BASIC CONCEPTS OF

MEASUREMENT METHODS
CHAPTER # 1
THEORY AND DESIGN FOR MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS
5th Edition Figliola – Beasley

Salman Abubakar Bugvi

Assistant Professor MED, UOL
 COMMON MEASURING DEVICES

• Selection of instrument
• Alternative methods
• Accuracy
Not Important
ADDED COMPLEXITY

• Greater importance of measurement

• Selection
• Measurement techniques
• Interpretation of data
Greater Importance
 OBJECTIVE OF MEASUREMENT
 The Objective of measurements is to answer a question.
 Take measurements to establish value or tendency of a variable.
 Results are specifically targeted to answer question.
 Information acquired is based on output of measurement device or
system.
 Ensure output is reliable indication of true value.
• Real life oriented
• Open ended design problem
Important aspects • No one particular solution to outcome
How can a measurement or test plan be devised so that the • Several approaches
measurement provides the unambiguous information we seek? • Equipment selection, methodology and
How can the measurement system be used so that the engineer can data analysis procedures
easily interpret the measured data and be confident in its meaning? • Attention and experience of designer.
GENERAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
 A measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to
a physical variable. That variable is the measured variable.

 A measurement system is a tool for quantifying the measured variable.

 The measurement system is used to extend the abilities of the human senses.
Roughness, Length, Sound, Color, Smell
Specific numerical values are difficult to assign
COMPONENTS OF GENERAL MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM
 SENSOR STAGE
A sensor is a physical element that employs some natural phenomenon to sense
the variable being measured.

• Sample Surface at the Nano scale

• Cantilever beam placed near surface deflected by
atomic forces
• Physical element is deflection
• Measured variable is height of surface

ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE

 COMPONENTS OF GENERAL MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM
 TRANSDUCER STAGE
A transducer converts the sensed information into a detectable signal. The
signal might be mechanical, electrical, optical or may take any other form
that can be meaningfully recorded.

• Upper Cantilever surface is reflective

• Shine a laser on upper surface
• Movement of cantilever deflects laser
• Employ number of light sensors
• Together Laser and Light sensors (photodiodes)
form transducer stage.
Sensor Selection, Placement and Installation are important to ensure
sensor output accurately reflects measurement objective.
COMPONENTS OF GENERAL MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM
 OUTPUT STAGE
The output stage indicates or records the value measured.
Liquid-in-glass bulb Thermometer
Sensor Stage – Liquid in Bulb
Transducer Stage – Bulbs internal capillary design
Output Stage – Readout Display, marked scale or recording device.
 GENERAL TEMPLATE FOR A MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM

The signal conditioning stage takes the transducer signal and modifies it to the desired magnitude.
It increases magnitude by amplification, removing portion of signal through filtering, providing
mechanical or optical linkage with output stage.

The diameter of capillary relative to liquid volume conditions the signal.

Conversion of translational displacement into rotational displacement of pointer.
GENERAL TEMPLATE FOR A MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM
 The feedback-control stage contains a controller that interprets the measured
signal and takes a decision regarding the control of the process.

 Decision results in a signal that changes process parameter that affects the
magnitude of the sensed variable.

 In simple controllers decision is based on the magnitude of signal of sensed

variable, usually a low or high set point designated by operator.

 Household Furnace Thermostat

 In sophisticated controllers a signal from measurement system is input to an
expert system using artificial intelligence algorithm, determining optimum set
conditions for process.
 GENERAL TEMPLATE FOR A MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM
Household Furnace Thermostat

Artificial Intelligence through expert

system controllers

Expert System Controller

FEEDBACK CONTROL STAGE

EXPERIMENTAL TEST PLAN
 Experimental Test Plan serves to answer
a question.
 Example “ What is fuel use of my new car?”
 Establish test plan by understanding the
basic variables as well as other variables.
 Two important variables would be distance
and fuel consumption.
 Accuracy of Odometer of car will impact distance measurement and way we fill
our tank will impact measurement of fuel volume.
 Other variables which will create effect is ownership, route, weather, road
conditions.
 Impact on measurement by variables other than primary ones.
 Develop Test Plan and carefully define the question to meet objective.
EXPERIMENTAL TEST PLAN What question am I trying to answer? What needs to
be measured? What variables and parameters will
affect my result?
 PARAMETER DESIGN PLAN
 Determine Test Objective, Identify Variables and Parameters, means for control of
variables. In what ways can I do the measurements?
 SYSTEM AND TOLERANCE DESIGN PLAN How good do the results need to be to
answer my question?
 Select a measurement technique, equipment and test procedure based on
preconceived tolerance level for errors.
How will I interpret the resulting data? How
 DATA REDUCTION DESIGN PLAN will I use the data to answer the question?
 Plan how to analyze, present and use the anticipated data. How good is my answer and does it make
sense?

Going through these experimental design plan steps is a good habit for an
engineer. These steps are discussed ahead throughout in Measurement.
VARIABLES
 After defining question, identify relevant variables.
 Variables are entities that influence the test.
 In addition to targeted variables there are other variables that affect the
test. Cause and Effect Diagram
Fishbone Diagram
 All known variables should be evaluated for cause and effect relationship.
 TYPES OF VARIABLES
• INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
• DEPENDENT VARIABLE
• CONTROL VARIABLES

• CONTINUOUS VARIABLE
Value is able to change in a continuous manner
Stress under changing load
Temperature in a room
• DISCRETE VARIABLE
Quantified in a discrete way
Roll of a dice
 CONTROL OF VARIABLES

• A variable is controlled if held at a constant value or at some prescribed condition during a

measurement
• Complete control means variable is held at exact prescribed value. Usually not possible.
• Find cause and effect relationship by controlling the independent variables while measuring
dependent variable.
Extraneous variables cannot be controlled but affect the measured variable.
These can cause false trend and noise.
EXAMPLE OF CONTROL OF VARIABLES
PARAMETERS
 Parameter as a functional group of variables
 Reynolds number has its value determined from the values of a grouping of
variables
 A parameter is controlled if its value can be maintained during a set of
measurements.
 EXAMPLE

𝐶1 = Q / n𝑑3
Where 𝐶1 = Fan Flow Coefficient
Q = Fan flow rate
n = Fan speed
d = Diameter of fan
d is fixed, if n is controlled, Q is measured then 𝐶1 can be determined.
NOISE AND INTERFERENCE
 Noise is random variation of the
value of the measured signal as a
consequence of the variation of
the extraneous variable. Noise
increases data scatter.

 Interference imposes undesirable

deterministic trends on the
measured value.
 Any uncontrollable influence that
causes the signal or test outcome
to behave in a different manner
from its true behavior is
interference.
 Hum and acoustic feedback in
public address and audio systems.
NOISE AND INTERFERENCE
 Noise can be removed through statistics and other means. We can sift through
noise to get desired signal information.
 Interference appears as trends onto the signal.
 The measurement systems should be devised to breakup such trends so they
appear as random variations in the data set.
 This will increase noise , increase in scatter of measured values but noise can be
handled by statistics.
 Trends need to be eliminated and should be given more importance.
 Randomization methods are available that can be incorporated into the
measurement plan and will minimize or eliminate interference trends.
RANDOM TESTS
 Find average fuel use of new car?
 Control extraneous variable.
 Driving only on highways will impose false trends on
average fuel estimation so we can drive on different
roads to break up this trend.
 This involves random test strategy.
 Independent variables are varied in a controlled
manner. Dependent variables are measured. The
effects of extraneous variables create false trends
which are broken by the strategy of randomization.
SOLVED EXAMPLES 1.1 – 1.2 – 1.3 & 1.4
 TEXT BOOK
Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements 5th Edition, Figliola and Beasely

Page 10,11,12 and 13.

REPLICATION AND REPETITION
 The estimated value of a measured variable improves with the
number of measurements.
 Example bearing manufacturer would estimate mean diameter
and the variations in a batch of bearings by measuring many
rather than few.
 Repeated measurements made during any single test run or on a
single batch are called Repetitions.
 Repetitions help to quantify variations as it occurs during one test
or batch when operating conditions are tried to be controlled.
 Suppose bearing manufacturer was interested in finding mean
diameter in day in and day out operations with a particular
machine.
 Duplicate test runs on different days would be needed.
 An independent duplication of a set of measurements using
similar operating conditions is referred to as Replication.
 Replication provides a means to randomize the interference
effects.
CONCOMITANT METHODS
 Incorporate Concomitant Methods in
measurement plan.
 Obtain two or more estimates for the result
each based on a different method, which can
be compared as a check for agreement.
 Example
 We want to establish the volume of a
cylindrical rod of known material
 Measure diameter and length of rod to
compute
 Alternatively measure weight of rod and
compute volume based on the specific
weight of the material.
 Second method complements the first and
provides a check on adequacy of estimate.
CALIBRATION
 A calibration applies a known input value to a measurement system for the
purpose of observing the system output value.
 It establishes the relationship between input and output values.
 The known value for the calibration is called standard.
STATIC CALIBRATION
 A known value is input to the system under calibration
and the system output is recorded.
 The term static means the values of variables involved
remain constant. They do not vary with time or space.
 In static calibration only magnitudes of known input and
measured output are important.
 By applying a range of input values and observing system
output values a direct calibration curve can be
developed.
 In calibration the input value is the controlled
independent variable while the measured variable is the
dependent variable.
 The static calibration curve forms the logic for
interpretation and describes the input – output
relationship.
 Basis for fixing output display scale. Established to
develop functional relationship. A correlational equation
is formed.
DYNAMIC CALIBRATION
 When the variables are time or space dependent and varying information is
sought, we need dynamic information.
 Dynamic variables are time or space dependent in both their magnitude and
frequency content.
 A dynamic calibration determines the relationship between an input of known
dynamic behavior and the measurement system output.
 Dynamic calibrations usually involve applying a sinusoidal signal.
STATIC SENSITIVITY
 The slope of a static calibration curve provides the static sensitivity of a
measurement system.
 The static sensitivity is a measure relating the change in the indicated output
associated with a given change in a static input.
RANGE
 A calibration applies known inputs ranging from the minimum to the
maximum value.
 These limits define the operating range of the system.
 The input operating range is defined as extending from input minimum to
input maximum.
 This is equivalent to specifying output operating range from minimum output
to maximum output.
 Also called output span or full scale output range (FSO).
RANGE AND RESOLUTION
ACCURACY AND ERROR

True value is rarely known exactly, various influences called

errors have an effect on true and measured values.

DEVIATION PLOT Figure 1.10

RANDOM AND SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
 Random error causes a random variation in measured values found during
repeated measurements of a variable.
 Systematic error causes an offset between the mean value of the data set and
its true value.
 Both random and systematic error affect a systems accuracy.
UNCERTAINITY
 The uncertainty is a numerical estimate of the
possible range of the errors in the
measurement.
 Based on available information the operator
might feel confident that the error is within
some certain bounds, a plus or minus range of
the indicated reading.
 Uncertainty is brought about by all the errors
in the measurement system.
 Uncertainty values assigned to a measurement
system are usually a result of several
interacting random and systematic errors, the
calibration procedure and the standard used to
provide the known value.

The systematic uncertainty might be based on a comparison

against a concomitant method.
Refer to TABLE 1.1
SEQUENTIAL TEST AND HYSTERESIS
 A sequential test applies a sequential variation in
the input value over the desired input range.
Either increase input value (Upscale) or decreasing
input value (downscale) over full input range.
 Sequential test is useful for identifying and
quantifying hysteresis error.
 Hysteresis error refers to difference between
upscale and downscale sequential test value.
 Hysteresis occurs when the output of a
measurement is dependent on previous value
indicated by the system.
RANDOM TEST
 A random test applies a random order in
the values of a known input over the
intended calibration range.
 Random application of inputs tends to
reduce interference.
 It breaks up hysteresis effects and
observation errors.
 It ensures each application of input value
is independent of the previous.
 It more closely simulates the actual
measurement situation.
TYPES OF ERRORS
TYPES OF ERRORS
OVERALL INSTRUMENT ERROR AND
INSTRUMENT UNCERTAINTY
 An estimate of the overall instrument error is made by combining the
estimates of all known errors into a term called instrument uncertainty.
STANDARDS
 When measurement system is calibrated its
indicated value is compared directly with a
reference value. This reference value forms basis
of comparison and is called Standard.
 Standard is set by well defined physical attribute or
from well accepted technique known to give
reliable value.
 A dimension defines a physical variable that is
used to define some aspect of physical system.
 Examples of some dimensions are mass, length and
time.
 Dimensions are measured in numerical values
called units.
 A primary standard defines the value of a unit.
Means to describe the unit with a unique number
that can be understood throughout the world.
LENGTH
MASS
TIME AND FREQUENCY
TEMPERATURE
CURRENT
AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE LUMINOUS INTENSITY
DERIEVED UNITS
HIERARCHY OF STANDARDS

CALIBRATION EFFECTS
TEST STANDARDS AND CODES
 To provide convincing argument for best
practices
 Test Standards refer to well defined test
procedures, technical terminology,
methods to construct test devices, test
specimens and methods for data
reduction.
 Goal is to provide consistency in conduct
and reporting of certain type of
measurement.
 Test codes refer to procedures for
manufacture, installation, calibration,
performance specifications and safe
operations of equipment.
 Documents of Societies
 ASME
 ASTM
 ISO
 ASME Power Test Code 19.5 designs and
operation procedures of flow meters.
 PRESENTING DATA
Semi Log Coordinate Format

Full Log Coordinate Format

Rectangular coordinate Format

ASSIGNMENT NUMBER 1
Numerical Problems 1.1 till 1.30 ( All Questions) , 1.38 till 1.45
 Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements 5th Edition
 Research the following Test codes from internet and Library
 ASTM F 558-88 (Air Performance of vacuum cleaners)
Lahore Development Authority (LDA) House Building code
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