UNIT 6: PERSUASION IN WRITING
Ethos
Persuasive writing
-intends to convince readers to believe in an idea and to take action.
-Many writings such as critiques, reviews, reaction papers, editorials,
proposals, advertisements, and brochures use different ways of persuasion
to influence readers.
Three common techniques in persuasive writing:
1.Presenting strong evidence
-such as facts and statistics, statements of expert authorities, and research
findings establish credibility. Readers will more likely be convinced to side
with the writer’s position or agree with his or her opinion if it is backed up by
verifiable evidence.
2.Concrete, relevant, and reasonable examples
-can enhance the writer’s idea or opinion. They can be based on
observations or the writer’s personal experience.
3.Accurate, current, and balanced information
-adds to the credibility of persuasive writing. The writer does not only present
evidence that favors his or her ideas, but he or she also acknowledges some
evidence that opposes his or her own. In the writing, though, his or her ideas
would be sound.
MODES OF PERSUASION
Aristotle (384 BCE–332 BCE)
-the Greek philosopher who introduced the modes of persuasion.
Ethos, pathos, and logos
-the modes of persuasion or ethical strategies to convince an audience of
one’s credibility or character.
-is the appeal to ethics.
-It focuses on using the credibility of the writer to convince the audience.
-The writer’s expertise on his or her subject matter, level of education, and
profession can support such credibility.
Pathos
-is the appeal to emotion.
-Human emotions such as sympathy, outrage, and sadness can be used to
motivate readers. Making use of these emotions can get the
audience to be emotionally invested in what the writer is saying.
-It is often used in advertising, and the probable reason is that our emotions
touch our very core and appeal to our values.
Logos
-is the appeal to logic and reason.
-It aims to be factual in its approach. In
persuasive writing, facts are presented in a logical manner, avoiding fallacies
and unverified information.
COMMON LOGICAL FALLACIES
Six common logical fallacies one must avoid in persuasive writing:
1. Ad hominem – In this type of argument, the writer opposes the points
made by attacking the person who made them. Instead of discussing the
issue, the writer calls the opponent names.
2. Faulty cause and effect – Two events that happen sequentially are
causally related. This argument is also called post hoc, ergo propter hoc
(“after this, therefore because of this”).
3. Either/Or reasoning – This type of reasoning provides the reader with
two options and does not recognize complexity. Often, those who use this in
an argument oversimplify the problem and only provide two solutions or
reasons for a problem.

4. Hasty generalization – This is the generalization or conclusion drawn
based on little evidence or a piece of evidence that is not representative of
the whole.
5. False analogy – To compare an issue, event, person, or object to another
can be useful, but the comparison can also confuse or mislead the audience.
There may be more differences than similarities between the two ideas being
compared, and one reason may apply to one but not the other.
6. Circular reasoning – It states the very thesis as its proof. Too often, the
supporting details are merely rephrasing the statement.
FREQUENTLY USED SOURCES OF INFORMATION IN PERSUASIVE
WRITING
1. Facts – These make an argument solid. They can be based on the
findings of experts and studies or one’s own observation, experiment, or
personal experience.
2. Statistics – This source of evidence can in fact be very persuasive
because numbers do not lie. However, the numbers should be accurate, and
the data should come from a reliable source.
3. Judgment – This refers to what the writer assumes about his or her topic
given the facts. He or she may present facts first and then make judgments
about those facts.
4. Testimony – This has two types, namely the account of an eyewitness
and the expert’s opinion. Both types are considered valid and can make an
argument convincing. The eyewitness account can provide important facts,
while the judgment of the expert can further strengthen the argument.
UNIT 11: DEVELOPMENT OF A TEXT
CONTEXT
Context
-is the circumstances that give an idea about an event,
statement, or written material so that it can be fully understood.
-Such circumstances, which can be cultural, historical, political,
social, or economic events, shape or influence a writer in writing
his or her work.
Context can include the following components:
1. Subject - This is the main topic of the author’s work. It can be anything
under the sun: culture, history, politics, society, economy, religion, current
events, etc.
2. Purpose - This is the author’s reason for writing. It can be one of the
following:
a. To narrate a story
b. To compare and contrast ideas
c. To review or evaluate a work
d. To explain an idea or concept
e. To explore and investigate an issue
f. To argue a point
g. To persuade the audience
3. Audience - The tone, style, diction, organization, and content of the
author’s work depend on his or her target audience or readers.
4. Occasion or situation - This may compel the writer to write, especially if
it is significant or relevant to him or her personally. It can be his or her
personal motivation to choose what to write about and how to write it.
INTERTEXTUALITY
The relationship formed between the two texts is called intertextuality.
-used by many writers to shape the meaning of their
work or add to it.
-it enhances the reading experience
The following are two forms of intertextuality:
1. The writer references either a brief or prolonged portion of a literary
text in his or her writing.
-He or she mentions the title of the book, uses one of its characters, or
recreates one of its scenes.
2. The writer references a media or social text in his or her writing.
-He or she mentions a film, a TV show, or a song, etc. and becomes part of
the writing.
HYPERTEXT
Hypertext
-It is an arrangement of information in a
computer database, in which objects like text, pictures, and
programs are linked to one another.
-nonlinear way of showing information in a text.
The term was coined in 1965 by Ted Nelson, an American pioneer of
information technology.
APPLICATIONS OF TEXT DEVELOPMENT TO CRITICAL READING
Below are some guidelines in reading a text critically.
1. Analyze the context of the text.
-Determine its subject, purpose, audience, and the occasion or situation
in which it was produced.
2. Determine the thesis of the text.
-What does it say essentially about the subject?
3. Analyze the given evidence.
-What kind of evidence is cited? Is it historical, literary, or statistical? What
kind of sources does the information come from? Are the sources credible?
How does the evidence support the author’s main argument?
4. Examine whether the text references another text.
-What purpose does the other text have in the author’s writing? How does
the author’s work transform the other text? How does the other text affect the
meaning of the author’s writing?
5. Examine the reasoning used in the text by looking at the
organization of its ideas.
-How does the author present the information? Why does he or she present
the information in that order or pattern?
6. Evaluate the text.
-Is the main argument strong based on the evidence presented? Does the
writer provide enough evidence? Overall, has the author achieved his or her
purpose? Are there any inconsistencies or gaps? Is there a better way of
presenting the evidence? What can you suggest to make the text better?
UNIT 12: FORMULATING ASSERTIONS
ASSERTIONS: DEFINITION AND TYPES
Assertion
-is a statement or declaration made regarding an
idea, a topic, or an issue. It expresses a person’s opinions,
feelings, or beliefs.
Below are some types of assertions:
1. Basic assertion – This is a simple and direct expression of
one’s opinions, feelings, or beliefs.
2. Empathic assertion – This shows sympathy for another person. It is an
acknowledgement of the other person’s feelings or situation and, at the
same time, a show of support for the person's rights.
3. Positive assertion – This expresses positive feelings or emotions. To
make this assertion, one gives a reason or an explanation for a good feeling
or opinion.
4. Confrontive assertion – This states three closely related actions: an
action that was supposed to be done, the actual action, and the action that
the speaker wants to be done.
5. Escalating assertion – This is a firm but respectful statement made by a
person who is expecting another person’s response to his or her earlier
assertion. However, the other person has not given any response.
6. I-language assertion – This expresses negative feelings. It describes the
person’s feelings toward a certain negative behavior and states what he or
she desires to happen.
IDENTIFYING AND FORMULATING ASSERTIONS
Writers often make assertions to convey their message or their stand on
an issue. They frame their arguments as assertions so that the statements
are strong and convincing to their readers.
Identifying assertions is essential to critical reading. Below are some
questions you can ask yourself as you read a text and identify the
author’s assertions.
1. What does the writer discuss in the text?
2. What point is the writer trying to make?
3. What idea is the writer trying to disprove?
4. What does the writer want readers to believe?
5. What does the writer feel regarding the issue?
When you formulate your own assertions, you should cite textual
evidence to support the assertions you make. Below are some
guidelines:
1. State your assertions regarding the text or the author’s
ideas.
2. Cite the actual statements in the text that led you to
make such assertions.
3. Explain your assertions. Place them side by side with the author’s
assertions.
FORMULATING ASSERTIONS ABOUT PERSUASIVE AND
ARGUMENTATIVE TEXTS
Persuasive texts and argumentative texts naturally contain assertions.
Persuasive texts like advertisements, campaign speeches, and persuasive
essays have assertions that are not always backed up by evidence. On the
other hand, argumentative texts have assertions that are supported by
evidence like facts, statistics, and examples. Also, they present opposing
arguments and rebuttals for those arguments.
Below are some guide questions you can ask yourself as you read
persuasive and argumentative texts critically. By answering the
questions, you can formulate your own assertions about those kinds of
texts.

1. What is the author’s purpose?

2. What is the main assertion in the text?
3. What evidence does the author cite to support the main
assertion?
4. How substantial is the evidence presented?
5. How is the information in the text organized?
6. Is the author’s main assertion convincing? Why or why
not?
7. Do you agree with the author’s main assertion? Why or
why not?
8. Is the concluding statement strong enough to win the
readers over?

FORMULATING ASSERTIONS ABOUT A LITERARY TEXT

Literary text
-is to entertain or amuse readers, it may
contain political messages, religious beliefs, or other kinds of assertions.
-It can be challenging to identify such assertions because they are implied in
the text. The assertions can be concealed through literary devices.

Below are some guide questions you can ask yourself as you
read a literary text critically. By answering the questions, you
can formulate your own assertions about the text.

1. Is the literary text interesting, thought-provoking,

entertaining, or touching?
2. Are the characters relatable?
3. Is the language used by the author easy to understand?
4. Does the organization of the text make it easy to follow?
5. How does the literary text make you feel?