GEOL211 - Lecture Notes - 7

1 Optics of Isotropic Materials
In isotropic materials, the velocity of light is the same in all directions. Materials that re optically
isotropic includes gases, liquids, glasses, and minerals in the cubic or isometric system. In each of these
materials, the chemical bonding is the same in all directions (at least on the average), so the light
passing through them experiences the same electronic environment regardless of direction.
However, if the solids are strained by bending them or by unevenly squeezing them, some chemical
bonds will be stretched and others compressed, and the normally isotropic materials will become
anisotropic.
The so-called liquid crystals used in the displays of calculators and other electronic equipment are
anisotropic because they contain strongly aligned asymmetric molecules that produce an anisotropic
structure.
1.1 The Isotropic Indicatrix

To examine how light travels through a mineral, either isotropic or anisotropic, an indicatrix is used.
INDICATRIX - a 3 dimensional geometric figure on which the index of refraction for the mineral
and the vibration direction for light travelling through the mineral are related.
The isotropic indicatrix is a sphere because the index of refraction is the same for all vibration directions.
The indicatrices for anisotropic minerals are ellipsoids because index of refraction varies with vibration
directions.
Indicatrix is constructed such that the indices of refraction are plotted on lines from the origin that are
parallel to the vibration directions.
For isotropic minerals, light travelling in all directions has the same wavelength, hence, n(a)=n(b)=n(c).
It is possible to determine the index of refraction for a light wave of random orientation travelling in any
direction through the indicatrix in the following ways:
1. a wave normal, is constructed through the center of the indicatrix
2. a slice through the indicatrix perpendicular to the wave normal is taken.
3. the wave normal for isotropic minerals is parallel to the direction of propagation of light ray.
4. index of refraction of this light ray is the radius of this slice that is parallel to the vibration
direction of the light.
For isotropic minerals the indicatrix is not needed to tell that the index of refraction is the same in all
directions. The Indicatrix is useful because of its application with anisotropic materials.
GEOL211_Mineralogy and Optics_ Lecture Note7;Department of Geology, Fourah Bay College – 2018/2019;Instructor:
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Bunting K Williams MSc, PGDMM;MSLIG 076688427/0889670/025404730 email: kayebunt@yahoo.com
6.3.1The Isotropic Indicatrix
Figure 1. The Isotropic Indicatrix
1.2 Distinguishing between Isotropic and Anisotropic minerals

Distinguishing between the two mineral groups with the microscope can be accomplished quickly by
crossing the polars, with the following being obvious:
1. All isotropic minerals will appear dark, and stay dark on rotation of the stage.
2. Anisotropic minerals will allow some light to pass, and thus will be generally light, unless in
specific orientations.
Why are isotropic materials dark?
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1. Isotropic minerals do not affect the polarization direction of the light coming up from the lower
polarizer;
2. Light which passes through the mineral on the stage of the microscope is absorbed by the upper
polar. Occasionally, isotropic minerals may show bits of light along edges or cracks because the
polarization of the light is modified somewhat by reflection.
Why do anisotropic minerals not appear dark and stay dark as the stage is rotated?
1. Anisotropic minerals do affect the polarization of light passing through them, so some
component of the light is able to pass through the upper polar.
2. Anisotropic minerals will appear dark or extinct every 90° of rotation of the microscope stage.
3. Any grains which are extinct will become light again, under crossed polars as the stage is rotated
slightly.
If anisotropic minerals are placed in one or two specific orientations on the stage, they may behave as
thought they were isotropic. While a few grains of an anisotropic mineral may remain dark between
crossed polars as the stage is rotated, most will not because it is highly unlikely that they will be so
fortuitously oriented.
Anisotropic minerals differ from isotropic minerals because:
1. the velocity of light varies depending on direction through the mineral;
2. they show double refraction.
When light enters an anisotropic mineral it is split into two rays of different velocity which vibrate at
right angles to each other.
In anisotropic minerals there are one or two directions, through the mineral, along which light behaves
as though the mineral were isotropic. This direction (s) are referred to as the optic axis or axes.
Hexagonal and tetragonal minerals have one optic axis and are optically UNIAXIAL.
Orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic minerals have two optic axes and are optically BIAXIAL.
If only a few grains of a mineral are present, or doubt exists as to whether the mineral is isotropic, an
interference figure can be obtained on a suspect grain. If the grain is actually anisotropic, but remains
dark between crossed polars when the stage is rotated, an interference figure, called an optic axis
figure, will be produced. In addition, some minerals may be just slightly anisotropic and appear nearly
black between crossed polarizers. Weak anisotropism can be detected by inserting the gypsum plate. If
the suspect grain displays an interference color different from the normal magenta color of the gypsum
plate, it is anisotropic.
2 Optics of Anisotropic Minerals

Anisotropic minerals are distinguished from isotropic materials because:
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1) The velocity of light varies depending on direction through the mineral, and
2) They show double refraction.
The light that enters anisotropic minerals in most directions is split into two rays with different
velocities. The two rays vibrate at right angles to each other. Each anisotropic mineral has either one or
two directions, called the optic axes, along which the light behaves as though the mineral were
isotropic.
Minerals in the hexagonal and tetragonal systems have one optic axis and are optically uniaxial.
Minerals in the orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic systems have two optic axes and are optically
biaxial.
2.1 DOUBLE REFRACTION

In non-cubic, optically anisotropic crystals, light propagates in all directions as two sets of orthogonally
vibrating plane-polarized waves, except for directions parallel to an optic axis. If the indices of
refraction are measured, one will be higher than the other. The ray with the lower index is called the
fast ray, and the ray with the higher index is called the slow ray. The two waves have different
velocities (and correspondingly different refractive indices ns and nf).
2.2 Interference
When an anisotropic mineral is placed between crossed polars, it is generally light and may show vivid
colors. The colors seen between crossed polars are called interference colors. Interference colors are
produced because light is split into two rays on passing through the mineral.
2.2.1 Monochromatic Illumination

2.2.1.1 RETARDATION
Monochromatic ray, of plane polarized light, upon entering an anisotropic mineral is split into two rays,
the FAST and SLOW rays, which vibrate at right angles to each other.
Due to differences in velocity the slow ray lags behind the fast ray. The distance that the slow ray is
behind the fast ray after both rays have exited the crystal is called the retardation - ∆.
The magnitude of the retardation is dependent on the thickness (d) of the mineral and the differences in
the velocity of the slow (Vs) and fast (Vf) rays.
The time t(s) it takes the slow ray to pass through the mineral is given by:
t (s) = d/Vs eqn 1
during this same interval of time the fast ray has already passed through the mineral and has travelled
an additional distance = retardation.
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Figure 2. Development of Retardation
t (s) = [ (d/ Vf) + ∆/V]
substituting 1 in 2, yields
d/Vs = [ (d/ Vf) + ∆/V]
rearranging,
∆ = d [V/ Vs - V/ Vf ] since V/ Vs = ns
then, ∆ = d (ns - nf)
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2.2.1.2 Birefringence
The relationship (ns - nf) is called birefringence, given Greek symbol lower case d (delta), represents the
difference in the indices of refraction for the slow and fast rays.
Its numerical value depends on the path followed by the light through the mineral. Some paths (for eg
along the optic axes) show zero birefringence, others show a maximum, and most will show an
intermediate value. The maximum birefringence is characteristic for each mineral.
Birefringence may also vary depending on the wavelength of the incident light. The dispersion
characteristics of the fast and slow rays may be different, so birefringence may be different for different
wavelengths of light. Unless stated otherwise, numerical values of birefringence are for light whose
wavelength is 589 nm.
INTERFERENCE AT THE UPPER POLAR
Let’s consider the interference of the fast and slow rays after they have exited the anisotropic mineral.
The fast ray is ahead of the slow ray by some amount = D
Interference phenomena are produced when the two rays are resolved into the vibration direction of
the upper polar.
Case 1: Interference at the Upper Polar
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Figure 3. Interference at the Upper Polar with two rays IN PHASE
1. Light passing through lower polar, plane polarized, encounters the sample/mineral and is split
into fast and slow rays.
2. If the retardation of the slow ray = 1 whole wavelength, the two waves are IN PHASE.
3. When the light reaches the upper polar, a component of each ray is resolved into the vibration
direction of the upper polar.
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4. Because the two rays are in phase, and at right angles to each other, the resolved components
are in opposite directions and destructively interfere and cancel each other.
5. Result is no light passes the upper polar and the grain appears black.
Case 2: Interference at the Upper Polar
Figure 4. Interference at the Upper Polar with two rays OUT OF PHASE
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1. If retardation of the slow ray behind the fast ray = ½ a wavelength, the two rays are OUT OF
PHASE, and can be resolved into the vibration direction of the upper polar.
2. Both components are in the same direction, so the light constructively interferes and passes the
upper polar.
QUARTZ WEDGE WITH MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT
Figure 5. Retardation for a Quartz wedge
If our sample is wedged shaped, as shown above, instead of flat, the thickness of the sample and the
corresponding retardation will vary along the length of the wedge.
Examination of the wedge under crossed polars, gives an image as shown below, and reveals:
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Figure 6. Quartz wedge when viewed between crossed polars
As shown in Figure 6, the retardation is an integer number of wavelengths, iλ, the slow and fast rays
destructively interfere at the upper polarizer and a dark band is seen. Where the retardation is one-half
wavelength, (i + ½)λ, the two rays constructively interfere at the upper polarizer, and light passes with
maximum intensity.
1. dark areas where retardation is a whole number of wavelengths.

2. light areas where the two rays are out of phase,
3. brightest illumination where the retardation of the two rays is such that they are exactly ½, 1½,
2½ wavelengths and are out of phase.
The percentage of light transmitted through the upper polarizer is a function of the wavelength of the
incident light and retardation.
Figure 7. Relationship between Retardation and Percentage of light transmitted by the upper polar
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If a mineral is placed at 45° to the vibration directions of the polarizers, the mineral yields its brightest
illumination and percent transmission (T).
2.2.2 Polychromatic illumination
If white light is used instead of monochromatic light, all of the different wavelengths are present, and
each is split into slow and fast rays. For a given thickness of mineral, approximately the same amount of
retardation be produced for all wavelengths.
Due to different wavelengths, some reach the upper polar in phase and are cancelled, others are out of
phase and are transmitted through the upper polar.
The combination of different wavelengths which pass the upper polar produces the interference colors.
The color depends on the retardation between the fast and slow rays, and therefore on the thickness
and birefringence of the mineral. Different samples of the same mineral may display different
interference colors, depending on the thickness and how the samples happen to be oriented.
Because the thickness of the quartz wedge at various points can be measured, and the birefringence is
known, it is a simple matter to determine the amount of retardation or path difference between the
slow and fast rays that corresponds with each interference color
Examining the quartz wedge between crossed polars in polychromatic light produces a range of colours.
This colour chart is referred to as the Michel Levy Chart.
At the thin edge of the wedge the thickness and retardation are ~ 0, all of the wavelengths of light are
cancelled at the upper polarizer resulting in a black colour.
With increasing thickness, corresponding to increasing retardation, the interference colour changes
from black to grey to white to yellow to red and then a repeating sequence of colours from blue to
green to yellow to red. The colours get paler, more washed out with each repetition.
In Figure 8, the repeating sequence of colours changes from red to blue at retardations of 550, 1100,
and 1650 nm. These boundaries separate the colour sequence into first, second and third order colours.
Above fourth order, retardation > 2200 nm, the colours are washed out and become creamy white.
The interference colour produced is dependent on the wavelengths of light which pass the upper polar
and the wavelengths which are cancelled.
The birefringence for a mineral in a thin section can also be determined using the equation for
retardation, which relates thickness and birefringence.
Retardation can be determined by examining the interference colour for the mineral and recording the
wavelength of the retardation corresponding to that colour by reading it directly off the bottom of Plate
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I. The thickness of the thin section is ~ 30 µm. With this the birefringence for the mineral can be
determined, using the equation:
∆ = d (ns - nf)
Figure 8. Relationship between thickness, birefringence and retardation
This same technique can be used during the preparation of a thin section. By looking at the interference
colour you can judge the thickness of the thin section.
The recognition of the order of the interference colour displayed by a mineral comes with practice and
familiarity with various minerals. With practice, you should become familiar with recognizing
interference colors.
2.2.3 Orders of Interference Colors

The interference colors go through a repeating sequence, with the change from red to blue occurring at
retardations of approximately 550, 1100, and 1650 nm (see figure 8). For convenience, these boundaries
are used to separate the color sequence into orders.
First-order colors are produced by retardations of less than 550 nm, second-order colors are for
retardations between 550 and 1100 nm, and so forth. First- and second-order colors are the most vivid.
The higher order colors become progressively more and more washed out so that, above fourth order,
the colors degenerate into a creamy white.
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2.2.4 Anomalous Interference Colors
Certain minerals display anomalous interference colors not shown in the interference color chart. These
colors are produced when birefringence and retardation are significantly different for different
wavelengths of light. The combination of wavelengths that are in and out of phase is different than if
retardation is uniform for all wavelengths. A different compliment of wavelengths passes the upper
polarizer and is perceived as a different interference color.
Mineral color can also influence the interference color, because some wavelengths of light are
selectively absorbed by the mineral. For example, green minerals transmit green light and absorb other
wavelengths to varying degrees. The interference colors tend to look greenish as a consequence.
3 EXTINCTION
Unless and optic axis is vertical, anisotropic minerals go dark or extinct between crossed polarizers once
in every 90° of rotation of the microscope stage. Extinction occurs when one vibration direction of a
mineral is oriented parallel to the lower polarizer. As a result no component of the incident light can be
resolved into the vibration direction of the upper polarizer, so all the light which passes through the
mineral is absorbed at the upper polarizer, and the mineral appears black.
Figure 9. Extinction
Upon rotating the stage to the 45° position, a maximum component of both the slow and fast ray is
available to be resolved into the vibration direction of the upper polarizer. Allowing a maximum amount
of light to pass and the mineral appears brightest.
The only change in the interference colours is that they get brighter or dimmer with rotation; the
actual colors do not change. The phase relation between slow and fast rays – and therefore the
interference color – is unaffected by stage rotation.
Many minerals generally form elongate grains and have an easily recognizable cleavage direction,
e.g. biotite, hornblende, plagioclase.
The extinction angle is the angle between the length or cleavage of a mineral and the minerals’
vibration directions.
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The extinction angles when measured on several grains of the same mineral, in the same thin section,
will be variable. The angle varies because of the orientation of the grains. The maximum extinction
angle recorded is diagnostic for the mineral.
3.1 Calculation of Extinction Angle

Measurement of EA is carried out as follows:
1) Rotate the stage of the microscope until the length or cleavage of the mineral grain is aligned
with the N-S crosshair. Record the reading from the stage goniometer.
2) Rotate the stage until the mineral grain goes extinct. It does not matter whether you rotate to
the right or left. Record the new reading from the stage goniometer.
3) The extinction angle, EA, is the angle of rotation needed to make the mineral go extinct and is
the difference in goniometer readings in steps 1&2. Note that if the EA determined from the
clockwise rotation is EA, then the EA determined with counterclockwise rotation is –EA. It is
usually the smaller of the two angles that needs to be reported, although there are cases where
it is necessary to specifically measure the EA to the slow (or fast) vibration direction.
If EA on a number of different grains of a mineral are measured, they usually vary depending on exactly
how the grains are oriented. The diagnostic EA is usually measured on grains in specific orientations. In
many cases, grains oriented to produce maximum birefringence are also in the orientation to produce
the diagnostic EA.
3.2 Types of Extinction

3.2.1 Parallel Extinction
The mineral grain is extinct when the cleavage or length is aligned with one of the crosshairs. The
extinction angle (EA) = 0°.
Figure 10. Parallel extinction
Examples are orthopyroxene and biotite.
3.2.2 Inclined Extinction

The mineral is extinct when the cleavage is at an angle to the crosshairs. EA > 0°
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Figure 11. Inclined extinction
Examples are clinopyroxene and hornblende.
3.2.3 Symmetrical Extinction

The mineral grain displays two cleavages or two distinct crystal faces. It is possible to measure two
extinction angles between each cleavage or face and the vibration directions. If the two angles are equal
then Symmetrical extinction exists. EA1 = EA2
Figure 12. Symmetrical extinction
Examples are amphibole and calcite.
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3.2.4 No Extinction Angle
Minerals which are not elongated or do not exhibit a prominent cleavage will still go extinct once every
90° of stage rotation, but there is no cleavage or elongation direction from which to measure the
extinction angle. Therefore these minerals do not have an EA.
Figure 13. Minerals with no cleavage
Examples are quartz and olivine.
3.3 Exceptions to Normal Extinction Patterns
Different portions of the same grain may go extinct at different points of stage rotation, i.e. they have
different extinction angles. This may be caused by chemical zonation or strain.
3.3.1 Chemical zoning

A number of minerals, such as plagioclase and olivine, which show solid solution, may crystallize so that
the center of the grain has a different composition than the outer part. If the optical properties vary as a
function of composition, the center of the crystal may go extinct at a different time than the outer part
as the stage is rotated.
There is no special term for this type of extinction, but grains displaying it are said to be zoned.
3.3.2 Strain
During deformation some grains become bent or strained, resulting in different portions of the same
grain having different orientations; therefore they go extinct at different times, e.g., quartz and
plagioclase. As a result of the bending, different parts of a single grain are in slightly different
orientations and therefore go extinct at different times.
If the extinction in a grain follows an irregular or wavy pattern it is called undulatory extinction.
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4 BIAXIAL INDICATRIX
The biaxial indicatrix is similar to the uniaxial indicatrix, except now there are three principal indices of
refraction instead of two. The biaxial indicatrix is constructed by plotting the principal indices along 3
mutually perpendicular axes.
Figure 14. The Biaxial inidcatrix
 nalpha plotted along X

 nbeta plotted along Y
 ngamma plotted along Z
again, nalpha < nbeta < ngamma So that the length of X<Y<Z.
The Indicatrix is a triaxial ellipsoid elongated along the Z axis, and flattened along the X axis.
Indicatrix has 3 principal sections, all ellipses:
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 X - Y axes = nalpha & nbeta
 X - Z axes = nalpha & ngamma
 Y - Z axes = nbeta & ngamma
Random sections through the indicatrix also form ellipses.
The uniaxial indicatrix exhibited a single circular section, a biaxial indicatrix exhibits two circular sections
with radius = nbeta; the circular sections intersect along the Y indicatrix axis, which also has a radius of
nbeta.
Figure 15. The X-Z plane in the Biaxial indicatrix
Look at the X - Z plane in the above image.
The axes of the ellipse are = nalpha & ngamma. The radii vary from nalpha through nbeta to ngamma. Remember
that nalpha < nbeta < ngamma, so a radii = nbeta must be present on the X - Z plane. The length of indicatrix
along the Y axis is also nbeta, so the Y axis and radii nbeta in X - Z plane defines a circular section, with
radius nbeta.
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Figure 16. Circular sections of the Biaxial indicatrix
In the biaxial indicatrix the directions perpendicular to the circular sections define the OPTIC AXES of the
biaxial mineral. Optic axes lie within the X - Z plane, and this plane is the OPTIC PLANE.
The acute angle between the optic axes is the optic or 2V angle.
The indicatrix axis, either X or Z, which bisects the 2V angle is the ACUTE BISECTRIX or Bxa.
The indicatrix axis, either X or Z, which bisects the obtuse angle between the optic axes is the OBTUSE
BISECTRIX or Bxo.
The Y axis is perpendicular to the optic plane and forms the OPTIC NORMAL.
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6.3 OPTIC SIGN
Figure 17. Optic sign: Biaxial positive
For biaxial minerals optic sign is dependent on whether the X or Z indicatrix axis is the acute bisectrix.
 if Bxa is X, mineral is -ve

 if Bxa is Z, mineral is +ve
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Figure 18. Optic sign: Biaxial negative
In the special case where 2V = 90°, mineral is optically neutral.
Another convention used is to identify the angle between the optic axes bisected by the X axis as the
2VX angle; and the Z axis as 2VZ angle.
These two angles can vary from 0 to 180°, such that the following relationship holds:
2VX + 2VZ = 180°
Using this convention the optic sign is determined by the following:
 if 2VZ < 90°, the mineral is +ve.

 if 2VZ > 90°, the mineral is -ve.
Light travelling through biaxial minerals is split into two rays - FAST and SLOW rays which vibrate at 90°
to each other.
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The vibration directions of the FAST and SLOW rays are defined, or determined, by the axes of the
ellipse or section through the indicatrix, which is oriented at 90° to the wave normal.
The Refractive Index corresponding to the FAST ray will be between nalpha and nbeta, and is referred to as
nalpha'.
The Refractive Index corresponding to the SLOW ray will be between nbeta and & ngamma, and is referred
to as ngamma'.
With this convention the following relationship will be true for all biaxial minerals:
1. X - will always correspond to the fast ray and will have the lowest RI.
o RI = nalpha, always fast
2. Y - will be either the fast or the slow ray depending on which other indicatrix axis it is with and
its refractive index will be between the lowest and highest RI for the mineral.
o RI = nbeta , either fast or slow
3. Z - will always correspond to the slow ray and will have the highest RI.
o RI = ngamma, always slow.
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GEOL211 - Lecture Notes - 7

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1 Optics of Isotropic Materials

1.1 The Isotropic Indicatrix

1. a wave normal, is constructed through the center of the indicatrix

2. a slice through the indicatrix perpendicular to the wave normal is taken.

Figure 1. The Isotropic Indicatrix

1.2 Distinguishing between Isotropic and Anisotropic minerals

Why are isotropic materials dark?

Anisotropic minerals differ from isotropic minerals because:

1. the velocity of light varies depending on direction through the mineral;

2. they show double refraction.

2 Optics of Anisotropic Minerals

2) They show double refraction.

2.1 DOUBLE REFRACTION

2.2.1 Monochromatic Illumination

t (s) = d/Vs eqn 1

t (s) = [ (d/ Vf) + ∆/V]

d/Vs = [ (d/ Vf) + ∆/V]

then, ∆ = d (ns - nf)

INTERFERENCE AT THE UPPER POLAR

The fast ray is ahead of the slow ray by some amount = D

Case 1: Interference at the Upper Polar

Case 2: Interference at the Upper Polar

QUARTZ WEDGE WITH MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT

Figure 5. Retardation for a Quartz wedge

1. dark areas where retardation is a whole number of wavelengths.

2.2.2 Polychromatic illumination

Figure 8. Relationship between thickness, birefringence and retardation

2.2.3 Orders of Interference Colors

3.1 Calculation of Extinction Angle

3.2 Types of Extinction

Figure 10. Parallel extinction

Examples are orthopyroxene and biotite.

3.2.2 Inclined Extinction

Examples are clinopyroxene and hornblende.

3.2.3 Symmetrical Extinction

Figure 12. Symmetrical extinction

Examples are amphibole and calcite.

Figure 13. Minerals with no cleavage

Examples are quartz and olivine.

3.3 Exceptions to Normal Extinction Patterns

3.3.1 Chemical zoning

Figure 14. The Biaxial inidcatrix

 nalpha plotted along X

Indicatrix has 3 principal sections, all ellipses:

Random sections through the indicatrix also form ellipses.

Figure 15. The X-Z plane in the Biaxial indicatrix

Look at the X - Z plane in the above image.

Figure 17. Optic sign: Biaxial positive

 if Bxa is X, mineral is -ve

In the special case where 2V = 90°, mineral is optically neutral.

2VX + 2VZ = 180°

Using this convention the optic sign is determined by the following:

 if 2VZ < 90°, the mineral is +ve.

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