Reasoning - 

the process of thinking about something, in a rational manner, so as to draw

valid conclusions.
Inductive Reasoning

o Is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific

examples.  
o starts with facts and details and moves to a general solution
o process of recognizing or observing patterns and drawing a conclusion   
o probabilistic 
o strong or weak

Deductive Reasoning

o is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions,

procedures, or principles.
o starts with a Conclusion and then explains the facts , details and examples
o links premises with conclusions
o if all premises are true and clear, the conclusion must also be true

Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting data in order to
make decisions. Statistics plays a part in our lives in many ways we may not always
appreciate.
Data consists of information coming from observations, counts, measurements, or responses.
Population is the collection of all outcomes, responses, measurement, or counts that are of
interest.
Sample is a subset of a population.
Branches of Statistics

The study of statistics has two major branches: descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics.

Descriptive statistics -   Involves the organization, summarization, and display of data

Inferential statistics - Involves using a sample to draw conclusions about a population.
Methods of Gathering Data
Direct Method - frequently called the "interview method".
Indirect Method - Perform through the use of either online questionnaire or paper form
questionnaire distributed to groups of people that are most of the time, randomly selected.
Registration Method - This method is executed through the collection of data from concerned
offices.
Observation Method - This method is purely based on the personal remarks of the observer.
Experimental Method - It is the method that defines the cause and effect of the relationships
of a certain parameter or event under a controlled condition. 

Presentation of data is described as an organization of information such as measurements,

numbers, names, observations, etc. in a certain way.

Three ways of presenting a summary of data.

1. Textual presentation - a technique in a paragraph form. The presentation contain of

words only but figures can also be utilized as part of the presentation.
2. Tabular presentation - the data are summarized using tables. A table usually used on
the Frequency and Percentage Distribution. A table presenting the frequency and
percentage sharing of nominal data
3. Graphical presentation- It is the visual display of data through charts and graphs.     

Types of Graphs

1. Line graph - shows associations between two or more sets of quantities. In this

technique, the values are plotted using dots which are called “markers” to be
connected together by line segments.
2.  Bar graph - It is the graphical method in which each value in the data is represented
by rectangular bars. The length of the bars shows the measure of a certain value
while its width has a fixed size 
3. Pictograph - This is a graphical technique that expresses its meaning through its
pictorial similarity to a physical object. Each object used in pictograph stands for
corresponding measure.
4.  Pie chart - This is the type of graphical presentation in which a circle (or sometimes
a cylinder) is divided into several parts with each parts typifying the categories of the
data.

Organization of Data

A frequency distribution is a grouping of the data into categories showing the number
observation in each of the non-overlapping classes. The organization of data in a tabular form,
using mutually exclusive classes showing the number of observations in each.
Terms that are essential to understand deeper the nature of data that are displayed in a
frequency distribution.

Raw data- data collected in original form

Range -the difference of the highest value and   the lowest value in a distribution.

Class limits (or Apparent limits) - is the highest    and lowest value describing a class.

Class Boundaries(or Real Limits)- is the upper and lower values of a class for group
frequency distribution whose values has additional decimal place more than the class limits
and end with the digit 5.

Interval (or width) - is the distance between the class lower boundary and it is denoted by
the symbol is.

Frequency (f) - is the number of values in a   specific class of a frequency distribution.

Percentage - is obtained by multiplying the relative frequency by 100%.

Cumulative frequency (cf) - is the sum of the frequencies accumulated up to the upper
boundary of a class in a frequency distribution.

Midpoint- is the point halfway between the class limits of each class and is representative of
the data within that class.

A grouped frequency distribution – is used    when the range of the data set is large; the
data must be grouped into classes whether it is categorical data or interval data.

Categorical Frequency Distribution – is used to organize nominal-level or ordinal-level

type of data. Some examples were we can apply this distribution are gender, business type,
and political affiliation.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

-  A tabular arrangement of data by categories and their corresponding frequencies. There are
some terms that must be well understood to suitably construct distribution table such as
“range”, “class interval”, “class size,” class frequency, “class mark,” ‘relative frequency,” and
“cumulative frequency.”