up plant cell walls.

Multicellular fungi have many hyphae (singular: hypha), which are

branching filaments. Hyphae have a tubular shape and are split into cell-
like compartments by walls that are known as septa. These cells can
have more than one nucleus, and nuclei and other organelles can move
in between them. (There is some debate over whether multicellular fungi
are truly multicellular, because organelles and cytoplasm can move from
one cell to the other in a process called cytoplasmic streaming. They
are commonly known as multicellular, but they are not multicellular in
the same way as plants and animals, which have enclosed cells.) A
fungus’s network of hyphae is called a mycelium.

Penicillium
These are hyphae of a Penicillium fungus.

Fungi are heterotrophs; they cannot make their own food and must
obtain nutrients from organic material. To do so, they use their hyphae,
which elongate and branch off rapidly, allowing the mycelium of the
fungus to quickly increase in size. Some fungi hyphae even form root-
like threads called rhizomorphs, which help tether the fungus to the
substrate that it grows on while allowing it to quickly obtain more
nutrients from other sources. Fungi are opportunists, which means that
they can obtain nutrients from a wide variety of sources and thrive in a
wide range of environmental conditions. Some fungi obtain nutrients
from dead organic matter; these fungi are called saprobes and are
decomposers, which break down and get rid of dead organisms. Other
fungi parasitize plants and are responsible for plant diseases like Dutch
elm disease. However, fungi can also have symbiotic (mutually
beneficial) relationships with photosynthetic algae or bacteria, and with
plant roots. A symbiotic association of a fungus and an animal that
photosynthesizes is called a lichen, while a plant root-and-fungus
association is called a mycorrhiza.

Fungi Reproduction
Most fungi can reproduce through both sexual and asexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction occurs through the release of spores or through
mycelial fragmentation, which is when the mycelium separates into
multiple pieces that grow separately. In sexual reproduction, separate
individuals fuse their hyphae together. The exact life cycle depends on
the species, but generally multicellular fungi have a haploid stage (where
they have one set of chromosomes), a diploid stage, and a dikaryotic
stage where they have two sets of chromosomes but the sets remain
separate.

All fungi reproduce using spores. Spores are microscopic cells or groups
of cells that disperse from their parent fungus, usually through wind or
water. Spores can become dormant for a long time until conditions are
favorable for growth. This is an adaptation for opportunism; with a
sometimes unpredictable food source availability, spores can be dormant
until they are able to colonize a new food source. Fungi produce spores
through sexual and asexual reproduction.

Types of Fungi
There are five phyla of fungi: Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota,
Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. The following is a
brief description of each phylum.
Chytridiomycota
Chytrids, the organisms found in Chytridiomycota, are usually aquatic
and microscopic. They are usually asexual, and produce spores that
move around using flagella, small tail-like appendages. The chytrid
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis can cause a fungal infection in frogs by
burrowing under their skin, and it has recently devastated populations of
harlequin frogs, killing off two-thirds of them in Central and South
America.

Zygomycota
Zygomycetes are mainly terrestrial and feed off of plant detritus or
decaying animal material. They also cause problems by growing on
human food sources. One example of a zygomycte is Rhizopus
stolonifer, a bread mold. The hyphae of zygomycetes are not separated
by septa, making their mycelia essentially one large cell with many
nuclei. They usually reproduce asexually, through spores.

Glomeromycota
Glomeromycetes make up half of all fungi found in soil, and they often
form mycorrhizae with plants; in fact, 80-90 percent of all land plants
develop mycorrhizae with glomeromycetes. The fungi obtain sugars
from the plant, and in return, dissolve minerals in the soil to provide the
plant with nutrients. These fungi also reproduce asexually.

Ascomycota
Ascomycetes are often pathogens of plants and animals, including
humans, in which they are responsible for infections like athlete’s foot,
ringworm, and ergotism, which causes vomiting, convulsions,
hallucinations, and sometimes even death. However, some ascomycetes
normally are found inside humans, such as Candida albicans, a yeast
which lives in the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and female reproductive
tracts. Ascomycetes have reproductive sacs known as asci, which
produce sexual spores, but they also reproduce asexually.

Basidiomycota
Like ascomycetes, basidiomycetes also produce sexual spores called
basidiospores in cells called basidia. Basidia are usually club-shaped,
and basidiomycetes are also known as club fungi. Most basidiocytes
reproduce sexually. Mushrooms are a common example of
basidiomycetes.

Examples of Fungi
Fungi are sometimes overlooked in biology, especially compared to
bacteria, plants and animals. This is partially because many fungi are
microscopic, and the field of mycology did not really develop until after
the invention of the microscope. However, there are many common
examples of fungi. Yeasts are one example. As mentioned before,
Candida albicans grows naturally inside the human body, but sometimes
it can grow excessively and cause a yeast infection. Yeast infections are
extremely common; 75 percent of women will have at least one yeast
infection during their lifetime.

Fungi are also often associated with food. Mushrooms and truffles are
examples of fungi that are sometimes edible, the latter being highly
prized in haute cuisine internationally. Molds are fungi that grow on
foods over time, causing them to spoil. Food is refrigerated in order to
prevent mold growth since few molds grow at 4°C (39°F). However,
some molds are used in the process of cheese-making. Molds are added
to soft ripened cheeses like brie, washed rind cheeses like Limburger,
and blue cheeses.
Therapeutic uses
Modern chemotherapeutics
The mold Penicillium rubens was the source of penicillin G.
Many species produce metabolites that are major sources
of pharmacologically active drugs.
Antibiotics
Particularly important are the antibiotics, including the penicillins, a
structurally related group of β-lactam antibiotics that are synthesized
from small peptides. Although naturally occurring penicillins such
as penicillin G (produced by Penicillium chrysogenum) have a
relatively narrow spectrum of biological activity, a wide range of other
penicillins can be produced by chemical modification of the natural
penicillins. Modern penicillins are semisynthetic compounds, obtained
initially from fermentation cultures, but then structurally altered for
specific desirable properties. Other antibiotics produced by fungi
include: ciclosporin, commonly used as
an immunosuppressant during transplant surgery; and fusidic acid, used
to help control infection from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus bacteria. Widespread use of antibiotics for the treatment of
bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, syphilis, leprosy, and others
began in the early 20th century and continues to date. In nature,
antibiotics of fungal or bacterial origin appear to play a dual role: at high
concentrations they act as chemical defense against competition with
other microorganisms in species-rich environments, such as
the rhizosphere, and at low concentrations as quorum-sensing molecules
for intra- or interspecies signaling.
Other
Other drugs produced by fungi include griseofulvin isolated
from Penicillium griseofulvum, used to treat fungal infections,
and statins (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors), used to inhibit cholesterol
synthesis. Examples of statins found in fungi
include mevastatin from Penicillium
citrinum and lovastatin from Aspergillus terreus and the oyster
mushroom. Psilocybin from fungi is investigated for therapeutic
use and appears to cause global increases in
brain network integration. Fungi produce compounds that
inhibit viruses and cancer cells. Specific metabolites, such
as polysaccharide-K, ergotamine, and β-lactam antibiotics, are
routinely used in clinical medicine. The shiitake mushroom is a source
of lentinan, a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in
several countries, including Japan. In Europe and Japan, polysaccharide-
K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from Trametes versicolor, is
an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy.[250]
Traditional medicine

The fungi Ganoderma lucidum (left) and Ophiocordyceps

sinensis (right) are used in traditional medicine practices
Certain mushrooms are used as supposed therapeutics in folk medicine
practices, such as traditional Chinese medicine. Mushrooms with a
history of such use include Agaricus subrufescens, Ganoderma
lucidum, and Ophiocordyceps sinensis.
Cultured foods
Baker's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a unicellular fungus, is used
to make bread and other wheat-based products, such as pizza dough
and dumplings. Yeast species of the genus Saccharomyces are also used
to produce alcoholic beverages through fermentation Shoyu koji mold
(Aspergillus oryzae) is an essential ingredient in brewing Shoyu (soy
sauce) and sake, and the preparation of miso,] while Rhizopus species are
used for making tempeh. Several of these fungi are domesticated species
that were bred or selected according to their capacity to ferment food
without producing harmful mycotoxins (see below), which are produced
by very closely related Aspergilli.Quorn, a meat substitute, is made
from Fusarium venenatum.
 Many domestic and commercial operations rely on fungi, including
the production of bread, wine, beer, and some cheeses.
 A fungus may also be eaten; for example, certain mushrooms,
morels, and truffles are considered an exquisite delicacy.
 Mycoproteins (fungal proteins) generated from the mycelia of
specific fungi are used to manufacture high-protein dishes.

Source
Medical Uses of Fungi:
 Fungus-derived penicillin was effectively utilized to treat a
bacterial illness for the first time. Many formerly deadly bacteria-
related disorders become curable as a result.
Source
 Griseofulvin, a commonly used antifungal drug, is generated from
fungus. Dermatophytes are treated with griseofulvin. Following
topical treatment, it accumulates in the hair and skin.
 Another complex chemical with a limited spectrum of action
against yeasts and yeast-like organisms is sordarin. The chemicals
block protein production and have proven a popular therapy for
various human fungal diseases.
 Several fungi produce Cyclosporin A as a metabolite. It is a potent
immunosuppressant in animals, and it's widely used in humans
after bone marrow and organ transplants.
 Alkaloids found in ergots function by stimulating the sympathetic
nervous system. This causes noradrenaline and sclerotin to be
inhibited, causing blood vessels to widen.
 Ergot alkaloids are used to treat various ailments, the most
prevalent of which are migraines. During the commencement of an
attack, the vasodilator action helps to relieve tension. The
medications also aid in the reduction of blood pressure.
 Aspergillus terries, a soil-borne fungus, generate the secondary
metabolite lovastatin, whereas Phomma species produce
squalestatin.
 Statins have proved effective in decreasing low-density
lipoproteins (LDL), the "bad" cholesterol, from blood vessels
lowering the risk of arterial blockage, heart attack and diabetes.
Agriculture:
 Fungi, as animal pathogens, aid in the control of pest populations.
These fungi can only infect insects; they do not infect animals or
plants.
 Fungi are being researched as possible microbial insecticides, with
a few already on the market. For example, the fungus Beauveria
bassiana is studied as a potential biological control agent for the
emerald ash borer's recent expansion.
 The mycorrhizal interaction between fungus and plant roots is
critical for farmland production. 80–90% of trees and grasses
would die if they didn't have a fungal companion in their root
systems.
Source
 Gardening supply stores sell mycorrhizal fungi inoculants, which
organic agriculture proponents encourage as soil additions.
Fungi as Food
 Fungi have an important role in human nutrition. Delicacies
include morels, shiitake mushrooms, chanterelles, and truffles.
 Agaricus campestris, or meadow mushroom, is used in various
cuisines.

Source
 Molds of the genus Penicillium ripen many pieces of cheese. They
begin in a natural setting, such as the caves of Roquefort, France,
where wheels of sheep milk cheese are piled to collect the molds
that give the cheese its blue veins and pungent flavor.
 Fermenting grains to make beer and fruits to make wine is an old
technique humans have performed in most civilizations for
millennia.
 Ancient people collected wild yeasts from the environment and
fermented carbohydrates into CO2 and ethanol anaerobically.
Isolated wild yeast strains from several wine-making locations are
now available for purchase.
 In the late 1850s, Louis Pasteur played a key role in producing a
stable brewer's yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, for the French
brewing business.
  Saccharomyces cerevisiae, often known as baker's yeast, is a key
component of bread, which has been a necessity of human life for
thousands of years.
 Humans used to let the dough gather yeast from the air and rise
over hours or days until separate yeast became accessible in
modern days.
In the same way, sourdough bread is created today, a little portion of this
leavened dough was retained and used as a starter (source of the same
yeast) for the following batch.

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(listen). The first two pronunciations are favored more in the US
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in any English-speaking country.
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