Normal volume of urine – 700 -2000 ml/d.

A volume more 2500 ml/d- polyuria,

less than 500 ml – oliguria,
less than 100 ml – anuria.

• Pneumaturia (gas bubbles) – is rare symptom

which indicates a fistula between the urinary tract
and the bowel.
presence of WBC in urine (pyuria)
presence of lipids (lipiduria)
• presence of ketonuria (metabolic acidosis,
uncontrolled diabetes mellitus).
• “fetor hepaticus” – a musty odor of urine and
breath which is attributed to mercaptanes in
hepatic encephalopathy.
• Proteinuria is high levels of protein in your
urine
• microalbuminuria. It is defined as an albumin
concentration in urine between 20 and 300 mg/L.
(nephropathy – diabetic or hypertensive)
• glucose & ketones (ketonuria) = diabetes

• Glucosuria occurs when the tubular reabsorption

maximum for glucose in the kidney (renal
threshold) is exceeded.
• Diuresis is an increased flow of urine produced
as the result of increased fluid intake, absence
of hormonal activity, or the taking of certain
drugs that reduce sodium and water
reabsorption from the tubules.
• Painful urination (dysuria) is discomfort or
burning with urination, usually felt in the
tube that carries urine out of your bladder
(urethra) or the area surrounding your
genitals (perineum).
• Azotemia is a condition that occurs when
your kidneys have been damaged by disease
or an injury.
Leukocytes > urinary tract infetions
Leucocyturia is a symptom of inflammatory disease of
the kidney and lower urinary tract:cystitis urethriytis
parasitic,viral infetions….
Nitrite> bacteriuria (presence of bac in urine) bacteria-
free urine contains no nitrite. E.coli
Blood (Erythrocytes/hemoglobin/Myoglobin)>
hematuria (presence of blood in a person's urine)
Hemoglobinuria:
• hemolytic disease
Myoglobinuria :
• muscle injury.
Bilirubin > Bilirubinuria > when the plasma or serum
bilirubin glucuronide exceeds 34 mol/L. Bilirubinuria is
a sign of icterus (jaundice).
Ascorbic acid and nitrite reduce the analytical sensitivity
of the test.
Thrompocytopenia (very less pltetls) >> mpv
Thrombocytosis (very high platelets)
formation of unwanted blood clots (thrombosis)
thrombopoietin, a glycoprotein secreted by the kidneys
and liver, stimulates the proliferation of
megakaryoblasts, which mature into megakaryocytes
plt-f channel
scattergram
immature platel fraction (ipf) ratio of strong
lightfluoroscense on scttergram to total platel count