EHAHCHB

–OH_@THF MHF MI_I] H_@]EH]@AH MHF JIKEI]_@―

M@TYTYF KCIB <

 FHEH <
 F@E <
AICHT <

JY_Y ^IEO@EO@FJ <

TIAKCHB EIFIFJHB AILY_YHF AITIBH]HF

PHBPH O@EH
]HBYF HLH_HF 2>2>/2>28
 AH]H ^IFJHF]H_ 
 Hsshcheu‐hch`aue Zr. Zo.

Hcbhemuc`cchb.. ^uj` syuaur aibhm`rht Hcchb TZ]. hths sijhch rhbeht mhf b`mhyhb-Fyh.
Tijhch puj`hf bhfyh chyha a`th hturahf aiphmh Hcchb TZ]. ]ubhf siru siahc`hf hche hths
sijhch oiraht, rhbeht, thug`a, sirth pitufjua-Fyh yhfj sufjjub t`hmh tira`rh
oishrfyh,

sib`fjjh pifuc`s mhpht eifyicish`ahf ehahchb yhfj pifuc`s oir` jumuc ―OH_@THF mhf
MI_I]―.
Mhche pifyusufh ehahchb `f`, pifuc`s eifmhpht ohfyha ohftuhf mhr` oirohjh` p`bha,

kcib ahrifh `tu pifuc`s eifjudhpahf rhsh oirtir`ehahs`b yhfj sioishr-oishrfyh aiphmh
eiriah, aimuh krhfj tuh mhf sijifhp aicuhrjh oishr pifuc`s yhfj tichb eieoir`ahf

muaufjhf, ekr`c, mhf aipirdhyhhf yhfj shfjht oirhrt` ohj` pifuc`s.

Oiraht muaufjhf eiriah sieuh aisuasishf `f` m`euch`, mhf siekjh sieuh `f` o`sh

eieoir`ahf siouhb f`ch` aiohbhj`hhf mhf eifjhm` ohbhf tuftufhf aihrhb yhfj cio`b oh`a  chj`. ^ifuc`s tiftufyh oirbhrhp

hthu aishchbhf, fheuf aieufja`fhf hahf sichcu tirs`sh aiaurhfjhf yhfj t`mha m`shmhr` kcib
 pifuc`s.
Kcib ahrifh `tu, pifuc`s eifjbhrhpahf ar`t`a mhf shrhf yhfj eieohfjuf hjhr ehahchb

`f` mhpht eifjhm` cio`b oh`a chj`. Hab`r ahth, pifuc`s eifjbhrhpahf hjhr ehahchb `f`
 oirehfghht ohj` sieuh pieohdh.
Zhsshcheu‐hch`aue Zr. Zo.

O`eh, >0 Tiptieoir 2>2>

^ifuc`s
 MHG]H_ @T@

BHCHEHF ...................................................................................................................
AH]H ^IFJHF]H_ ...................................................................................................
MHG]H_ @T@ ..................................................................................................................

OHO @ ^IFMHBYCYHF
H. Chthr Oichahfj ...................................................................................................
O. _ueushf Ehshchb ..............................................................................................
D. ]ujuhf ................................................................................................................

OHO @@ ^IEOHBHF
H. Ohr`shf mhf Mirit Hr`teht`ah ............................................................................
O. Ohr`shf mhf Mirit Jikeitr` ...............................................................................

OHO @@@ ^IFY]Y^

H. Ais`epuchf ........................................................................................................
O. Thrhf ..................................................................................................................

MHG]H_ ^YT]HAH ....................................................................................................

 OHO @
^IFMHBYCYHF

H. Chthr Oichahfj
Ehtieht`ah hmhchb shchb shtu `ceu mhshr, yhfj sieha`f m`rhshahf `ftirahs`fyh mifjhf

 o`mhfj-o`mhfj `ceu ch`ffyh sipirt` iakfke` mhf tiafkckj`. ^irhf ehtieht`ah mhche `ftirhas`
`f` tircitha phmh struatur `ceu mhf pirchthf yhfj m`jufhahf. @ceu ehtieht`ah siahrhfj `f`
ehs`b ohfyha m`jufhahf mhche oirohjh` o`mhfj sipirt` o`mhfj `fmustr`, hsurhfs`, iakfke`,
 pirthf`hf, mhf m` ohfyha o`mhfj sks`hc ehupuf tiaf`a. Eifj`fjht pirhfhf ehtieht`ah yhfj
sieha`f oishr mhche thbuf-thbuf eifmhthfj, tiftufyh ohfyha shrjhfh ehtieht`ah
yhfj shfjht m`outubahf yhfj shfjht tirhep`c, hfmhc, akepitif, mhf oirwhwhshf cuhs,
oh`a m` mhche m`s`pc`f `ceufyh sifm`r` ehupuf mhche m`s`pc`f `ceu ch`ffyh yhfj shc`fj
eifufjhfj. Yftua eifjhm` shrjhfh ehtieht`ah t`mhachb eumhb, bhrus oifhr-oifhr sir`us
mhche oichjhr, sich`f bhrus oichjhr ehtieht`ah, a`th jujh bhrus eiepichjhr` o`mhfj-o`mhfj
`ceu ch`ffyh.

Tib`fjjh, j`ah sumhb eifjhm` shrjhfh ehtieht`ah yhfj mhche sijhch o`mhfj o`sh ehah shfjht
eumhb uftua eifdhr` piairjhhf.

O. _ueushf Ehshchb
Yrh`ahf hph yhfj aheu aithbu` tifthfj Mirit mhf Ohr`shf ;

D. ]ujuhf
Eifjurh`ahf Mirit mhf Ohr`shf
 OHO @@
EH]I_@ ^KAKA 

H. OH_@THF MHF MI_I] H_@]EH]@AH

Ohr`shf hmhchb suhtu o`chfjhf yhfj m`oiftua eifurut suhtu uruthf tirtiftu.

Timhfjahf mirit hmhchb juechb mhr` o`chfjhf.

8. Ohr`shf mhf Mirit Hr`teit`ah
^ifjirt`hf
Ohr`shf hr`teit`ah hmhchb suhtu ohr`shf mifjhf sic`s`b (oimh) hfthrh muh suau yhfj
 oiruruthf sichcu tithp. Bhrjh yhfj tithp `f` m`fhehahf oimh. Tuhtu ohr`shf hr`teit`ah mifjhf
suau pirtheh h mhf oimh o hmhchb
h,h + o,h + 2o,h + 4o, mhf sitirusfyh.
Mifjhf eiepirbht`ahf pkch aioirhturhf iepht suau pirtheh,
Tuau pirtheh 5 u85 h 5 h + ( 8 — 8 )o

Tuau aimuh 5 u 2 5 h + o 5 h + ( 2 — 8 )o
Tuau ait`jh 5 u 4 5 h + 2o 5 h + ( 4 — 8 )o
Tuau aiiepht 5 u 4 5 h + 2o 5 h + ( = — 8 )o
Ehah suau ai-f suhtu ohr`shf hr`teit`ah hmhchb
u f 5 h + ( f — 8 )o
Dkftkb Tkhc <
Mirit hr`teit`ah hmhchb juechb suau-suau ohr`shf hr`teit`ah. L`ah ohr`shf hr`teit`ahfyh
hmhchb u8 , u 2 , ......, u f , ehah mirit hr`teit`ahfyh hmhchb<
f

a58
T f 5 ∘ Ya   5 u8+ u 2 +......+ u f
Tuau ai-f mhf juechb suau f suau pirtheh mirit hr`teit`ah
^hmh mirit hr`teit`ah u 8+ u 2 + ......+ u f mifjhf suau pirtheh 5 u85 h mhf oimh mirit 5
 o, ehah suau ai-f mirit `f` hmhchb u f 5 h + ( f — 8 )o mhf juechb f suau pirthehfyh hmhchb
T f 5 u8+ u 2 + ......+ u f 5 µ f ( u 8+ uf )58/2 f (2h + (f-8)o)
Dkftkb Tkhc <
8. M`aithbu` ohr`shf hr`teht`ah < -4 , 2 , : , 82 , ....
]iftuahf <

h). Tuau ai-2

 o). Tuau ai-2>
 Lhwho <
h 5 -4
 o 5 9
Yf 5 h + (f-8).o Y2> 5 -4 + (2>-8).9
Y2 5 -4 + (2-8).9 5 -4 + 80.9

  5 -4 + :.9 5 02
  5 42

2.  M`aithbu` suhtu mirit hr`teht`ah < 4, :, 88, 89, ....., b`tufj oimh mhf suau ai-: mhr`
dkftkb mirit tirsiout;
  Lhwho<
  M`a <
  mirit < 4,: , 88, 89, ...
  M`thfyh < o mhf Y: ;

  ^ifyicish`hf <
  o 5 :-4 5 88-: 5 =
  Yf 5 h + (f-8) o
  5 4 + (:-8) =
  5 4 + (7).=
  5 4 + 2=
  5 2:
  Lhm` oimh hmhchb = mhf Tuau ai-: hmhchb 2:.
2.  Ohr`shf mhf Mirit Jikeitr`

^ifjirt`hf
Ohr`shf jikeitr` hmhchb suhtu ohr`shf yhfj eiepufyh` pkch aioirhturhf bhs`c ohj` muh
suau oirturuthf tithp bhrjhfyh. Bhrjh yhfj tithp `f` m`fhehahf rhs`k. Tuhtu ohr`shf jikeitr`
mifjhf suau pirtheh h mhf rhs`k r hmhchb h, hr, hr 2 , hr  4 , mhf sitirusfyh
mifjhf eiepirbht`ahf pkch aioirhturhf iepht suau pirthehfyh. Tuau pirtheh 5 u 85 h 5
hr >5 hr  8∟8,
Tuau aimuh 5 u 2 5 hr 5 hr 2∟8
Tuau ait`jh 5 u 4 5 hr 2 5 hr 4∟8
Tuau aiiepht 5 u = 5 hr 4 5 hr =∟8

ehah suau ai-f suhtu ohr`shf jikeitr` hmhchb

u f 5 hr f∟8
 mirit jikeitr` hmhchb juechb suau-suau ohr`shf jikeitr`. L`ah ohr`shf jikeitr`fyh hmhchb <
f
a58

T f 5 ∘ Ya   5 u8+ u 2 +......+ u f

Tuau ai-f mhf juechb f suau pirtheh mirit jikeitr`

^hmh mirit jikeitr` u 8+ u 2 + ......+ u f mifjhf suau pirtheh 5 u 85 h mhf rhs`k mirit 5
r , mifjhf r [ 8, ehah suau ai-f mirit `f` hmhchb u f 5 hr f∟8 mhf juechb f suau
pirthehfyh hmhchb T f 5 u8+ u 2 + …..+ u f 5 h + hr + hr 2 + + hr f∟8 5 h .8- r f 8 — r 
Dkftkb Tkhc <
8.  Dhr`chb suau ai 2 mhr` ohr`shf m` ohwhb `f`
! h) 2,=,2,87,42,... o) 2,8,8/2,8/=,8/2,...
2.  M`aithbu` ohr`shf jikeitr` mifjhf Y4 5 2: mhf Y9 5 2=4. Oirhphahb 7 suau pirtheh mirit
tirsiout;
^ifyicish`hf <

8. h) Y8 5 = Y2 5 Y8 . r2-8 5 2 . 2: 5 2 822 5 297

Y2 5 2
r 5 Y2 < Y8
5=<2
52
o) Y2 5 8 Y2 5 Y8 . r2-8 5 2 . (8/2): 5 2 x 8/822 5 8/7=

Y8 5 2
r 5 Y2 < Y8
58<2

5 8/2
2. Y4 5 h . r4-8 5 h . r2 5 2: 2: 5 Y8 (4)4-8
  Y9 5 h . r9-8 5 h . r= 5 2=4 2: 5 Y8 42
  2: 5 Y8 0
  Y9/Y4 5 h . r= / h r2 5 2=4/2:
r2 5 0
Y8 5 2: < 0 5 4
  r54
  T89 5 4 ( 47 - 8) / 4-8 5 4 (:20-8) / 2 5 4 (:22) /2 5 8>02

O.  OH_@THF MHF MI_I] JIKEI]_@

8.  ^ifjirt`hf Mhf _ueus Ohr`shf Jikeitr`
Ohr`shf Jikeitr` mhpht m`mig`f`s`ahf siohjh` ohr`shf yhfj t`hp-t`hp suaufyh m`mhphtahf
mhr` bhs`c pirahc`hf suau sioicuefyh mifjhf siouhb akfsthfth tirtiftu
Dkftkb Ohr`shf Jikeitr`
Yftua cio`b eiehbhe` hph yhfj m`ehasum mifjhf ohr`shf jikeitr` pirbht`ahf dkftkb

 oir`aut<
4, 0, 2: , 28, 2=4, ...
Ohr`shf m` hths hmhchb dkftkb ohr`shf jikeitr` m`ehfh sit`hp suau phmh ohr`shf tirsiout
eiruphahf bhs`c mhr` pirahc`hf suau sioicuefyh mifjhf akfsthfth 4. ehah o`sh m`s`epucahf
 ohbwh rhs`k phmh ohr`shf m` hths hmhchb 4. rhs`k phmh suhtu ohr`shf mhpht m`rueusahf
eifjhm`<
r 5 ha+8/ha 
M`ehfh ha   hmhchb sieohrhfj suau mhr` ohr`shf jikeitr` yhfj hmh. sieifthrh ha+8 hmhchb
suau sichfjutfyh sitichb ha.  uftua eififtuahf suau ai-f mhr` siouhb ohr`shf jikeitr`, a`th
f-8
mhpht eifjjufhahf rueus < Yf 5 hr
M`ehfh h eiruphahf suau hwhc mhf r  hmhchb f`ch` rhs`k mhr` siouhb ohr`shf jikeitr`.
Ehr` a`th pichjhr` pifjjufhhf rueus-rueus ohr`shf jikeitr` m` hths mhche eifyicish`ahf
skhc<
Dkftkb Tkhc mhf ^ieohbhshf Ohr`shf Jikeitr`
Dkftkb Tkhc 8
Tiouhb Ohatir` ehepu eichauahf pieoichbhf m`r` eifjhm` = sit`hp 82 eif`t. oirhphahb
 juechb ohatir` yhfj hmh sitichb 8 jhe hpho`ch sioicuefyh tirmhpht 4 ouhb ohatir`;
^ifyicish`hf<

h54r 5 =
f 5 8 jhe/82 eif`t 5 7>/82 5 9 Ehsuaahf ai mhche rueus< Yf 5 hr f-8
Y9 5 4 x =9-8
Y9 5 4 x 297 5 :72 ohatir`

2.  ^ifjirt`hf mhf _ueus mirit Jikeitr`

 Mirit jikeitr` mhpht m`hrt`ahf siohjh` juechb mhr` f suau pirtheh phmh siouhb ohr`shf
jikeitr`. hpho`ch suau ai-f mhr` suhtu ohr`shf jikeitr` m`jheohrahf mifjhf rueus< hf 5
h8rf-8, ehah mirit jikeitr`fyh mhpht m`jhohrahf eifjhm`<
Tf 5 h8 + h8r + h8r2 + h8r4 + .... + h8rf-8
Hpho`ch a`th eifjhc`ahf mirit jikeitr` m` hths mifjhf -r , chcu a`th juechbahf bhs`cfyh

mifjhf mirit hsc`fyh, ehah a`th hahf eiepirkcib<

Titichb m`pirkcib Tf - rTf 5 h8 - h8rf ehah a`th mhpht eifjithbu` f`ch`
mhr` suau f  pirtheh mifjhf dhrh oir`aut `f`<

Oirmhshrahf aiphmh bhs`c pirb`tufjhf m` hths, ehah mhpht m`s`epucahf ohbwh rueus
 juechf f suau pirtheh phmh siouhb ohr`shf jikeitr` hmhchb<

^irbht`ahf dhrh eifjjufhahf rueus tirsiout phmh dkftkb skhc m` ohwhb `f`<
Dkftkb Tkhc Mirit Jikeitr`
Dkftkb Tkhc 2
]iftuahfchb juechb 2 suau pirtheh mhr` ohr`shf jikeitr` 2, 2, 42, ...

^ieohbhshf<
h52
r5=
f 5
2
Tf 5 h (8-r f) / (8-r)
Tf 5 2 (8-=2) / (8-=)
Tf 5 2 (8-79947)/ (-4)
Tf 5 2 (-79949)/ (-4)
Tf 5 2 x 282=9

Tf 5 =470> OHO @@@

 ^IFY]Y^

H. Ais`epuchf
Ghatkr tirpift`fj mhche hmhchb eiehbhe` akfsip mhf mig`f`s` ehtir` `tu sifm`r` mhf jujh
 ohj`hffyh.

O. Thrhf
Yftua eif`fjahtahf prisths` oichjhr s`swh pircu m`aieohfjahf
pifmiahthf
 pieoichjhrhf yhfj mhpht eifjhat`gahf s`swh, eifjakfm`s`ahf s`swh sib`fjjh mhpht
eifjakfstruas` sifm`r` pifjithbuhffyh mhf eifjjufhahf ekmicekmic yhfj m`aieohfjahf
sifm`r` kcib s`swh.Fheuf mie`a`hf mhche `epcieifths`fyh m` siakchb t`mhachb
eumhb, sib`fjjh pircu airjh airhs phrh juru mhf s`swh. Aioirbhs`chf `epcieifths`
tirjhftufj phmh aiehepuhf juru uftua eieouht suhtu `ac`e m`ehfh s`swh ehu eifdkoh
oirp`a`r mifjhf dhrh ohru mhf eifjakeuf`ahs`ahffyh mifjhf krhfj ch`f.

MHG]H_ ^YT]HAH
_hbeht, it hc. (2>>7). Oichjhr Ehtieht`ah mifjhf Kr`ifths` ^ifieuhf mhf ^ieidhbhf
Ehshchb. Ohfmufj< Thrhfh ^hfdhahryh.
_usiggifm`. (8002). ^ifm`m`ahf Ehtieht`ah 4. Lhahrth< Mipm`aoum
T`fhjh, E. it hc. (2>>7). ]irhep`c Oirb`tufj Ehtieht`ah uftua TM Aichs @W. Lhahrth<

Irchfjjh