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cs188 Fa22 Lec01
cs188 Fa22 Lec01
Fall 2022
University of California, Berkeley
[These slides were created by Dan Klein and Pieter Abbeel for CS188 Intro to AI at UC Berkeley (ai.berkeley.edu).]
Today
▪ Agents that Plan Ahead
▪ Search Problems
▪ Reflex agents:
▪ Choose action based on current percept (and
maybe memory)
▪ May have memory or a model of the world’s
current state
▪ Do not consider the future consequences of
their actions
▪ Consider how the world IS
▪ Planning agents:
▪ Ask “what if”
▪ Decisions based on (hypothesized)
consequences of actions
▪ Must have a model of how the world evolves in
response to actions
▪ Must formulate a goal (test)
▪ Consider how the world WOULD BE
▪ A state space
“N”, 1.0
▪ A successor function
(with actions, costs)
“E”, 1.0
▪ A start state and a goal test
▪ State space:
▪ Cities
▪ Successor function:
▪ Roads: Go to adjacent city with
cost = distance
▪ Start state:
▪ Arad
▪ Goal test:
▪ Is state == Bucharest?
▪ Solution?
What’s in a State Space?
The world state includes every last detail of the environment
A search state keeps only the details needed for planning (abstraction)
▪ World state:
▪ Agent positions: 120
▪ Food count: 30
▪ Ghost positions: 12
▪ Agent facing: NSEW
▪ How many
▪ World states?
120x(230)x(122)x4
▪ States for pathing?
120
▪ States for eat-all-dots?
120x(230)
Quiz: Safe Passage
Possible futures
▪ A search tree:
▪ A “what if” tree of plans and their outcomes
▪ The start state is the root node
▪ Children correspond to successors
▪ Nodes show states, but correspond to PLANS that achieve those states
▪ For most problems, we can never actually build the whole tree
State Space Graphs vs. Search Trees
Each NODE in in
State Space Graph the search tree is Search Tree
an entire PATH in
the state space S
G graph. e p
a d
b c
b c e h r q
e
d f a a h r p q f
S h We construct both
on demand – and p q f q c G
p q r
we construct as q c a
G
little as possible.
a
Quiz: State Space Graphs vs. Search Trees
Consider this 4-state graph: How big is its search tree (from S)?
a s
a b
S G
b G a G
b a G b G
… …
▪ Search:
▪ Expand out potential plans (tree nodes)
▪ Maintain a fringe of partial plans under consideration
▪ Try to expand as few tree nodes as possible
General Tree Search
▪ Important ideas:
▪ Fringe
▪ Expansion
▪ Exploration strategy
S s
s→d
d e p s→e
s→p
b c e h r q s→d→b
s→d→c
a a h r p q f s→d→e
s→d→e→h
p q f q c G s→d→e→r
a s→d→e→r→f
q c G
s→d→e→r→f→c
a s→d→e→r→f→G
Depth-First Search
Depth-First Search
Strategy: expand a a G
deepest node first b c
Implementation: e
d f
Fringe is a LIFO stack S h
p q r
d e p
b c e h r q
a a h r p q f
p q f q c G
q c G a
a
Search Algorithm Properties
Search Algorithm Properties
▪ Complete: Guaranteed to find a solution if one exists?
▪ Optimal: Guaranteed to find the least cost path?
▪ Time complexity?
▪ Space complexity? b
1 node
… b nodes
b2 nodes
▪ Cartoon of search tree:
m tiers
▪ b is the branching factor
▪ m is the maximum depth
▪ solutions at various depths
bm nodes
▪ Number of nodes in entire tree?
▪ 1 + b + b2 + …. bm = O(bm)
Depth-First Search (DFS) Properties
▪ What nodes DFS expand?
▪ Some left prefix of the tree. 1 node
b
▪ Could process the whole tree! … b nodes
▪ If m is finite, takes time O(bm) b2 nodes
m tiers
▪ How much space does the fringe take?
▪ Only has siblings on path to root, so O(bm)
▪ Is it complete? bm nodes
▪ m could be infinite, so only if we prevent
cycles (more later)
▪ Is it optimal?
▪ No, it finds the “leftmost” solution,
regardless of depth or cost
Breadth-First Search
Breadth-First Search
Strategy: expand a a G
shallowest node first b c
Implementation: Fringe e
d f
is a FIFO queue S h
p q r
d e p
Search
b c e h r q
Tiers
a a h r p q f
p q f q c G
q c G a
a
Breadth-First Search (BFS) Properties
▪ What nodes does BFS expand?
▪ Processes all nodes above shallowest solution b
1 node
▪ Let depth of shallowest solution be s … b nodes
s tiers
▪ Search takes time O(bs) b2 nodes
▪ Is it complete? bm nodes
▪ s must be finite if a solution exists, so yes!
▪ Is it optimal?
▪ Only if costs are all 1 (more on costs later)
Quiz: DFS vs BFS
Quiz: DFS vs BFS
a GOAL
2 2
b c
3
2
1 8
2 e
3 d
f
9 8 2
START h
1 4 2
p 4 r
15
q
S 0
d 3 e 9 p 1
b 4 c e 5 h 17 r 11 q 16
11
Cost a 6 a h 13 r 7 p q f
contours
p q f 8 q c G
q 11 c G 10 a
a
Uniform Cost Search (UCS) Properties
▪ What nodes does UCS expand?
▪ Processes all nodes with cost less than cheapest solution!
b c1
▪ If that solution costs C* and arcs cost at least , then the …
“effective depth” is roughly C*/ C*/ “tiers”
c2
▪ Takes time O(b ) (exponential in effective depth)
C*/
c3
▪ Is it complete?
▪ Assuming best solution has a finite cost and minimum arc cost
is positive, yes!
▪ Is it optimal?
▪ Yes! (Proof next lecture via A*)
Uniform Cost Issues
▪ Remember: UCS explores increasing cost c1
…
contours c2
c3
▪ The bad:
▪ Explores options in every “direction”
▪ No information about goal location Start Goal
10
5
11.2
Example: Heuristic Function
h(x)
Greedy Search
Example: Heuristic Function
h(x)
Greedy Search
▪ Expand the node that seems closest…
▪ A common case:
b
▪ Best-first takes you straight to the (wrong) goal …