LEARNING

by Dzhuman Sviatoslav
 WHAT IS
LEARNING?
Learning is “a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and
increases the potential for improved performance and future learning”. The change in
the learner may happen at the level of knowledge, attitude, or behavior. As a result of

learning, learners come to see concepts, ideas, and/or the world differently.
Learning is not something done to students, but rather something students themselves
do. It directly results from how students interpret and respond to their experiences.
 LEARNING AND HABITUATION

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience.

Firstly we must distinguish between maturational changes and consequential improvements
from practice that indicate that learning took place. In this way, we learned something and it
turned into a habit that we only improve.
Similarly, short-term changes in behavior are caused by factors other than learning
such as reduced performance due to fatigue or lack of effort, are different
from changes in performance that result from actual learning.
Most learning is considerably more complex than habituation, and the study of learning

 EXAMPLE
For instance, children become
better tennis players as they grow older partly because their strength increases with
their size—a maturational phenomenon. In order to understand when learning has
occurred, we must differentiate maturational changes from improvements resulting
from practice, which indicate that learning actually has occurred.
Similarly, short-term changes in behavior that are due to factors other than learning,
such as declines in performance resulting from fatigue or lack of effort, are different
from performance changes that are due to actual learning. If Serena Williams has
a bad day on the tennis court because of tension or fatigue, this does not mean that she
has not learned to play correctly or has “unlearned” how to play well. Because there
is not always a one-to-one correspondence between learning and performance,
understanding
when true learning has occurred is difficult.
It is clear that we are primed for learning from the beginning of life.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
A physiologist named Ivan Pavlov suddenly discovered an amazing discovery in
psychology.
While doing that, he observed a curious phenomenon: Sometimes stomach secretions
and salivation would begin in the
dogs when they had not yet eaten any food. The mere sight of the experimenter who
normally brought the food, or even the sound of the experimenter’s footsteps, was
enough to produce salivation in the dogs. Pavlov’s genius lay in his ability to recognize
the implications of this discovery. He saw that the dogs were responding not only on
the basis of a biological need (hunger), but also as a result of learning—or, as it came to
be called, classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which
a neutral stimulus (such as the experimenter’s footsteps) comes to elicit a response after
being paired with a stimulus (such as food) that naturally brings about that response. Ivan Pavlov

READ MORE
 Щоб продемонструвати класичне кондиціонування, Павлов (1927) приєднав
трубку до слинної рідини
залози собаки, що дозволяє йому точно вимірювати слиновиділення собаки.
Він тоді
подзвонив у дзвінок і через кілька секунд дав собаці м’ясо. Це сполучення
відбувався неодноразово і був ретельно спланований, щоб кожного разу
відбуватися точно так само
кількість часу, що минув між подачею дзвіночка та м’ясом. Спочатку
собака виділялася слиною лише тоді, коли їй давали м’ясо, але незабаром у неї
почала виділятися слина
звук дзвоника. Фактично, навіть коли Павлов перестав подавати м'ясо, собака
після того, як почув цей звук, все ще виділяється слина. Собака була класично
привчена до
слина до дзвону.
Before conditioning

Consider first the diagram in Figure 1a. Before

conditioning, there are two
stimuli: the ringing of a bell and meat. We know that
usually, the ringing of a bell
does not lead to salivation, but to some kind of reaction,
such as tingling
of the ear or perhaps a startle reaction. That's why the
bell is called a neutral stimulus
because it is a stimulus that, before conditioning, does
not naturally elicit
the response that we are interested in. We also have
meat that naturally causes a dog to
salivate - the response we are interested in conditioning.
Meat is considered
an unconditional stimulus because food placed in the
dog's mouth automatically
causes salivation. The response that meat elicits
(salivation) is called an
unconditioned response, or UCR - a natural, innate,
reflexive response that is not
associated with prior learning.
During conditioning

During conditioning, the bell is rung just before the

presentation
After conditioning

Eventually, the ringing of the bell alone brings about

salivation
Because of a previous unpleasant experience,
ABOUT ME
a person may expect a similar occurrence
when faced with a comparable
situation in the future, a process known as stimulus generalization.
Learning by means of classical conditioning also occurs during adulthood. For
example, you may not go to a dentist as often as you should because of prior
associations
of dentists with pain. In more extreme cases, classical conditioning can lead to
the development of phobias, which are intense, irrational fears that we will
consider
later in the book. For example, an insect phobia might develop in someone who is
stung by a bee. The insect phobia might be so severe that the person refrains from
leaving home. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), suffered by some war
veterans and
others who have had traumatic experiences, can also be produced by classical
conditioning.
Even years after their battlefield experiences, veterans may feel a rush of fear
For example, an insect phobia
might develop in someone who
is stung by a bee. The insect
phobia might be so severe that
the person refrains from
leaving home.

Can you think of

ways this process
occurs in everyday life?
REMEMBER
Conditioned=learned
Unconditioned=not learned
An unconditioned stimulus leads to an
unconditioned response
Unconditioned stimulus–unconditioned
response pairings are unlearned and
untrained.
During conditioning, a previously neutral
stimulus is transformed into the
conditioned stimulus.
A conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned
response, and a conditioned
stimulus–conditioned response pairing is a
consequence of learning and
training.
An unconditioned response and a
conditioned response are similar (such as
salivation
in Pavlov’s experiment), but the
unconditioned response occurs naturally,
whereas the conditioned response is
learned.
 EXTINCTION
Extinction occurs when
a previously conditioned response
decreases in frequency and
eventually disappears.
In order to cause extinction, it is
necessary to terminate the
connection between the
conditioned and unconditioned
stimuli.
conditional and unconditional
stimuli.

Наприклад, якби ми навчили собаку

випускати слину
Sales
(умовна реакція) на дзвін дзвіночка
(умовний подразник), ми могли б
 СЛІД ПАМ'ЯТАТИ, ЩО ЗГАСАННЯ МОЖЕ БУТИ КОРИСНИМ ЯВИЩЕМ. ПОДУМАЙТЕ,
НАПРИКЛАД, ЩО БУЛО Б, ЯКБИ СТРАХ, ЯКИЙ ВИ ВІДЧУЛИ ПІД ЧАС ПЕРЕГЛЯДУ СЦЕНИ ВБИВСТВА
В ДУШІ В КЛАСИЧНОМУ ФІЛЬМІ
СЦЕНУ ВБИВСТВА В ДУШІ В КЛАСИЧНОМУ ФІЛЬМІ "ПСИХО" НІКОЛИ НЕ ЗГАСАВ. ВИ МОГЛИ Б
ТРЕМТІТИ ВІД СТРАХУ КОЖНОГО РАЗУ, КОЛИ БУДЕТЕ ПРИЙМАТИ ДУШ.
ПІСЛЯ ТОГО, ЯК УМОВНА РЕАКЦІЯ БУЛА ПОГАШЕНА, ЧИ ЗНИКЛА ВОНА НАЗАВЖДИ? НЕ
НЕ ОБОВ'ЯЗКОВО.
СПОНТАННЕ ОДУЖАННЯ ДОПОМАГАЄ ПОЯСНИТИ, ЧОМУ ТАК ВАЖКО ПОБОРОТИ ЗАЛЕЖНІСТЬ
ВІД НАРКОТИКІВ.
НАПРИКЛАД, ЗАЛЕЖНІ ВІД КОКАЇНУ, ЯКІ ВВАЖАЮТЬСЯ «ВИЛІКУВАНИМИ», МОЖУТЬ ВІДЧУВАТИ
НЕПЕРЕБОРНИЙ ІМПУЛЬС ЗНОВУ ВЖИТИ НАРКОТИК, ЯКЩО ЗГОДОМ ВОНИ ЗІТКНУТЬСЯ З A
ПОДРАЗНИК ІЗ СИЛЬНИМ ЗВ’ЯЗКОМ ІЗ ПРЕПАРАТОМ, НАПРИКЛАД БІЛИЙ ПОРОШОК
 дискримінація стимулів відбувається, якщо два стимули
достатньо
GENERALIZATION відрізняються один від одного настільки, що один
викликає умовну реакцію, а інший - ні.
AND не викликає. Дискримінація стимулів забезпечує

DISCRIMINATION здатність розрізняти стимули. Наприклад

наприклад, моя собака Клео прибігає на кухню, коли чує
звук
електричного консервного ножа, який, як вона
дізналася, використовується для відкриття її собачого
корму, коли їй
вечеря ось-ось буде подана на стіл. Вона не біжить на
кухню на звук
кухонного комбайна, хоча він звучить схоже. Іншими
словами, вона розрізняє
стимулами відкривачки та кухонного комбайна.
Аналогічно, наша здатність розрізняти
між поведінкою собаки, що гарчить, і тієї, що виляє
хвостом, може призвести
до адаптивної поведінки - уникати гарчання собаки і
гладити доброзичливого.
 BEYOND TRADITIONAL CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING: CHALLENGING BASIC
ASSUMPTIONS

Наприклад, собака швидко

вчиться уникати гнилої їжі, яка в минулому викликала у неї хворобу. Аналогічно, якщо
кожен раз, коли ви
їли арахіс, у вас через кілька годин починався б розлад шлунку, з часом ви навчилися
б уникати арахісу.
Насправді, у вас може розвинутися вивчена відраза до смаку, так що арахіс більше не
буде для вас
здаватися вам приємним на смак.
Наприклад, щоб
ворони не крали яйця, молочні фермери можуть обробити яйце хімічною речовиною і
залишити його
в місці, де його знайдуть ворони. Препарат тимчасово робить ворон хворими, але він
не завдає їм постійної шкоди. Після контакту з отруєним яйцем ворони більше не
більше не вважає яйця апетитними
 HOW DO WE LEARN TO FORM
ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN STIMULI AND
RESPONSES?
 Very good .
What a clever idea

Thank you
Fantastic
Super
Excellent

I agree

You look great I love you

Have a cookie

Right on I’m impressed

You are
really getting the hang of it You’re getting a raise