EDBASE DHANMONDI: EDX OLP NOTES: NUCLEAR PHYSICS - 1

Radioactivity: It is the process by which an unstable nucleus releases energy to reach stability. It
does so by emitting alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
Radioactivity is both an instantaneous and spontaneous process. Instantaneous means random. We
cannot predict which nucleus of a radioactive sample will undergo decay at a given time.
Spontaneous means radioactivity is not affected by external physical factors such as temperature
and pressure.
Atomic structure:
All atoms possess protons, neutrons and electrons.
Protons provide the positive charge in an atom. They also help to identify which element the atom
is.
Neutrons act as buffers in the nucleus and help to reduce the force of repulsion between protons.
They also help to create isotopes of the element.
Electrons provide the negative charge in the atom. They also allow atoms to take part in chemical
reactions.
Nuclei are represented as follows:

𝑨
𝒁𝑿
Where ‘X’ is the chemical symbol of the element, ‘A’ is the mass number or nucleon number and ‘Z’
is the atomic number or proton number.

NAME SYMBOL RELATIVE RELATIVE ABSOLUTE ABSOLUTE

MASS CHARGE MASS CHARGE

Proton p 1 (+) 1 1.66 𝑋 10−27 1.6 𝑋 10−19

Neutron n 1 0 1.66 𝑋 10−27 0
Electron e 1
1840 (-) 1 9.11 𝑋 10−31 1.6 𝑋 10−19

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Properties of radiation:

• Alpha Radiation ( 𝟒𝟐𝜶)

1. It is a radioactive helium nucleus.
2. It is positively charged.
3. It travels at one tenth the speed of light.
4. It is the most ionizing and hence the least penetrating.
5. Alpha particles are massive.
6. It travels from 3cm to 7cm in air.
7. Alpha particles are deflected by both a magnetic field and an electric field.
8. When alpha particles are incident on a fluorescent screen the screen glows.
9. It can be stopped by a thin sheet of paper.
Example: 𝟐𝟒𝟏 𝟒 𝟐𝟑𝟕
𝟗𝟓𝑨𝒎 → 𝟐𝜶 + 𝟖𝟑𝑵𝒑

• Beta Radiation ( −𝟏𝟎𝜷)

1. It is a radioactive electron.
2. It is negatively charged.
3. It is almost 8000tomes smaller than an alpha particle.
4. It travels at nine tenth the speed of light.
5. It is less ionizing than alpha and hence more penetrating.
6. It travels 300cm to 500cm in air.
7. It is deflected by both a magnetic field and an electric field.
8. When beta particles are incident on a fluorescent screen, the screen glows.
9. It can be stopped by a thin sheet of aluminum.
Example: 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝑪 → 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝑵 + −𝟏𝟎𝜷

• Gamma Radiation ( 𝟎𝟎𝜸)

1. It is an electromagnetic wave.
2. It is neutral.
3. It is mass less.
4. It travels at the speed of the light.
5. It is the least ionizing and hence the most penetrating of the radiations.
6. It has a range of several hundred metals in air.
7. It is not deflected by either a magnetic or an electric field.
8. When it is incident on a fluorescent screen, the screen glows.
9. It can never be stopped, however a block of lead several centimeters thick can reduce the
radiation by 90%.
𝟎
Example: 𝟏𝟑𝟕 𝟏𝟑𝟕
𝟓𝟔𝑩𝒂 → 𝟓𝟔𝑩𝒂 + ( 𝟎𝜸)

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After alpha or beta radiation has been emitted, the proton number changes, thus a new element is
formed. This changing of the nucleus is called transmutation. However, gamma is an
electromagnetic wave. During gamma release, the nucleus remains unchanged.

Background radiation: This is the radiation that is always present in the surrounding.
There are four primary sources of background radiation:

1. Cosmic rays from the sun.

2. Naturally occurring radioactive materials underneath the earth’s surface.
3. Man-made nuclear materials.
4. Nuclear waste.
(Remember that background radiation does not decay).

Detectors: There are four types of radiation detectors –

1. Geiger Muller tube (GM Tube)
2. Diffusion cloud chamber.
3. Spark chamber.
4. Hydrogen Bubble chamber.
All the detectors use the principle of ionization to detect radiation. (Remember that ionization is the
process of removal of electrons from an atom).

GM Tube:

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The GM tube is a small tube with a thin mica window. This window is so thin that alpha particles can
penetrate it easily. It contains argon gas at very low pressure. The anode is placed at the center and
the inside of the tube is coated with a layer of conductor, which acts as the cathode. Thus an
electric field is created inside the tube.
These two electrodes are connected to a counter that measures the number of ionizations occurring
every second. When radiation enters the tube, it ionizes the gas inside. A spark is created across the
anode and the cathode with each ionization. This causes a pulse of current to travel through the
circuit. This pulse is called a ‘count’. The count reading is directly proportional to the decay rate of
the radioactive atoms which is the same as the number of ionizations.
A GM tube can be connected to the following:
An amplifier and loudspeaker: The loudspeaker makes a clicking sound when each ionization is
detected
A ratemeter: This gives a reading of the average counts per second. (each click is considered a count
reading)
The unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq.) or counts per second (cps) or counts per minute (cpm)

Detection of radiation: GM tube method

To determine the type of radiation emitted from a source, we first determine the background
count. This is done by switching on the GM tube without the presence of the radioactive source and
allowing it to detect the background count.
We then bring in the source and place it in front of the GM tube and record the new count rate.
Next, we place a sheet of paper between the source and the counter. If the count is significantly
reduced, we can conclude that the source is emitting alpha particles.

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If the count rate is not significantly reduced, we place a 3mm thick sheet of aluminum between the
source and counter. If the count goes to almost background level, we conclude that the source is
emitting beta particles.
If however, the count remains unchanged, it means the source is emitting gamma radiation. To
confirm, we can place a 5cm thick lead block between the source and the counter. We will notice
that the count reading almost falls to background level.

Detection of radiation: Fluorescent screen method

The radioactive source is placed in a lead chamber with an opening at one end to focus the emission
of radiation. A uniform electric field produced by two parallel plates connected to a high voltage DC
supply is placed in front of the source. A photographic film is placed beyond the electric field.
When radiation passes through this electric field, deflection will occur according to their charge. If
the source emits alpha particles, they will be attracted to the negative plate (and repelled by the
positive plate) and deflect downward. This will cause a discoloration at the bottom of the film.
If the source emits beta particles, they will be attracted by the positive plate (and repelled by the
negative plate) and deflect upward. This will cause a discoloration towards the top of the film.
If the source emits gamma radiation, it will travel straight though without any deflection and cause
a discoloration in the middle of the film.

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Which radiation is most harmful?
Alpha is the least penetrating of all the radiations. If cannot even penetrate the outermost layer of
the skin. For this reason, being exposed to alpha from the outside causes minimal harm. If alpha is
accidentally ingested, it can damage internal tissue beyond repair due to its high ionization. In this
context, alpha is the most harmful.
Beta is very harmful if accidentally ingested and also very harmful when exposed to it from an
external source. In both cases, beta will spread within the body, causing extreme damage.
Gamma is the least harmful of the three, whether ingested or being exposed to it from an external
source. This is due to its high level of penetration. Most of the gamma radiation will penetrate out
of the body. Little is absorbed, causing limited damage. However, repeated exposure can be fatal.

Uses of radioactivity in industry:

Gauging:

Mining coal produces coal dust, which when inhaled by miners can cause severe respiratory illness.
So, the coal mining industry uses gamma emitters to measure how much coal is present in storage
containers. This limits the miners’ exposure to the coal dust. The source is kept on one side of the
container and a gamma camera (gamma receiver) is placed on the other. Coal has a natural
tendency to absorb gamma radiation.

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When the container is empty, the gamma radiation received by the emitter is high. When the
container is full, some of the gamma is absorbed by the coal in the container and the gamma
receiver detects a lower reading. This tells the operators how much coal is still in storage.

Testing for cracks

Gamma rays have the same properties as short wavelength x-rays, so they can be used to
photograph metals to reveal cracks. The advantage of using gamma over x-rays is that the source
(cobalt-60) is compact and does not need electrical power like an x-ray tube does.

Leak detection in pipes

A radioisotope emitting gamma is mixed with the water/gas/oil in the underground pipes. Thus the
isotope moves with the substance. A GM tube connected to a counter is moved above the soil. The
GM tube registers a count reading (background radiation) but around the area of the leak, the count
reading becomes abnormally high. Hence the area of the leak is detected.
A gamma emitter would be the most suitable because alpha and beta will be stopped by the soil.
Gamma radiation will be able to pass through the leak, resulting in a higher reading detected by the
GM tube. The isotope must have a short half-life so that the radiation dies down after a short period
of time, without causing any harm to the surroundings.

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Controlling thickness of paper

Radiation is used in industry in detectors that monitor and control the thickness of materials such as
paper, plastic, and aluminum. The thicker the material, the more radiation is absorbed, and the less
radiation reaches the detector. It then sends signals to the equipment that adjusts the thickness of
the material.
For paper, plastic and aluminum foil, a beta emitter is used, since alpha will be stopped by all and
gamma would easily penetrate them. For thick aluminum sheets, a gamma emitter is used. We
choose a source with a long half-life so that it does not need to be replaced often.

Smoke detection

Smoke detectors alert people to fires. One type of smoke detector uses americium-241, a source of
alpha radiation, to detect smoke. The alpha radiation ionises the air particles inside the smoke
detector. This allows a small electric current to flow. If there is a fire, smoke particles going into the
detector are hit by alpha radiation. This reduces the ionisation of the air particles causing the
current to drop. The drop in current is detected by the smoke detector, setting off the alarm.
Americium-241 has a long half-life of 460 years and so does not need to be replaced at all.

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