Name - Adarsh Yadav

School - City Montessori School

Roll No. - 3

ISC Chemistry Project

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my special thanks to my

teacher Mrs. Meena Mamgain, who gave me the
golden opportunity to do this wonderful project of
Chemistry on “Preparation of soap , nail polish ,
varnish , nail polish remover , shampoo and
perfumes" , who also helped me in completing my
project. I came to know about so many new things. I
am really thankful to my friends for helping in
completion of my project. Secondly i would also like
to thank my parents who helped me a lot in finalising
this project within the limited time frame
Introductions:

In our daily life, we come across a number of chemical substances which make our life easy.
Some of them are soap, nail polish, boot polish, varnish, nail polish remover, shampoo,
perfumes, etc. From early morning to bedtime directly and indirectly we are constantly using
chemical substances.

SOAP

Soaps are the salts of fatty acids. Since they are salts of fatty acids, soaps have the general
formula (RCO2−)nM^n+ (Where R is an alkyl, M is a metal and n is the charge of the
cation). The major classification of soaps is determined by the identity of M^n+ where M is
Na or K, the soaps are called toilet soaps, used for handwashing. Many metal dications (Mg,
Ca, and others) give metallic soap. When M is Li, the result is lithium soap (eg, lithium
stearate), which is used in high performance greases

Production of metallic soaps

Most metal soaps are prepared by neutralisation of purified fatty acids:

RCO2H+ Cao (RCO)2Ca + H₂O

Production of toilet soaps

The production of toilet soaps usually entails the saponification of fats (triglycerides).
Triglycerides are vegetable or animal oils and fats. An alkaline solution (often lye or sodium
hydroxide) induces saponification whereby the triglyceride fats first hydrolyze into salts of
fatty acids. Glycerol (glycerin) is liberated. The glycerin can remain in the soap product as a
softening agent, although it is sometimes separated.

For making toilet soaps, triglycerides (oils and fats) are derived from coconut, olive, or palm
oils, as well as tallow. Triglyceride is the chemical name for the triesters of fatty acids and
glycerin. Tallow i.e. rendered beef fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals Each
 species offers quite different fatty acid content, resulting in soaps of distinct feel. The seed
oils give softer but milder soaps Soap made from pure olive oil, sometimes called Castile
soap or Marseille soap, is reputed for its particular mildness. The term "Castile" is also
sometimes applied to soaps from a mixture of oils, but a high percentage of olive oil.

Fatty acid content of various fats used for soapmaking

Lauric Acid Myristic Acid Palmitic Acid Stearic Oleic Acid Linoleic Acid Linolenic
Acid Acid

Fats C12 Saturated C14 Saturated C16 Saturated C18 C18 C18 C18
Saturated Monosaturated Diunsaturated Triunsaturated

Tallow 0 4 28 23 35 2 1

Coconut 48 18 9 3 7 2 0
oil

Palm 46 16 8 3 12 2 0
Kemel
oil

Palm oil 0 1 44 4 37 9 0

Laurel oil 54 0 0 0 15 17 0

Olive oil 0 0 11 2 78 10 0

Canola 0 1 3 2 58 9 23
oil

Handmade soap from the cold process also differs from industrially made soap in that an
excess of fat is used, beyond that needed to consume the alkali (in a cold-pour process, this
excess fat is called "superfatting"), and the glycerol left in acts as a moisturising agent.
However, the glycerine also makes the soap softer. The addition of glycerol and processing
of this soap produces glycerin soap. Superfatted soap is more skin-friendly than one without
extra fat, although it can leave a "greasy" feel. Sometimes, an emollient is added, such as
jojoba oil or shea butter. Sand or pumice may be added to produce a scouring soap. The
scouring agents serve to remove dead cells from the skin surface being cleaned. This
process is called exfoliation. The lye is dissolved in water.

To make antibacterial soap, compounds such as triclosan or triclocarban can be added

There is some concern that the use of antibacterial soaps and other products might
encourage antibiotic resistance in microorganisms.

NAIL POLISH

Nail polish (also known as nail varnish or nail enamel) is a lacquer that can be applied to the
human fingernail or toenails to decorate and protect the nail plates. The formula has been
revised repeatedly to enhance its decorative effects and to suppress cracking or peeling.
Nail polish consists of a mix of an organic polymer and several other components that give it
its unique colour and texture. Nowadays nail polishes come in all shades of colours and play
a significant part in manicures or pedicures.

Preparations

. Nail polish consists of a film forming polymer dissolved in a volatile organic solvent
Nitrocellulose that is dissolved in butyl acetate or ethyl acetate is common. This basic
formulation is expanded to include the following

. Plasticizers to yield non-brittle films. Dibutyl phthalate and camphor are typical plasticizers

. Dyes and pigments. Representative compounds include chromium oxide greens, chromium
hydroxide, ferric ferrocyanide, stannic oxide, titanium dioxide, iron oxide, carmine,
ultramarine, and manganese violet.

. Opalescent pigments. The glittery/shimmer look in the colour can be conferred by mica,
bismuth oxychloride natural pearls, and aluminium powder.

. Adhesive polymers ensure that the nitrocellulose adheres to the nail's surface. One
modifier used is tosylamide-formaldehyde resin

. Thickening agents are added to maintain the sparkling particles in suspension while in the
bottle. A typical thickener is stearalkonium hectorite. Thickening agents exhibit thixotropy,
their solutions are viscous when still but free-flowing when agitated. This duality is
convenient for easily applying the freshly shaken mixture to give a film that quickly rigidifies

. Ultraviolet stabilisers resist colour changes when the dry film is exposed to sunlight A
typical stabiliser is benzophenone-1.

Base Coat

This type of nail polish is a clear, milky-colored, or opaque pink polish formula that is used
specifically before applying nail polish to the nail. Its purpose is to strengthen nails, restore
moisture to the nail, and help polish adhere to the nail. It prevents staining and extends the
lifespan of the manicure. Some base coats are marketed as "ridge fillers" and can create a
smooth surface de-emphasizing the ridges that can appear on unbuffed nails Some base
coats, called "peel off base coats'' allow the user to peel off their nail polish without using a
remover.

Top Coat

This type of nail polish is a clear colored polish formula that is used specifically after applying
nail polish to the nail. It forms a hardened barrier for the nail that can prevent chipping,
scratching, and peeling. Many topcoats are marketed as "quick drying." Topcoats can help
the underlying colored polish dry quickly as well. It gives the polish a more finished and
desired look and may help to keep the polish on for longer. Manganese violet is a typical
pigment in nail polish.

Gel

Gel polish is a long-lasting variety of nail polish made up of a type of methacrylate polymer. It
is painted on the nail similar to traditional nail polish but does not dry. Instead, it is cured
under an ultraviolet lamp or ultraviolet LED. While regular nail polish formulas typically last
two to seven days without chipping, gel polish can last as long as two weeks with proper
application and home care Gel polish can be more difficult to remove than regular nail polish
It is usually removed by soaking the nails in pure acetone (the solvent used in most nail
polish removers) for five to fifteen minutes, depending on the formula.
Matte

Matte polish is like regular polish but has a purposely dull finish rather than a shine. It can be
purchased as a regular base coat in ranges of different colours Matte nail polish can also be
found in a topcoat. Matte topcoat is most useful for painting over any dry base colour, giving
it a different appearance. The matte topcoat polish will dull the shine from a regular base
coat polish. Matte polish has become very popular over the years, particularly since it can be
used in nail art applications, where designs can be created on the nail using the contrast of
both shiny and matte surfaces.

There are 17 Nail Polish finishes :

1. Shimmer

2. Micro-shimmer

3. Micro-glitter

4. Glitter

5. Frost

6. Lustre

7. Creme

8. Iridescent

9. Opalescent

10. Matte

11. Duochrome

12. Jelly or translucent

13. Magnetic

14. Crackled

15. Glass-flecked

16. Holographic

17. Prismatic micro-glitter or shimmer

Nail Polish Remover

Nail polish remover is an organic solvent that may also include oils, scents, and colouring.
nail polish remover packages may include individual felt pads soaked in remover, a bottle of
liquid remover used with a cotton ball or cotton pad, or a container filled with foam into which
one inserts a finger and twists it until the polish comes off. Choosing a type of remover is
determined by the user's preference, and often the price or quality of the remover.

The most common remover is acetone. repeated use can cause the skin around the nails to
become dry or cracked. acetone can also remove artificial nails made of acrylic or cured gel.

An alternative nail polish remover is ethyl acetate, which often also contains isopropyl
alcohol. Ethyl acetate is usually the original solvent for nail polish itself.

Acetonitrile has been used as a nail polish remover, but it is more toxic and potentially more
carcinogenic than the aforementioned options. It has been banned in the European
Economic Area for use in cosmetics since 17 March 2000.

Boot Polish

Shoe polish (or boot polish) is a waxy paste, cream, or liquid used to polish, shine, and
waterproof leather shoes or boots to extend the footwear's life and restore, maintain and
improve their appearance. Shoe polishes are distinguished by their textures, which range
from liquids to hard waxes. Solvent, waxes, and colourants comprise most shoe polishes.

Preparations

The process for producing shoe polish is straightforward and the required equipment is
relatively easy to acquire. The cost of establishing shoe polish manufacturing facilities has
been estimated at around $600,000 (as of 2005).

Shoe polish is manufactured in large, thermostated, stirred reactors. Steps are taken to
ensure that volatile solvents do not evaporate. Typically, low-melting paraffin wax is melted,
followed by the higher melting waxes, and finally the colourant-stearate mixture. The molten
mass is added to a warm solvent before being dispensed. Wax-based shoe polish is
traditionally packaged in flat, round, 60-gram (2-ounce) tins, usually with an easy-open
facility. The traditional flat, round tins have since become synonymous with shoe polishes
When dried due to solvent loss or other reasons, the hardened wax pulls away from the
walls of the container giving what is known as a "rattler".

Wax-Based Shoe Polish

Nigrosin is a common dye in black shoe polish.

Waxes, organic solvents, and dyes compose this type of polish. Waxes are 20-40% of the
material. Natural waxes include carnauba and montan as well as synthetic waxes. The
composition determines the hardness and polishing properties after the solvent has
evaporated. Solvents are selected to match the waxes. About 70% of shoe polish is solvent.
A variety of solvents are used including naphtha. Turpentine, although more expensive, is
favoured for its "shoe polish odour". Dyes make up the final 2-3% of the polish. A traditional
dye is a nigrosine, but other dyes (including azo dyes) and pigments are used for oxblood,
cordovan, and brown polishes.

Owing to its high content of volatile solvents, wax-based shoe polish hardens after
application, while retaining its gloss. Poorly blended polishes are known to suffer from
blooming, evidenced by the appearance of a white coating of stearin on the polish surface.

Cream-Emulsion Shoe Polish

These polishes may have a gelatinous consistency. They are composed of the usual three
components: waxes, liquid vehicles, and dyes. Unlike wax-based shoe polishes, cream
emulsions contain water and/or oil plus a solvent (either naphtha, turpentine, or Stoddard
Solution), so the liquid content is high. Emulsifiers and surfactants are required. These
include ammonia, morpholine, and various ethoxylated surfactants such as polysorbate 80.
The waxes are often some mixture of carnauba wax, beeswax, montan wax and its oxidised
derivatives, and paraffin waxes.

Liquid shoe polish

Liquid shoe polish is sold in a squeezable plastic bottle, with a small sponge applicator at the
end. To decrease its viscosity, bottled polish usually has a very low wax content. Liquid shoe
polish is a complex mixture Polyethylene wax emulsion is a major component. Various
polymers, typically acrylates, are the next major component, conferring gloss and holding the
dyes in suspension. Resins and casein are selected to ensure adhesion to the leather. Fatty
phosphate esters, emulsifiers, and glycols are also used. Pigments include titanium dioxide
for whites and iron oxides for browns. Although liquid polish can put a fast shine on shoes,
many experts warn against its long term use because it can cause the leather to dry out and
crack.

Varnish

The varnish is a clear transparent hard protective finish or film. Varnish has little or no colour
and has no added pigment as opposed to painting or wood stain which contains pigment.
However, some varnish products are marketed as a combined stain and varnish The varnish
is primarily used in wood finishing applications where the natural tones and grains in the
wood are intended to be visible. It is applied over wood stains as a final step to achieve a
film for gloss and protection. Varnish finishes are usually glossy but may be designed to
produce satin or semi-gloss sheens by the addition of "flatting" agents

Preparation

The varnish is traditionally a combination of drying oil, a resin, and a thinner or solvent.
However, different types of varnish have different components. After being applied, the
film-forming substances in varnishes either harden directly, as soon as the solvent has fully
evaporated, or harden after evaporation of the solvent through curing processes, primarily
chemical reaction between oils and oxygen from the air (autoxidation) and chemical
reactions between components of the varnish.

Resin varnishes "dry" by evaporation of the solvent and hardens almost immediately upon
drying Acrylic and waterborne varnishes "dry" upon evaporation of the water but will
experience an extended curing period. Oil, polyurethane, and epoxy varnishes remain liquid
even after evaporation of the solvent but quickly begin to cure, undergoing successive
stages from liquid or syrupy, to tacky or sticky, to dry gummy, to "dry to the touch", to hard.

Environmental factors such as heat and humidity play a very large role in the drying and
curing times of varnishes. In the classic varnish, the cure rate depends on the type of oil
used and, to some extent, on the ratio of oil to resin. The drying and curing time of all
varnishes may be sped up by exposure to an energy source such as sunlight, ultraviolet
light, or heat

There are many different types of drying oils, including linseed oil, tung oil, and walnut oil.
These contain high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids Drying oils cure through an
exothermic reaction between the polyunsaturated portion of the oil and oxygen from the air
Originally, the term "varnish referred to finishes that were made entirely of resin dissolved in
suitable solvents, either ethanol (alcohol) or turpentine

Many different kinds of resins may be used to create a varnish Natural resins used for
varnish include amber, kauri gum, dammar, copal, rosin (colophony or pine resin), sandarac,
balsam, elemi, mastic, and shellac Varnish may also be created from synthetic resins such
as acrylic, alkyd, or polyurethane. A varnish formula might not contain any added resins at
all since drying oils can produce a varnish effect by themselves.

Originally, turpentine or alcohol was used to dissolve the resin and thin the drying oils. The
invention of petroleum distillates has led to turpentine substitutes such as white spirit, paint
thinner, and mineral sprint Modern synthetic varnishes may be formulated with water instead
of hydrocarbon solvents.

Various epoxies have been formulated as varnishes or floor finishes whereby two
components are mixed directly before application. Often, the two parts are of equal volume
and are referred to as "part A" and "part B" True polyurethanes are two part systems. All
two-part epoxies have a "pot-life" or "working time" during which the epoxy can be used.
Usually the pot-life is a matter of a few hours but is also highly temperature dependent. Both
water-borne and solvent-based epoxies are used.

Spar varnish (also called marine varnish) was originally intended for use on ship or boat
spars, to protect the timber from the effects of sea and weather. Spars bend under a load of
their sails. The primary requirements were water resistance and also elasticity, so as to
remain adhering as the spars flexed. Elasticity was a precondition for weatherproofing too,
as a finish that cracked would then allow water through, even if the remaining film was
impermeable. Appearance and gloss were of relatively low value. Modified tung oil and
phenolic resins are often used.
Shampoo

The shampoo is a hair care product, typically in the form of a viscous liquid, that is used for
cleaning hair. Less commonly, shampoo is available in bar form, like a bar of soap. The
shampoo is used by applying it to wet hair, massaging the product into the scalp, and then
rinsing it out. Some users may follow a shampooing with the use of hair conditioner.

Preparation

The shampoo is generally made by combining a surfactant, most often sodium lauryl
sulphate or sodium laureth sulphate, with a co-surfactant, most often cocamidopropyl
betaine in water to form a thick, viscous liquid. Other essential ingredients include salt
(sodium chloride), which is used to adjust the viscosity,
a preservative, and fragrance. Other ingredients are generally included in shampoo
formulations to maximise the following qualities:

pleasing foam

ease of rinsing

minimal skin and eye irritation

thick or creamy feeling

pleasant fragrance

low toxicity

good biodegradability

slight acidity (pH less than 7)

no damage to hair

repair of damage already done to the hair

Many shampoos are pearlescent. This effect is achieved by the addition of tiny flakes of
suitable materials, eg glycol distearate, chemically derived from stearic acid, which may
have either animal or vegetable origins. Glycol distearate is a wax Many shampoos also
include silicone to provide conditioning benefits.
Commonly used ingredients:

• Ammonium chloride

• Ammonium lauryl sulphate.

• Glycol.

• Sodium laureth sulphate is derived from coconut oils and is used to soften water and create
a lather. There were some. concern over this particular ingredient circa 1998 as evidence
suggested it might be a carcinogen, and this has yet to be disproved, as many sources still
describe it as irritating to the hair and scalp.

• Sodium lauryl sulphate.

• Sodium lauroamphoacetate is naturally derived from coconut oils and is used as a cleanser
and counter irritant. This is the ingredient that makes the product tear-free.

• Polysorbate 20 (abbreviated as PEG(20)) is a mild glycol-based surfactant that is used to

solubilize fragrance oils and essential oils, meaning it causes the liquid to spread across and
penetrate the surface of a solid (e. hair).

• Polysorbate 80 (abbreviated as PEG(80)) is a glycol used to emulsify (or disperse) oils in

water (so the oils do not float on top like Italian salad dressing).

• PEG-150 distearate is a simple thickener.

• Citric acid is produced biochemically and is used as an antioxidant to preserve the oils in
the product While it is a severe eye-irritant, the sodium lauroamphoacetate counteracts that
property. Citric acid is used to adjust the pH down to approximately 5.5. It is a fairly weak
acid which makes the adjustment easier. Shampoos usually are at pH 5.5 because at slightly
acidic pH, the scales on a hair follicle lie flat, making the hair feel smooth and look shiny. It
also has a small amount of preservative action. Citric acid, as opposed to any other acid, will
prevent bacterial growth.
• Quaternium-15 is used as a bacterial and fungicidal preservative.

• Polyquaternium-10 has nothing to do with the chemical quaternium-15, it acts as the

conditioning ingredient, providing moisture and fullness to the hair.

• Di PPG 2 myreth 10 adipate is a water-dispersible emollient that forms clear solutions with
surfactant systems.

• Methylisothiazolinone, or MIT, is a powerful biocide and preservative

Perfumes

Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma , compounds, fixatives, and solvents
used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces an agreeable scent.
It is usually in liquid form and used to give a pleasant scent to a person's body.

Preparation

Although there is no single "correct" technique for the formulation of a perfume, there are
general guidelines as to how a perfume can be constructed from a concept. Although many
ingredients do not contribute to the smell of a perfume, many perfumes include colourants
and antioxidants to improve the marketability and shelf life of the perfume, respectively.

Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients and these are typically
organised in a perfume for the specific role they will play These ingredients can be roughly
grouped into four groups:

• Primary scents (Heart) Can consist of one or a few main ingredients for a certain concept,
such as "rose" Alternatively, multiple ingredients can be used together to create an "abstract"
primary scent that does not bear a resemblance to a natural ingredient. For instance,
jasmine and rose scents are commonly blended for abstract floral fragrances. Cola
flavouring is a good example of an abstract primary scent.

• Modifiers: These ingredients alter the primary scent to give the perfume a certain desired
character for instance, fruit esters may be included in a floral primary to create a fruity floral,
calone and citrus scents can be added to create a "fresher" floral. The cherry scent in cherry
cola can be considered a modifier.

• Blenders: A large group of ingredients that smooth out the transitions of a perfume between
different "layers" or bases These themselves can be used as a major component of the
primary scent. Common blending ingredients include linalool and hydroxycitronellal

• Fixatives Used to support the primary scent by bolstering it. Many resins, wood scents, and
amber bases are used as fixatives

The top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate primary scents and
supporting ingredients. The perfume's fragrance oils are then blended with ethyl alcohol and
water, aged in tanks for several weeks and filtered through processing equipment to
respectively allow the perfume ingredients in the mixture to stabilise and to remove any
sediment and particles before the solution can be filled into the perfume bottles.

Bibliography

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soap

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nail_polish

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoe_polish

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varnish

5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shampoo

6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfume